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128-420: Territory bands helped disseminate popular music—which included swing, jazz, sweet dance music, or any combination thereof—bringing it to remote gin mills and dance halls that were otherwise ignored by national booking agents representing genuine recording stars like Ellington and Armstrong . Many developed original repertoires and signature sounds, none more storied than Walter Page 's Blue Devils ,

256-481: A Spanish tinge to big band jazz. At the end of the 1930s, Ellington began a nearly thirty-year collaboration with composer-arranger-pianist Billy Strayhorn , whom he called his writing and arranging companion. With Strayhorn, he composed multiple extended compositions, or suites, as well as many short pieces. For a few years at the beginning of Strayhorn's involvement, Ellington's orchestra featured bassist Jimmy Blanton and tenor saxophonist Ben Webster and reached

384-448: A 19-minute all-African-American RKO short in which he played the hero "Duke". He also appeared in the Amos 'n' Andy film Check and Double Check released in 1930, which features the orchestra playing "Old Man Blues" in an extended ballroom scene. That year, Ellington and his Orchestra connected with a whole different audience in a concert with Maurice Chevalier and they also performed at

512-451: A 45% interest in Ellington's future. Mills had an eye for new talent and published compositions by Hoagy Carmichael , Dorothy Fields , and Harold Arlen early in their careers. After recording a handful of acoustic sides during 1924–26, Ellington's signing with Mills allowed him to record prolifically. However, sometimes he recorded different versions of the same tune. Mills regularly took

640-428: A Song Go Out of My Heart" the following year. Billy Strayhorn , originally hired as a lyricist, began his association with Ellington in 1939. Nicknamed "Sweet Pea" for his mild manner, Strayhorn soon became a vital member of the Ellington organization. Ellington showed great fondness for Strayhorn and never failed to speak glowingly of the man and their collaborative working relationship, "my right arm, my left arm, all

768-486: A big band, that Ellington was the only rival he would leave Wilson for. He was the orchestra's first regular tenor saxophonist and increased the size of the sax section to five for the first time. Much influenced by Johnny Hodges, he often credited Hodges with showing him "how to play my horn". The two men sat next to each other in the orchestra. Trumpeter Ray Nance joined, replacing Cootie Williams who had defected to Benny Goodman . Additionally, Nance added violin to

896-501: A brief revival in November of that year. Its subject matter did not make it appealing to Broadway; Ellington had unfulfilled plans to take it there. Despite this disappointment, a Broadway production of Ellington's Beggar's Holiday , his sole book musical, premiered on December 23, 1946, under the direction of Nicholas Ray . The settlement of the first recording ban of 1942–44 , leading to an increase in royalties paid to musicians, had

1024-432: A civilian bandleader. Recording during the last week was a long list of performers, including Count Basie , Woody Herman , Alvino Ray , Johnny Long , Claude Thornhill , Judy Garland , Crosby (again), Glen Gray , Benny Goodman , Kay Kyser , Dinah Shore , Spike Jones , and Duke Ellington , among others. Several months passed before any effects of the strike were noticed. At first, the record companies hoped to call

1152-641: A co-composer credit. From the beginning of their relationship, Mills arranged recording sessions on nearly every label, including Brunswick , Victor , Columbia , OKeh , Pathé (and its subsidiary, Perfect), the ARC/Plaza group of labels (Oriole, Domino, Jewel, Banner) and their dime-store labels (Cameo, Lincoln, Romeo), Hit of the Week, and Columbia's cheaper labels (Harmony, Diva, Velvet Tone, Clarion), labels that gave Ellington popular recognition. On OKeh, his records were usually issued as The Harlem Footwarmers. In contrast,

1280-517: A creative peak. Some years later following a low-profile period, an appearance by Ellington and his orchestra at the Newport Jazz Festival in July 1956 led to a major revival and regular world tours. Ellington recorded for most American record companies of his era, performed in and scored several films, and composed a handful of stage musicals. Although a pivotal figure in the history of jazz , in

1408-502: A cross-talk feature with Anderson. Radio exposure helped maintain Ellington's public profile as his orchestra began to tour. The other 78s of this era include: " Mood Indigo " (1930), " Sophisticated Lady " (1933), " Solitude " (1934), and " In a Sentimental Mood " (1935). While Ellington's United States audience remained mainly African-American in this period, the orchestra had a significant following overseas. They traveled to England and Scotland in 1933, as well as France (three concerts at

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1536-618: A few months, the young musicians returned to Washington, D.C., feeling discouraged. In June 1923, they played a gig in Atlantic City, New Jersey and another at the prestigious Exclusive Club in Harlem. This was followed in September 1923 by a move to the Hollywood Club (at 49th and Broadway) and a four-year engagement, which gave Ellington a solid artistic base. He was known to play the bugle at

1664-470: A gig of Fate Marable in St Louis. The short-lived Blanton transformed the use of double bass in jazz, allowing it to function as a solo/melodic instrument rather than a rhythm instrument alone. Terminal illness forced him to leave by late 1941 after around two years. Ben Webster's principal tenure with Ellington spanned 1939 to 1943. An ambition of his, he told his previous employer, Teddy Wilson , then leading

1792-410: A group of ten players; they developed their own sound via the non-traditional expression of Ellington's arrangements, the street rhythms of Harlem, and the exotic-sounding trombone growls and wah-wahs, high-squealing trumpets, and saxophone blues licks of the band members. For a short time, soprano saxophonist and clarinetist Sidney Bechet played with them, reportedly becoming the dominant personality in

1920-443: A member of the union. The orchestra joined the union (and the strike) in late 1942; this kicked off a long series of live BSO radio concerts broadcast on CBS . Some smaller recording companies did not have an extensive backlog of recordings and they settled with the union after just over a year. Decca Records and its transcription subsidiary World Broadcasting System settled in September 1943, agreeing to make direct payments to

2048-572: A new market of teenagers was born. This destroyed several booking agencies. MCA , who broke up as many bands as it booked, moved to Hollywood . Frederic Bros. ( Chicago ) had a fallout with several of its bands. The Vic Schroeder Agency (Omaha), was one of the more responsible bookers before World War II but, little is known after — same with the White Agency. In the history of traveling dance bands, all female bands are often excluded, or only given minor inclusion. Popular culture seemed to regard

