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76-570: Tamashek is spoken mostly in Mali, especially in its central region including Timbuktu , Kidal , and Gao . It is also spoken by a sizeable population in Burkina Faso where it is spoken by 187,000 people as of 2021. As of 2022, approximately 900,000 people speak Tamashek, with the majority of speakers residing in Mali with approximately 590,000 speakers. The livelihood of the Tuareg people has been under threat in

152-414: A circumfix t-...-t. In cases where the stem ends in a vowel, however, an additional inner Fe suffix -t- is added before the outer suffix, thus the affix frame becomes t-...-t-t . In addition to the plural vocalic prefix -i- , pluralization of nouns requires gender-based suffixation: for feminine plural nouns, suffix -en or -ten is added, while for masculine nouns Ma[sculine] suffix -æn or -tæn

228-560: A hajji , Asseed El Hage Abd Salam Shabeeny. Returning from a trading voyage to Hamburg , he was captured by a ship manned by Englishmen but sailing under a Russian flag, whose captain claimed that his Imperial mistress ( Catherine the Great ) was "at war with all Muselmen" (see Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792) ). He and the ship he had been sailing in were brought to Ostend in Belgium in December 1789 but

304-421: A centre of intellectual exchange and cultural diversity. The Sidi Yahya mosque, founded in 1440 by the revered marabout Sheikh al-Mukhtar Hamallah, held both religious and mystical significance for the people of Timbuktu. According to local legend, the mosque awaited the arrival of Sidi Yahya al-Tadlissi, a saint whose presence would sanctify the site. When Sidi Yahya claimed the mosque forty years later, it became

380-453: A combination of both. Most nouns, regardless of gender, have vocalic prefixes , varying between - æ-/-ə, -a-, or -e- for the singular, and invariable i- in the plural. Some nouns entirely lack a vocalic prefix, e.g. deké ('basket'). Feminine nouns are additionally marked by the Fe[minine] prefix t- . For feminine singular nouns, suffix -t is required to denote singularity, thus we see

456-471: A decline in trade as a result of increased competition from newly available trans-Atlantic sailing routes, caused the city to lose its relevance. It was not until the 1890s that Timbuktu was formally incorporated into the French colony of Mali, and, in 1960, was declared part of the independent nation of Mali. Today, the population of Timbuktu has substantially decreased since its estimated peak of 100,000 people in

532-590: A fight. The Islamist groups had already fled north a few days earlier, having set fire to the Ahmed Baba Institute , which housed many important manuscripts. The building housing the Ahmed Baba Institute was funded by South Africa, and held 30,000 manuscripts. BBC World Service radio news reported on 29 January 2013 that approximately 28,000 of the manuscripts in the Institute had been removed to safety from

608-575: A focal point for spiritual devotion and pilgrimage. Over time, the mosque underwent several renovations and refurbishments, reflecting the changing religious and cultural landscape of Timbuktu. The best-known cultural event is the Festival au Désert . When the Tuareg rebellion ended in 1996 under the Konaré administration, 3,000 weapons were burned in a ceremony dubbed the Flame of Peace on 29 March 2007 – to commemorate

684-424: A great store of doctors, judges, priests, and other learned men, that are bountifully maintained at the king's cost and charges. According to Leo Africanus, there were abundant supplies of locally produced grain, cattle, milk and butter, though there were neither gardens nor orchards surrounding the city. In another passage dedicated to describing the wealth of both the environment and the king, Africanus touches upon

760-474: A household reference as a faraway, mysterious place, but the city itself was once a world-renowned trade powerhouse, as well as an academic hotspot of the medieval world. Timbuktu is unique in the fact that it has seen many rulers, but the city reached its golden period under the Mali Empire in the 13th and 14th centuries. Distinguished Malian Mansa Mūsā brought great fame to the city of Timbuktu when he established

836-418: A major city called Housa several days' journey to the southeast. Two years later, he returned to Timbuktu to live there for another seven years – one of a population that was, even centuries after its peak and excluding slaves, double the size of the 21st-century town. By the time Shabeni was 27, he was an established merchant in his hometown of Tetuan. He made a two-year pilgrimage to Mecca and thus became