2176-402: A new recording contract with Columbia Records which yielded several years of recording stability, mainly under producer Irving Townsend , who coaxed both commercial and artistic productions from Ellington. In 1957, CBS (Columbia Records' parent corporation) aired a live television production of A Drum Is a Woman , an allegorical suite which received mixed reviews. Festival appearances at

2304-571: A regular pattern, Ellington's longer works were generally not well received. A partial exception was Jump for Joy , a full-length musical based on themes of African-American identity, which debuted on July 10, 1941, at the Mayan Theater in Los Angeles. Hollywood actors John Garfield and Mickey Rooney invested in the production, and Charlie Chaplin and Orson Welles offered to direct. At one performance, Garfield insisted that Herb Jeffries, who

2432-427: A roadhouse combo. Film historians have recognized the score "as a landmark—the first significant Hollywood film music by African Americans comprising non-diegetic music, that is, music whose source is not visible or implied by action in the film, like an on-screen band." The score avoided the cultural stereotypes which previously characterized jazz scores and rejected a strict adherence to visuals in ways that presaged

2560-465: A secret". However, session dates of specialty labels such as Keynote , Savoy , and Apollo continued recording during the period when the ban was affecting the major labels. Those recordings for the most part showcased the more established styles of jazz, R&B , calypso , and gospel , with bebop first recorded for the Apollo label in early 1944. All of the recordings of bebop from 1944 to 1945 after

2688-404: A severe effect on the financial viability of the big bands, including Ellington's Orchestra. His income as a songwriter ultimately subsidized it. Although he always spent lavishly and drew a respectable income from the orchestra's operations, the band's income often just covered expenses. However, in 1943 Ellington asked Webster to leave; the saxophonist's personality made his colleagues anxious and

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2816-576: A short film, featured his extended piece 'A Rhapsody of Negro Life'. It introduced Billie Holiday , and won the Academy Award for Best Musical Short Subject. Ellington and his Orchestra also appeared in the features Murder at the Vanities and Belle of the Nineties (both 1934). For agent Mills, the attention was a publicity triumph, as Ellington was now internationally known. On the band's tour through

2944-589: A short-lived 1933–34 switch to Victor when Irving Mills temporarily moved his acts from Brunswick). As the Depression worsened, the recording industry was in crisis, dropping over 90% of its artists by 1933. Ivie Anderson was hired as the Ellington Orchestra's featured vocalist in 1931. She is the vocalist on " It Don't Mean a Thing (If It Ain't Got That Swing) " (1932) among other recordings. Sonny Greer had been providing occasional vocals and continued to do in

3072-585: A specific instrumentalist, such as "Jeep's Blues" for Johnny Hodges , "Yearning for Love" for Lawrence Brown , "Trumpet in Spades" for Rex Stewart , " Echoes of Harlem " for Cootie Williams and "Clarinet Lament" for Barney Bigard . In 1937, Ellington returned to the Cotton Club, which had relocated to the mid-town Theater District . In the summer of that year, his father died, and due to many expenses, Ellington's finances were tight. However, his situation improved in

3200-419: A strike against the major American record companies because of disagreements over royalty payments. Beginning on midnight, July 31, 1942, no union musician could make commercial recordings for any commercial record company. That meant that a union musician was allowed to participate on radio programs and other kinds of musical entertainment, but not in a recording session. The 1942–1944 musicians' strike remains

3328-575: A thousand brass and make a dramatic gesture and every studio arranger can nod his head and say, Oh, yes, that's done like this. But Duke merely lifts his finger, three horns make a sound, and I don't know what it is!" However, by 1955, after three years of recording for Capitol , Ellington lacked a regular recording affiliation. Ellington's appearance at the Newport Jazz Festival on July 7, 1956, returned him to wider prominence. The feature " Diminuendo and Crescendo in Blue " comprised two tunes that had been in

3456-551: A union-controlled "relief fund", followed shortly by the recently established Capitol Records , on October 11, 1943. Capitol had only issued its first records on July 1, 1942, one month before the strike began. Other recording and transcription companies continued to pursue the case with the National Labor Relations Board and the National War Labor Board , culminating in a WLB directive demanding that

3584-784: A worldwide sensation and gave both Ellington and Hall their first hit record. Miley had composed most of " Creole Love Call " and " Black and Tan Fantasy ". An alcoholic, Miley had to leave the band before they gained wider fame. He died in 1932 at the age of 29, but he was an important influence on Cootie Williams , who replaced him. In 1929, the Cotton Club Orchestra appeared on stage for several months in Florenz Ziegfeld 's Show Girl, along with vaudeville stars Jimmy Durante , Eddie Foy, Jr. , Ruby Keeler , and with music and lyrics by George Gershwin and Gus Kahn . Will Vodery , Ziegfeld's musical supervisor, recommended Ellington for

3712-525: A youth phenomenon, particularly with white college audiences, and danceability drove record sales and bookings. Jukeboxes proliferated nationwide, spreading the gospel of swing. Ellington's band could certainly swing, but their strengths were mood, nuance, and richness of composition, hence his statement "jazz is music, the swing is business". From 1936, Ellington began to make recordings with smaller groups (sextets, octets, and nonets) drawn from his then-15-man orchestra. He composed pieces intended to feature

3840-504: The Cotton Club in Harlem . A master at writing miniatures for the three-minute 78 rpm recording format, Ellington wrote or collaborated on more than one thousand compositions; his extensive body of work is the largest recorded personal jazz legacy, and many of his pieces have become standards . He also recorded songs written by his bandsmen, such as Juan Tizol 's " Caravan ", which brought

3968-496: The International Sweethearts of Rhythm . Musician, composer, and scholar Gunther Schuller asserted in one of his books, The Swing Era: The Development of Jazz, 1930–1945 (The History of Jazz, Vol. 2) that, "territory bands, by definition, were black. There were, of course, many white bands in the 'territories' but they tended to have the more lucrative and permanent jobs and therefore not required to travel as much as