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912-578: A major learning and cultural centre of the Mali Empire was followed by a long period of decline. Different tribes governed until the French took over Mali in 1893 , in a regime that lasted until the country became the Republic of Mali in 1960. In recent history, Timbuktu faced threats from extremist groups leading to the destruction of cultural sites; efforts by local and international communities have aimed to preserve its heritage. The city's population has declined as

988-576: A prohibitive construction na-⟩...⟨-so 2 (ne) (where the bracketed ne is optional), which at least one linguist ( ja ) considers to be a circumfixal word form; an example using the Old Japanese verb ′write′ ( kak-u ) would be na-⟩kak-i 1 ⟨-so 2 (ne) . The form without the bracketed ne survived marginally into Early Middle Japanese, but has no equivalent in any modern Japanese dialect or any other Japonic language. Instead, all modern Japonic languages and dialects express

1064-564: A result of the recent issues. Over the centuries, the spelling of Timbuktu has varied a great deal: from Tenbuch on the Catalan Atlas (1375), to traveller Antonio Malfante 's Thambet , used in a letter he wrote in 1447 and also adopted by Alvise Cadamosto in his Voyages of Cadamosto , to Heinrich Barth 's Timbúktu and Timbu'ktu . French spelling often appears in international reference as 'Tombouctou'. The German spelling 'Timbuktu' and its variant 'Timbucktu' have passed into English and

1140-566: A result of this and various other incidents a number of states including France, Britain and the US, began advising their citizens to avoid travelling far from Bamako. The number of tourists visiting Timbuktu dropped precipitously from around 6000 in 2009 to only 492 in the first four months of 2011. Because of the security concerns, the Malian government moved the 2010 Festival in the Desert from Essakane to

1216-451: A seasonal settlement and became permanent early in the 12th century. After a shift in trading routes, particularly after the visit by Mansa Musa around 1325, Timbuktu flourished, due to its strategic location, from the trade in salt, gold, and ivory . It gradually expanded as an important Islamic city on the Saharan trade route and attracted many scholars and traders before it became part of

1292-617: A similar system ( spel-en → ge-speel-d in this case). In Dutch, the circumfix ge- ⟩...⟨ -te (ge- prefix + -te suffix) can be used to form certain collective nouns ( berg (mountain) → ge-berg-te (mountain range)). In Japanese , some linguists consider o-⟩...⟨-ni naru (o- honorific prefix + ni particle + verb naru) and o-⟩...⟨-suru (o- prefix + -suru suffix/verb suru) to be honorific circumfixes; for example yom-u (′read′) ...→ o-⟩yom-i⟨-ni naru (respectful), o-⟩yom-i⟨-suru (humble). In addition, Old Japanese had

1368-517: A university of Islamic learning there. The university taught much more than Islamic studies, though, including topics of history, rhetoric, law, science, and, most notably, medicine. Mansa Mūsā also introduced Timbuktu, and the Mali Empire in general, to the rest of the Medieval world through his Hajj, as his time in Mecca would soon inspire Arab travelers to visit North Africa. Europeans, however, would not reach

1444-550: Is a "period of feasting, singing, and dancing ... It culminated with an evening gathering of thousands of people in the large sandy square in front of the Sankor é Mosque and a public reading of some of the city's most treasured manuscripts." Annually, during the winter, Timbuktu has hosted the Living Together festival since 2015. Circumfix A circumfix ( abbr : CIRC ) (also parafix , confix , or ambifix )

1520-1026: Is added. In some cases, a noun pluralizes by stem ablaut without suffixation; one example of unsuffixed plural ablaut is æ̀-ɣata ('crocodile'), which is pluralized to ì-ɣata . The table below illustrates the idealized morphological rules of gender and number marking explained so far: -æ-/-ə, -a-, or -e- SG prefix {-æ-/-ə, -a-, or -e-} {SG prefix} æxxú æxxú 'monster' -i- PL prefix +   -æn or -tæn MASC . PL suffix -i- + {-æn or -tæn} {PL prefix} {} {MASC.PL suffix} i-xxú-tæn i-xxú-tæn 'monsters' -æ-/-ə, -a-, or -e- SG prefix +   t-...-(t)t FEM circumfix {-æ-/-ə, -a-, or -e-} + {t-...-(t)t} {SG prefix} {} {FEM circumfix} Timbuktu Timbuktu ( / ˌ t ɪ m b ʌ k ˈ t uː / TIM -buk- TOO ; French : Tombouctou ; Koyra Chiini : Tumbutu ; Tuareg : ⵜⵏⵀⵗⵜ , romanized:  Tin Bukt )

1596-640: Is also done with circumfixes, nd ⟩...⟨ i and nd ⟩...⟨ mo'ãi for future negation. In some Slavic languages , and in Hungarian , the superlative of adjectives is formed with a circumfix. For example, in Czech , the circumfix nej ⟩...⟨ ší is used – mladý "young" becomes nejmladší "youngest". The corresponding circumfix in Hungarian is leg ⟩...⟨ bb , as in legnagyobb "biggest", from nagy "big". (In both cases,

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1672-512: Is always short but may be phonetically realized as a sound ranging from [æ] to [a], distinguished from /a/ which is always [ɑː]. There are no other distinctions between vowels which are primarily length-based. Tamasheq has no diphthongs . While all vowels occur word-initially and word-medially, only full vowels occur word-finally. Tamasheq has 33 consonants , featuring six manners of articulation and eight places of articulation. There are no non-pulmonic consonants. The consonants are detailed in

1748-529: Is an affix which has two parts, one placed at the start of a word, and the other at the end. Circumfixes contrast with prefixes , attached to the beginnings of words; suffixes , attached at the end; and infixes , inserted in the middle. Circumfixes are common in Malay and Georgian . Its related operation is called circumfixation (or parafixation , confixation , ambifixation ). ⟩Angle brackets⟨ are used to mark off circumfixes. The circumfix

1824-572: Is an ancient city in Mali , situated 20 kilometres (12 miles) north of the Niger River . It is the capital of the Tombouctou Region , one of the eight administrative regions of Mali , having a population of 54,453 in the 2009 census. Archaeological evidence suggests prehistoric settlements in the region, predating the city's Islamic scholarly and trade prominence in the medieval period. Timbuktu began as

1900-433: Is higher in the dry season than the wet season. Average daily maximum temperatures in the hottest months of the year – April, May and June – exceed 40 °C (104 °F). Lowest temperatures occur during the mildest months of the year – December, January and February. However, average maximum temperatures do not drop below 30 °C (86 °F). These winter months are characterized by a dry, dusty trade wind blowing from

1976-436: Is lexically determined. This is not the case for verbs. According to the rule called "default accentuation", the accent falls on the antepenult or on the leftmost syllable of verbs. The exception to the rule is resultative and long imperfect positive stems. For example, a-bæ̀mbæra , which means Bambara , has its primary accent on the antepenult syllable. A bisyllabic word hæ̀ræt , which is glossed as 'thing,' has its accent on

2052-596: Is often understood in Mali as a term that denotes all Tuareg varieties. Other alternative names for Tamashek include Tamachen, Tamashekin, and Tomacheck. There are divergent views regarding Tamashek's dialect divisions. Some report two main dialects, named Timbuktu and Tadhaq. Others take there to be roughly three main divisions of Malian Tamashek: The Tamasheq language has seven vowels in total: two frontal vowels /i/, /æ/; three central vowels /ə/, /æ/, /a/; and two back vowels /u/, /o/. There are two short vowels, /ə/ and /æ/, where /ə/ may be elided in some contexts, and /æ/

2128-489: Is probably most widely known from the German past participle , which is ge- ⟩...⟨ -t (ge- prefix + -t suffix) for regular verbs. The verb spiel-en , for example, has the participle ge-spiel-t . However, a number of so-called strong verbs display the suffix -en ( ge-sung-en 'sung'), while all verbs carrying non-initial stress come without the prefix part ge- , as in telefonier-t 'telephoned'. Dutch has

2204-495: Is required. A successful crop depends critically on the amount and timing of the rain in the wet season and the height of the flood. To a limited extent the arrival of the flood water can be controlled by the construction of small mud dikes that become submerged as the water rises. Although floating rice is still cultivated in the Timbuktu Cercle , most of the rice is now grown in three relatively large irrigated areas that lie to

2280-582: Is situated nine miles from the Niger River, making for good agricultural land, and is near the Sahara Desert, providing easily accessible trade routes. Timbuktu also acts as a midpoint between the regions of North, West, and Central Africa. Because of this, Timbuktu has developed into a cultural melting pot. The Mali Empire reached a steady decline in the mid-1400s, giving rise to the Songhai Empire. However,