Territory band - Misplaced Pages Continue

4096-520: The New Wave cinema of the '60s". Ellington and Strayhorn, always looking for new musical territory, produced suites for John Steinbeck 's novel Sweet Thursday , Tchaikovsky 's Nutcracker Suite and Edvard Grieg 's Peer Gynt . 1942%E2%80%931944 musicians%27 strike On August 1, 1942, the American Federation of Musicians , at the instigation of union president James C. Petrillo , began

4224-466: The Roseland Ballroom , "America's foremost ballroom". Australian-born composer Percy Grainger was an early admirer and supporter. He wrote, "The three greatest composers who ever lived are Bach , Delius and Duke Ellington. Unfortunately, Bach is dead, Delius is very ill but we are happy to have with us today The Duke". Ellington's first period at the Cotton Club concluded in 1931. Ellington led

4352-692: The Salle Pleyel in Paris) and the Netherlands before returning to New York. On June 12, 1933, the Duke Ellington Orchestra gave its British debut at the London Palladium ; Ellington received an ovation when he walked on stage. They were one of 13 acts on the bill and were restricted to eight short numbers; the booking lasted until June 24. The British visit saw Ellington win praise from members of

4480-442: The diatonic scale , with the consequent alteration of the harmonic character of his music, it's broadening, The deepening of his resources. It has become customary to ascribe the classical influences upon Duke— Delius , Debussy , and Ravel —to direct contact with their music. Actually, his serious appreciation of those and other modern composers, came after he met with Vody. Ellington's film work began with Black and Tan (1929),

4608-671: The segregated society of the day. When his drummer Sonny Greer was invited to join the Wilber Sweatman Orchestra in New York City, Ellington left his successful career in D.C. and moved to Harlem , ultimately becoming part of the Harlem Renaissance . New dance crazes such as the Charleston emerged in Harlem, as well as African-American musical theater , including Eubie Blake 's and Noble Sissle 's (the latter of whom

4736-487: The 1930s include The Harlem Playgirls , The Dixie Sweethearts, the Darlings of Rhythm , and Gertrude Long and Her Rambling Night Hawks. Even banding together with other women though, public perception would sometimes view all female bands as "all-girl gimmicks." Some talented musicians avoided joining all female bands in the fear that their talent would be disregarded in such a context. Yet all female bands were also forced into

4864-457: The 1940s. Swing music became a form of patriotism to a country at war. The all-girl bands that did the best at this time, tended to be groups formed before American involvement in the war. Once it was realized that women could fill a major hole in the entertainment industry and that they could not be drafted, agencies and managers everywhere began trying to put together all female bands. In many ways, these musicians were very prepared to take over for

4992-498: The AFM rescind its ban on musicians recording for those companies. When the AFM refused to comply, the matter was referred to President Franklin D. Roosevelt , who wrote to James Petrillo: In a country which loves democratic government and loves keen competition under the rules of the game, parties to a dispute should adhere to the decision of the Board even though one of the parties may consider

5120-515: The Brunswicks were usually issued as The Jungle Band. Whoopee Makers and the Ten BlackBerries were other pseudonyms. In September 1927, King Oliver turned down a regular booking for his group as the house band at Harlem's Cotton Club ; the offer passed to Ellington after Jimmy McHugh suggested him and Mills arranged an audition. Ellington had to increase from a six to 11-piece group to meet

5248-617: The Chicago local chapter of the union in 1937 he had organized a strike there. Petrillo was elected president of the American Federation of Musicians in 1940. When Petrillo announced that the recording ban would start at midnight, July 31, 1942, most people did not take it very seriously; Petrillo had threatened a strike before and nothing had happened. The United States had just entered World War II in December, 1941 and most newspapers opposed

Territory band - Misplaced Pages Continue

5376-503: The Oklahoma City-based outfit that Count Basie joined in 1926. Territory bands rarely recorded and were often considered secondary in ability. They played in particular states or regions of the country. Ambitious and hopeful young musicians saw territory bands as a stepping stone to big bands. Audiences that wanted to dance kept the bands employed. Home territories were loosely defined, but some classifications emerged. Generally,

5504-582: The South. The practices were prevalent everywhere, especially in New York City and the Midwest. The bands that were racially integrated commonly experienced problems, mostly from having to dodge different applications and degrees of Jim Crow among cities and regions. Many bands, especially The International Sweethearts of Rhythm , handled some of the absurdities with a degree of inward, sarcastic humor. When musicians grew wary or even felt vulnerable to injustices of Jim Crow,

5632-496: The U.S. Audiences responded with great enthusiasm to the black bands in the Midwest. The East Coast black bands were popular in the 1920s, but swing came to that region in the form of Louis Armstrong joining the Fletcher Henderson band when he went to New York City. Territory bands were not all swing bands. The Midwest settlements of Europeans of various ethnicities, brought their community dancing and revelry with them, in

5760-672: The United States was at war for. Some of these groups even did USO tours. Soldiers shipped off to foreign lands, under the pressure war and deprived of any female presence were more than welcoming to these all woman groups. The armed audiences were known to have shown extreme appreciation for these female performers V-discs , recorded for broadcast on the Armed Forces Radio Network, often featured all-girl groups. There were black bands and white bands, and bands of various immigrant ethnicities. There were also all-female bands, such as

5888-623: The areas were defined as Northeast, Southeast, Midwest, West Coast, Southwest, and Northwest. In addition, some state-groupings became common. MINK comprised Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska and Kansas. VSA comprised Virginia, South Carolina and Alabama. The Southwest proved especially fertile for territory bands. Texas, with its open geography and relatively large population, offered the greatest opportunity with developed markets for dance music in Austin, Amarillo, Dallas, Fort Worth, Houston, and San Antonio. The homegrown audiences of Texas bands were so plentiful that

6016-608: The ban by having friends in England send him records produced in the UK, where the ban was not in effect. He was forced to discontinue this practice after the station's house orchestra staged a retaliatory strike, which was settled after WNEW agreed not to broadcast any records made after August 1, 1942. The only prominent musical organization not to be affected by the strike's onset was the Boston Symphony Orchestra , as they were not

6144-420: The ban. By July, when it appeared that the ban would indeed take place, America's big three record companies ( RCA Victor , Columbia and Decca ) began to stockpile new recordings of their most popular artists. In the first two weeks of July, these performers all recorded new material: Tommy Dorsey , Jimmy Dorsey , Charlie Barnet , Bing Crosby , Guy Lombardo , and Glenn Miller , who made his last records as

6272-507: The band bus, for those who had one, served as a safe haven. Duke Ellington Edward Kennedy " Duke " Ellington (April 29, 1899 – May 24, 1974) was an American jazz pianist , composer, and leader of his eponymous jazz orchestra from 1923 through the rest of his life. Born and raised in Washington, D.C. , Ellington was based in New York City from the mid-1920s and gained a national profile through his orchestra's appearances at

6400-416: The band's book since 1937. Ellington, who had abruptly ended the band's scheduled set because of the late arrival of four key players, called the two tunes as the time was approaching midnight. Announcing that the two pieces would be separated by an interlude played by tenor saxophonist Paul Gonsalves , Ellington proceeded to lead the band through the two pieces, with Gonsalves' 27-chorus marathon solo whipping

6528-610: The bands developed to a high degree in relative isolation from outside influences. One such band was that of Alphonso Trent . Two other important groups out of the Southwest, Kansas City specifically, were Bennie Moten 's band and Jay McShann 's band. Musicians from the Moten band along with musicians from the Oklahoma City Blue Devils became one of the most influential jazz bands, under the leadership of Count Basie . McShann's band

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6656-408: The big bands just went right into the background." The other major cause of the decline of the big bands was World War II itself—and the resulting loss of band members who were drafted, curtailment of traveling by touring bands because of gasoline and other rationing, and a shortage of the shellac used to manufacture records. As discussed by James Lincoln Collier , Geoffrey Ward , and Ken Burns ,

6784-441: The big bands. When Frank Sinatra joined Tommy Dorsey 's band in 1940, most selections started with a Tommy Dorsey solo. By the time Sinatra left in 1942, his songs with the band began with his singing, followed by any solos by Dorsey or others. A significant moment in the rise of the vocalist occurred when Sinatra performed with Benny Goodman and his Orchestra at New York City's Paramount Theater on December 30, 1942. Sinatra

6912-476: The black bands." Another musician (former territory band musician and historian), Jack Behrens , expressed in a book that Schuller's depiction of divergent work conditions was narrow. "During my playing days in the 1940s and 50s in several white territory bands, we didn't have "lucrative and permanent jobs" unless you count day labor in a dairy bar or clerking at a military surplus store. Worse, there were times we didn't get paid at all and we had little recourse given

7040-425: The claims that circulated that female musicians were not meant to play well, but simply to look pretty. While it is true that many agencies required photographs in their applications to join female bands, the musicians in them still tended to be quite talented. While many people view the end of the swing era as the opening of World War II, this was not the case for all woman dance bands. Instead, they flourished during

7168-402: The cost of hiring big bands had increased, club owners now found smaller jazz groups more cost-effective. Some of Ellington's new works, such as the wordless vocal feature "Transblucency" (1946) with Kay Davis , were not going to have a similar reach as the newly emerging stars. Ellington continued on his own course through these tectonic shifts. While Count Basie , like many other big bands at

7296-424: The cost of legal advice." For most territory bands — whether black, white, integrated, male, female — the musicians were nearly always paid. Neither the booking agencies nor the musicians got rich, but regular salaries helped maintain pretty decent musicianship. Most musicians witnessed and experienced Jim Crow laws . One common present-day misconception is that Jim Crow practices were more prevalent in

7424-579: The country, playing music from the Whiteman library, eleven in New York alone. In the mid-1920s, bands typically had ten musicians: two altos , one tenor (who often doubled on other woodwinds and sometimes violin ), two trumpets , trombone , banjo or guitar , piano , string bass or brass bass , and drums. Sometimes there were two trombones. If the band had only two saxophones, they would be alto and tenor. The Great Depression , which hit bottom in 1933,

7552-479: The crowd into a frenzy, leading the Maestro to play way beyond the curfew time despite urgent pleas from festival organizer George Wein to bring the program to an end. The concert made international headlines, and led to one of only five Time magazine cover stories dedicated to a jazz musician, and resulted in an album produced by George Avakian that would become the best-selling LP of Ellington's career. Much of

7680-552: The decision wrong. Therefore, in the interest of orderly government and in the interest of respecting the considered decision of the Board, I request your union to accept the directive orders of the National War Labor Board. What you regard as your loss will certainly be your country's gain. The union refused to budge, and with competing companies having made new recordings for over a year, RCA Victor and Columbia finally capitulated, agreeing to substantially similar terms as

7808-881: The end of each performance. The group was initially called Elmer Snowden and his Black Sox Orchestra and had seven members, including trumpeter James "Bubber" Miley . They renamed themselves The Washingtonians. Snowden left the group in early 1924, and Ellington took over as bandleader. After a fire, the club was re-opened as the Club Kentucky (often referred to as the Kentucky Club). Ellington then made eight records in 1924, receiving composing credit on three including "Choo Choo". In 1925, Ellington contributed four songs to Chocolate Kiddies starring Lottie Gee and Adelaide Hall , an all–African-American revue which introduced European audiences to African-American styles and performers. Duke Ellington and his Kentucky Club Orchestra grew to

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7936-414: The era's Jim Crow laws. At the age of seven, Ellington began taking piano lessons from Marietta Clinkscales. Daisy surrounded her son with dignified women to reinforce his manners and teach him elegance. His childhood friends noticed that his casual, offhand manner and dapper dress gave him the bearing of a young nobleman, so they began calling him "Duke". Ellington credited his friend Edgar McEntee for

8064-400: The eyes in the back of my head, my brain waves in his head, and his in mine". Strayhorn, with his training in classical music, not only contributed his original lyrics and music but also arranged and polished many of Ellington's works, becoming a second Ellington or "Duke's doppelgänger". It was not uncommon for Strayhorn to fill in for Duke, whether in conducting or rehearsing the band, playing

8192-566: The feminine appearances they were also demeaned for. In many ways, this made being in a traveling dance band more difficult for women than it had been for men. After a night spent traveling women were expected to be visions of beauty with perfect make up, hair, and personalities. Often the ultra feminine clothes they had to wear, such as strapless dress and high heels, also affected their ability to play and perform. As had been shown in previous attempts women had made to broach men's groups, attempting to break away from this dainty female image, could call

8320-505: The following years. After leaving agent Irving Mills, he signed on with the William Morris Agency . Mills, though, continued to record Ellington. After only a year, his Master and Variety labels (the small groups had recorded for the latter) collapsed in late 1937. Mills placed Ellington back on Brunswick and those small group units on Vocalion through to 1940. Well-known sides continued to be recorded, " Caravan " in 1937, and "I Let

8448-445: The form of popular polka bands (and also old time waltzes , leandlers, and schottisches ). They played at all the ballrooms and Elk Clubs and included Babe Wagner Band, Fezz Fritsche & His Goose-town Band, Six Fat Dutchmen , and Whoopie John, a polka band from Minneapolis. In 1924, according to Variety , there were more than 900 dance bands, representing steady work for 7,200 musicians. There were 68 Whiteman orchestras across

8576-456: The group, with Sonny Greer saying Bechet "fitted out the band like a glove". His presence resulted in friction with Miley and trombonist Charlie Irvis , whose styles differed from Bechet's New Orleans-influenced playing. It was mainly Bechet's unreliability—he was absent for three days in succession—which made his association with Ellington short-lived. In October 1926, Ellington made an agreement with agent-publisher Irving Mills , giving Mills

8704-484: The historically important recordings of jazz and R&B from the mid-1940s originated from these small labels, including an early 1944 recording of " Woody'n You " for Apollo featuring Coleman Hawkins and Dizzy Gillespie , which is often cited as the first formal recording of the form of jazz known as bebop . Although not lucrative for musicians, these small labels gained them exposure that sometimes led to contracts with more established labels. One unexpected result of

8832-438: The instrumental colors Ellington had at his disposal. Recordings exist of Nance's first concert date on November 7, 1940, at Fargo, North Dakota . Privately made by Jack Towers and Dick Burris, these recordings were first legitimately issued in 1978 as Duke Ellington at Fargo, 1940 Live ; they are among the earliest of innumerable live performances which survive. Nance was an occasional vocalist as well, although Herb Jeffries

8960-418: The longest strike in entertainment history. The strike did not affect musicians performing on live radio shows, in concerts, or, after October 27, 1943, on special recordings made by the record companies for V-Discs for distribution to the armed forces fighting World War II, because V-Discs were not available for sale to the general public. However, the union did frequently threaten to withdraw musicians from

9088-406: The lyrics were written by Dorothy Fields (later Harold Arlen and Ted Koehler ), with some Ellington originals mixed in. (Here, he moved in with a dancer, his second wife Mildred Dixon ). Weekly radio broadcasts from the club gave Ellington national exposure. At the same time, Ellington also recorded Fields-JMcHugh and Fats Waller – Andy Razaf songs. Although trumpeter Bubber Miley was a member of

9216-526: The men because they had more advanced experience in playing instruments, either from hobbies or school bands. They were certainly more prepared for musical performance than many women were prepared for welding and factory work. Some groups connected to academic organizations, such as the International Sweethearts of Rhythm or the Prairie View Co-eds did very well at this time. These groups of industrious young women could come to represent an image of what

9344-562: The music for a stage production by Orson Welles . Titled Time Runs in Paris and An Evening With Orson Welles in Frankfurt , the variety show also featured a newly discovered Eartha Kitt , who performed Ellington's original song "Hungry Little Trouble" as Helen of Troy . In 1951, Ellington suffered a significant loss of personnel: Sonny Greer, Lawrence Brown, and, most importantly, Johnny Hodges left to pursue other ventures. However, only Greer

9472-457: The music on the LP was, in effect, simulated, with only about 40% actually from the concert itself. According to Avakian, Ellington was dissatisfied with aspects of the performance and felt the musicians had been under-rehearsed. The band assembled the next day to re-record several numbers with the addition of the faked sound of a crowd, none of which was disclosed to purchasers of the album. Not until 1999

9600-403: The musical performances dance bands provided as an area meant to be dominated by men. In the scenarios where women were allowed to join in, they were often denoted as separate. This is seen in the way many female singers were nicknamed "canaries," denoting them not as musicians, but as pretty objects meant to be on display. One example that shows just how foreign women could be considered appears in

9728-641: The name of a band Mary Lou Williams headed that was called "Six Men and a Girl." Oftentimes these stereotypes surrounding performing women extended to instrumentalists. All female performers were not a new idea in the dawn of traveling jazz bands though. All women groups performing American genres of music dates back to minstrel groups like Madame Rentz's Female Minstrels. Because women could not easily enter prestigious music bands that were essentially all male, all women groups continuously popped up as groups that allowed skilled female musicians to perform. Sometimes they were put together with help from outside sources. It

9856-475: The new Monterey Jazz Festival and elsewhere provided venues for live exposure, and a European tour in 1958 was well received. Such Sweet Thunder (1957), based on Shakespeare's plays and characters, and The Queen's Suite (1958), dedicated to Britain's Queen Elizabeth II , were products of the renewed impetus which the Newport appearance helped to create. However, the latter work was not commercially issued at

9984-520: The new musical style known later as bebop , developed by Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie and others during the period of the strike, was not recorded and was not available to the general public because of the strike. James Lincoln Collier wrote in The Making of Jazz : "By about 1942 it was clear to musicians that here was something more than mere experimentation. Here was a new kind of music. Unfortunately, we cannot pinpoint these developments [because of

10112-472: The nickname: "I think he felt that in order for me to be eligible for his constant companionship, I should have a title. So he called me Duke." Though Ellington took piano lessons, he was more interested in baseball. " President [Theodore] Roosevelt would come on his horse sometimes, and "stop and watch us play," he recalled. Ellington went to Armstrong Technical High School in Washington, D.C. His first job

10240-500: The nine songs released from these sessions, seven charted on the best–selling list. Other recordings made this way included: The strike also had an effect on radio programs that used recorded music, due to the limited number of new recordings available. Radio shows that relied mainly on records found it difficult to keep introducing new songs to their listeners. Martin Block , host of WNEW 's Make Believe Ballroom radio show, circumvented

10368-402: The occasion. He also had a messenger job with the U.S. Navy and State departments, where he made a wide range of contacts. Ellington moved out of his parents' home and bought his own as he became a successful pianist. At first, he played in other ensembles, and in late 1917 formed his first group, "The Duke's Serenaders" ("Colored Syncopators", his telephone directory advertising proclaimed). He

10496-401: The opinion of Gunther Schuller and Barry Kernfeld , "the most significant composer of the genre", Ellington himself embraced the phrase "beyond category", considering it a liberating principle, and referring to his music as part of the more general category of American Music. Ellington was known for his inventive use of the orchestra, or big band, as well as for his eloquence and charisma. He

10624-669: The orchestra by conducting from the keyboard using piano cues and visual gestures; very rarely did he conduct using a baton. By 1932 his orchestra consisted of six brass instruments, four reeds, and a rhythm section of four players. As the leader, Ellington was not a strict disciplinarian; he maintained control of his orchestra with a combination of charm, humor, flattery, and astute psychology. A complex, private person, he revealed his feelings to only his closest intimates. He effectively used his public persona to deflect attention away from himself. Ellington signed exclusively to Brunswick in 1932 and stayed with them through to late 1936 (albeit with

10752-523: The orchestra for only a short period, he had a major influence on Ellington's sound. As an early exponent of growl trumpet, Miley changed the sweet dance band sound of the group to one that was hotter, which contemporaries termed Jungle Style, which can be seen in his feature chorus in East St. Louis Toodle-Oo (1926). In October 1927, Ellington and his Orchestra recorded several compositions with Adelaide Hall . One side in particular, " Creole Love Call ", became

10880-505: The orchestra. " Cotton Tail ", "Main Stem", " Harlem Air Shaft ", "Jack the Bear", and dozens of others date from this period. Strayhorn's " Take the "A" Train ", a hit in 1941, became the band's theme, replacing " East St. Louis Toodle-Oo ". Ellington and his associates wrote for an orchestra of distinctive voices displaying tremendous creativity. The commercial recordings from this era were re-issued in

11008-445: The other recording companies, on November 11, 1944. The new contract with the AFM included language releasing artists from exclusive recording contracts should the union strike those companies. Within a few hours after signing the new contract, RCA Victor had Vaughn Monroe and his orchestra record two songs from the new Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer film musical, Meet Me in St. Louis . The record

11136-451: The piano, on stage, and in the recording studio. The decade ended with a very successful European tour in 1939 just as World War II loomed in Europe. Two musicians who joined Ellington at this time created a sensation in their own right, Jimmy Blanton and Ben Webster . Blanton was effectively hired on the spot in late October 1939, before Ellington was aware of his name, when he dropped in on

11264-557: The radio networks to punish individual network affiliates who were deemed "unfair" for violating the union's policy on recording network shows for repeat broadcasts. The strike had a major impact on the American musical scene. At the time, union bands dominated popular music; after the strike, and partly as a result of it, the big bands began to decline and vocalists began to dominate popular music. Petrillo had long publicly maintained that recording companies should pay royalties. As head of

11392-463: The record was on the best–selling list for 18 weeks and reached number 2 on June 2, 1943. In 1942, the song " As Time Goes By " became immensely popular after it was featured in the Warner Bros. film Casablanca . Rudy Vallée recorded the song for RCA Victor in 1931, and the reissue of his 12-year-old record became a number-one hit. As the strike continued into 1943, record companies bypassed

11520-410: The recording bans. This marked a period when singers became more popular than bandleaders. The introduction and technological advancement of amplification and gramophone recording led to the development of crooning , an intimate vocal style perfected by singers such as Bing Crosby and, later, Frank Sinatra . The record companies gained control over what got recorded; therefore music that was slated for

11648-456: The requirements of the Cotton Club's management for the audition, and the engagement finally began on December 4. With a weekly radio broadcast, the Cotton Club's exclusively white and wealthy clientele poured in nightly to see them. At the Cotton Club, Ellington's group performed all the music for the revues, which mixed comedy, dance numbers, vaudeville, burlesque, music, and illicit alcohol . The musical numbers were composed by Jimmy McHugh and

11776-446: The right connections took the opportunity to start small specialty labels, such as Savoy (1942) and Apollo (1943–44), that catered to musicians who were not under contract. Sometimes musicians under contract restrictions recorded for them under pseudonyms. That business model worked in large urban markets such as New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles, where concentrated markets allowed a sufficient return from local distribution. Many of

11904-417: The saxophonist was regularly in conflict with the leader. Musicians enlisting in the military and travel restrictions made touring difficult for the big bands, and dancing became subject to a new tax, which continued for many years, affecting the choices of club owners. By the time World War II ended, the focus of popular music was shifting towards singing crooners such as Frank Sinatra and Jo Stafford . As

12032-400: The segregated South in 1934, they avoided some of the traveling difficulties of African Americans by touring in private railcars. These provided accessible accommodations, dining, and storage for equipment while avoiding the indignities of segregated facilities. However, the competition intensified as swing bands like Benny Goodman 's began to receive widespread attention. Swing dancing became

12160-616: The serious music community, including composer Constant Lambert , which gave a boost to Ellington's interest in composing longer works. His longer pieces had already begun to appear. Ellington had composed and recorded "Creole Rhapsody" as early as 1931 (issued as both sides of a 12" record for Victor and both sides of a 10" record for Brunswick). A tribute to his mother, "Reminiscing in Tempo", took four 10" 78rpm record sides to record in 1935 after her death in that year. Symphony in Black (also 1935),

12288-549: The sexuality and morality of a performer into question. Yet women's performances were also often debased to their visual looks and sexual attractiveness, even though many reviewers criticized them for these elements. A certain need to prove themselves seemed to exist among many of the female musicians who worked in dance bands. These performers inherited a lot of the stereotypes that surrounded their previous female performer counterparts: chorus line girls and girl singers. The sexual objectification of women that haunted those two careers

12416-427: The show. According to John Edward Hasse's Beyond Category: The Life and Genius of Duke Ellington , "Perhaps during the run of Show Girl , Ellington received what he later termed 'valuable lessons in orchestration from Will Vody." In his 1946 biography, Duke Ellington , Barry Ulanov wrote: From Vodery, as he (Ellington) says himself, he drew his chromatic convictions, his uses of the tones ordinarily extraneous to

12544-433: The strike was the decline in popularity of the big bands of the 1930s and early 1940s. The strike was not the only cause of this decline, but it hastened the shift from big bands with an accompanying vocalist to an emphasis on the vocalist, with the exclusion of the band. In the 1930s and pre–strike 1940s, big bands dominated popular music; immediately following the strike, vocalists began to dominate popular music. During

12672-417: The strike, vocalists could and did record without instrumentalists; instrumentalists could not record for the public at all. As historian Peter Soderbergh expressed it, "Until the war most singers were props. After the war they became the stars and the role of the bands was gradually subordinated." Even before the strike began there were signs that the increasing popularity of singers was beginning to reshape

12800-405: The strike. In 1941, 127 million records were sold; in 1946, two years after the strike, that number jumped to 275 million and it jumped higher in 1947 to 400 million. The strike stopped business between major record labels and musicians under contract with them. With recording and manufacturing equipment idle from the strike, enterprising music promoters, record distributors, and store owners with

12928-474: The strike]. As a result there are few commercial recordings of any of the bop players during the years they were working out their innovations." As Geoffrey C. Ward and Ken Burns put it in Jazz: A History of America's Music (based on Burns' miniseries ), "And so, except for a handful of dedicated collaborators and a few devoted fans, the new music Parker and Gillespie and their cohorts were developing remained largely

13056-510: The striking musicians by recording their popular vocalists accompanied by backup vocal groups in place of an orchestra. Columbia had signed Sinatra on June 1, 1943 and was eager to issue records featuring their new star; the company therefore hired Axel Stordahl as arranger and conductor for several sessions with a vocal group called the Bobby Tucker Singers. These first sessions were on June 7, June 22, August 5, and November 10, 1943. Of

13184-548: The summer of 1914, while working as a soda jerk at the Poodle Dog Café, Ellington wrote his first composition, "Soda Fountain Rag " (also known as the "Poodle Dog Rag"). He created the piece by ear, as he had not yet learned to read and write music. "I would play the 'Soda Fountain Rag' as a one-step , two-step , waltz , tango , and fox trot ", Ellington recalled. "Listeners never knew it

13312-450: The summer. He would sometimes hear strange music played by those who could not afford much sheet music, so for variations, they played the sheets upside down. Henry Lee Grant, a Dunbar High School music teacher, gave him private lessons in harmony . With the additional guidance of Washington pianist and band leader Oliver "Doc" Perry, Ellington learned to read sheet music , project a professional style, and improve his technique. Ellington

13440-512: The three-CD collection, Never No Lament , in 2003. Ellington's long-term aim, though, was to extend the jazz form from that three-minute limit, of which he was an acknowledged master. While he had composed and recorded some extended pieces before, such works now became a regular feature of Ellington's output. In this, he was helped by Strayhorn, who had enjoyed a more thorough training in the forms associated with classical music than Ellington. The first of these, Black, Brown, and Beige (1943),

13568-553: The time, was forced to disband his whole ensemble and work as an octet for a time, Ellington was able to tour most of Western Europe between April 6 and June 30, 1950, with the orchestra playing 74 dates over 77 days. During the tour, according to Sonny Greer, Ellington did not perform the newer works. However, Ellington's extended composition, Harlem (1950), was in the process of being completed at this time. Ellington later presented its score to music-loving President Harry Truman . Also during his time in Europe, Ellington would compose

13696-499: The time. The late 1950s also saw Ella Fitzgerald record her Duke Ellington Songbook (Verve) with Ellington and his orchestra—a recognition that Ellington's songs had now become part of the cultural canon known as the ' Great American Songbook '. Around this time Ellington and Strayhorn began to work on film scoring . The first of these was Anatomy of a Murder (1959), a courtroom drama directed by Otto Preminger and featuring James Stewart , in which Ellington appeared fronting

13824-417: The union's bluff by releasing new titles from their large stockpiles of unissued discs, but the strike lasted much longer than anticipated and eventually the supply of unreleased recordings was exhausted. The companies also reissued several long deleted recordings from their back catalogs, including some from as far back as 1925, the dawn of the electrical recording era. One reissue that was especially successful

13952-508: Was Columbia ’s release of Harry James ’ " All or Nothing at All ", recorded in August 1939 and released when James' new vocalist, Frank Sinatra , was still largely unknown. The original release carried the usual credit, "Vocal Chorus by Frank Sinatra" in small type. It sold around five thousand copies. When Columbia reissued the record in 1943 with the now famous Sinatra given top billing, and "with Harry James and his Orchestra" in small type below,

14080-455: Was a permanent departee. Drummer Louie Bellson replaced Greer, and his "Skin Deep" was a hit for Ellington. Tenor player Paul Gonsalves had joined in December 1950 after periods with Count Basie and Dizzy Gillespie and stayed for the rest of his life, while Clark Terry joined in November 1951. André Previn said in 1952: "You know, Stan Kenton can stand in front of a thousand fiddles and

14208-482: Was also a part of being in an all female band. Furthermore, chorus line girls had an association with loose morals and even prostitution, and loss of face for an instrumentalist could mean the end of a career. These kinds of associations also made many people assume that female instrumentalists were not talented players. Upon interviewing later in life, many women insisted that they were talented musicians who knew how to play. This insistence seems to be in direct reaction to

14336-597: Was also inspired by his first encounters with stride pianists James P. Johnson and Luckey Roberts. Later in New York, he took advice from Will Marion Cook , Fats Waller , and Sidney Bechet . He started to play gigs in cafés and clubs in and around Washington, D.C. His attachment to music was so strong that in 1916 he turned down an art scholarship to the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn . Three months before graduating, he dropped out of Armstrong Manual Training School, where he

14464-603: Was also the group's booking agent. His first play date was at the True Reformer's Hall, where he took home 75 cents. Ellington played throughout the D.C. area and into Virginia for private society balls and embassy parties. The band included childhood friend Otto Hardwick , who began playing the string bass, then moved to C-melody sax and finally settled on alto saxophone; Arthur Whetsel on trumpet; Elmer Snowden on banjo; and Sonny Greer on drums. The band thrived, performing for both African-American and white audiences, rare in

14592-426: Was awarded a posthumous Pulitzer Prize Special Award for music in 1999. Ellington was born on April 29, 1899, to James Edward Ellington and Daisy (née Kennedy) Ellington in Washington, D.C. Both his parents were pianists. Daisy primarily played parlor songs , and James preferred operatic arias . They lived with Daisy's parents at 2129 Ida Place (now Ward Place) NW, in D.C.'s West End neighborhood. Duke's father

14720-574: Was born in Lincolnton, North Carolina , on April 15, 1879, and in 1886, moved to D.C. with his parents. Daisy Kennedy was born in Washington, D.C., on January 4, 1879, the daughter of two former American slaves . James Ellington made blueprints for the United States Navy . When Ellington was a child, his family showed racial pride and support in their home, as did many other families. African Americans in D.C. worked to protect their children from

14848-423: Was dedicated to telling the story of African Americans and the place of slavery and the church in their history. Black, Brown and Beige debuted at Carnegie Hall on January 23, 1943, beginning an annual series of Ellington concerts at the venue over the next four years. While some jazz musicians had played at Carnegie Hall before, none had performed anything as elaborate as Ellington's work. Unfortunately, starting

14976-515: Was hard on territory bands. The public strained to afford entertainment. It was not uncommon for bands to be stranded for lack of funds. Many broke up during this period. There are many theories on why swing music and territory bands declined. One of them is that record companies discovered — during the AFM recording bans of 1942-43 and 1948 — that they could profit from record sales, churning out hit parade music with just singers, who were exempt from

15104-507: Was his neighbor) Shuffle Along . After the young musicians left the Sweatman Orchestra to strike out on their own, they found an emerging jazz scene that was highly competitive with difficult inroad. They hustled pool by day and played whatever gigs they could find. The young band met stride pianist Willie "The Lion" Smith , who introduced them to the scene and gave them some money. They played at rent-house parties for income. After

15232-407: Was light-skinned, should wear makeup. Ellington objected in the interval and compared Jeffries to Al Jolson . The change was reverted. The singer later commented that the audience must have thought he was an entirely different character in the second half of the show. Although it had sold-out performances and received positive reviews, it ran for only 122 performances until September 29, 1941, with

15360-465: Was not uncommon for a group to be put together by a man or a talent agency, but to consist of all female performers. Sometimes performers received aide from family or friends involved in the business to help get their foot in the door. For instance, Lil Hardin Armstrong had an all woman dance band in the early 1930s. This group went by such names as "Lil Armstrong and Her Swing Band." Other bands popular in

15488-715: Was on par with these groups and was where Charlie Parker began to show signs of true innovation. Bands from Los Angeles and Seattle performed not only in California, Oregon, and Washington, but also in Arizona, Louisiana, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Utah, and Wyoming. The Glenn Henry Orchestra, which got its first big break playing summers at Yellowstone Park from 1935 to 1940, became a popular West Coast territory band. There were military territories, too, such as Officers' clubs and Non-commissioned Officer clubs. These clubs took bands to Bermuda, Greenland, Nova Scotia, Puerto Rico, as well as

15616-425: Was quickly mastered, pressed and placed on sale just two days later. The end of the strike was not the end of the royalty dispute, however. As television was beginning, there were questions regarding musicians and royalties from this new medium, and a similar, but much shorter strike was called for 1948, lasting close to a year, ending on December 14, 1948. Over the long term the record companies were not hurt by

15744-578: Was selling peanuts at Washington Senators baseball games. Ellington started sneaking into Frank Holiday's Poolroom at age fourteen. Hearing the music of the poolroom pianists ignited Ellington's love for the instrument, and he began to take his piano studies seriously. Among the many piano players he listened to were Doc Perry, Lester Dishman, Louis Brown, Turner Layton , Gertie Wells, Clarence Bowser, Sticky Mack, Blind Johnny, Cliff Jackson , Claude Hopkins , Phil Wurd, Caroline Thornton, Luckey Roberts , Eubie Blake , Joe Rochester, and Harvey Brooks . In

15872-469: Was studying commercial art. Working as a freelance sign painter from 1917, Ellington began assembling groups to play for dances. In 1919, he met drummer Sonny Greer from New Jersey, who encouraged Ellington's ambition to become a professional musician. Ellington built his music business through his day job. When a customer asked him to make a sign for a dance or party, he would ask if they had musical entertainment; if not, Ellington would offer to play for

16000-403: Was the concert recording properly released for the first time. The revived attention brought about by the Newport appearance should not have surprised anyone, Johnny Hodges had returned the previous year, and Ellington's collaboration with Strayhorn was renewed around the same time, under terms more amenable to the younger man. The original Ellington at Newport album was the first release in

16128-498: Was the main male vocalist in this era (until 1943) while Al Hibbler (who replaced Jeffries in 1943) continued until 1951. Ivie Anderson left in 1942 for health reasons after 11 years, the longest term of any of Ellington's vocalists. Once more recording for Victor (from 1940), with the small groups being issued on their Bluebird label, three-minute masterpieces on 78 rpm record sides continued to flow from Ellington, Billy Strayhorn, Ellington's son Mercer Ellington , and members of

16256-488: Was the same piece. I was established as having my own repertoire." In his autobiography, Music is my Mistress (1973), Ellington wrote that he missed more lessons than he attended, feeling at the time that piano was not his talent. Ellington continued listening to, watching, and imitating ragtime pianists, not only in Washington, D.C. but also in Philadelphia and Atlantic City , where he vacationed with his mother during

16384-430: Was third–billed on the program and although he was then the most popular singer in the country, Goodman had never heard of him. Goodman announced him and the audience roared and shrieked for five minutes. Goodman's bewildered response was, "What the hell was that ?" Once Sinatra started to sing, the audience continued to shriek during every song. As a saxophone player later said, "When Frank hit that screaming bunch of kids,

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