2356-417: Is still open to discussion. At least four possible origins of the name of Timbuktu have been described: The validity of these theories depends on the identity of the original founders of the city: as recently as 2000, archaeological research has not found remains dating from the 11th/12th century within the limits of the modern city given the difficulty of excavating through metres of sand that have buried

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2432-441: Is thus only found in unassimilated Islamic vocabulary. Consonants in a double parenthesis occur mostly as geminated versions of other consonants. A uvular stop /q/ principally occurs in the geminated form /qq/, which can be interpreted as the "phonetic realization of geminated /ɣɣ/. Accent is an "important feature of Tamasheq". The role of accent is "very different" for verbs and nouns. For nouns and other non-verb stems, accent

2508-607: The Mali Empire early in the 14th century. In the first half of the 15th century, the Tuareg people took control for a short period, until the expanding Songhai Empire absorbed it in 1468. A Moroccan army defeated the Songhai in 1591 and made Timbuktu their capital. The invaders established a new ruling class, the Arma , who after 1612 became virtually independent of Morocco. In its golden age,

2584-521: The British consul managed to get him and the ship released. He set off again in the same ship, but the captain, who claimed to be afraid of his ship being captured again, set him ashore in Dover . In England his story was recorded. Shabeeni gave an indication of the size of the city in the second half of the 18th century. In an earlier passage, he described an environment that was characterized by forest, as opposed to

2660-401: The Medieval period. The city has suffered from mass amounts of poverty for several years now, relying on government funding as a means of survival. On 8 August 2023, Timbuktu was brought under a total blockade by Jama'at Nasr al-Islam wal Muslimin (JNIM), exacerbating poverty, and leading to food shortages. 33,000 fled the city and its surrounding areas and 1,000 have fled to Mauritania since

2736-532: The Saharan Tibesti Region southward to the Gulf of Guinea . Picking up dust particles on their way, these winds limit visibility in what has been dubbed the " Harmattan Haze." Additionally, when the dust settles in the city, sand builds up and desertification looms. The wealth and very existence of Timbuktu depended on its position as the southern terminus of an important trans-Saharan trade route; nowadays,

2812-558: The Timbuktu near the Wadi el-Ahmar was excavated between 2008 and 2010 by archaeologists from Yale University and the Mission Culturelle de Tombouctou. The results suggest that the site was first occupied during the 5th century BC, thrived throughout the second half of the 1st millennium AD and eventually collapsed sometime during the late 10th or early 11th-century AD. Timbuktu has become

2888-430: The annual flood. Seed is sown at the beginning of the rainy season (June–July) so that when the flood water arrives plants are already 30 to 40 cm (12 to 16 in) in height. The plants grow up to three metres (10 feet) in height as the water level rises. The rice is harvested by canoe in December. The procedure is very precarious and the yields are low but the method has the advantage that little capital investment

2964-701: The attention of European explorers. Africanus also described the more mundane aspects of the city, such as the "cottages built of chalk , and covered with thatch " – although these went largely unheeded. The natives of the town of Timbuctoo may be computed at 40,000, exclusive of slaves and foreigners ... The natives are all blacks: almost every stranger marries a female of the town, who are so beautiful that travellers often fall in love with them at first sight. – Shabeni in James Grey Jackson's  [ fr ] An Account of Timbuctoo and Hausa , 1820 Roughly 250 years after Leo Africanus' visit to Timbuktu,

3040-502: The causative verb æ̀ss-onæn 'tame, break in animal' with its -s- prefix. In Tamasheq, nearly all "modifying adjectives" are participles of inflected intransitive verbs. For example, the verb 'to ripe' is əŋŋá , and it is inflected into participles such as i-ŋŋá-n (MaSg) or t-əŋŋá-t (FeSg). These resultative participles are used with "adjectival" sense, adjectivalized into the word 'ripened'. Gender and number are mainly marked using affixation, though in many cases they use ablaut or

3116-607: The ceremony, a monument was built. The Festival au Désert , to celebrate the peace treaty , was held every January in the desert, 75 km from the city until 2010. The week-long festival of Mawloud is held every January, and celebrates the birthday of Muhammed; the city's "most cherished manuscripts" are read publicly, and are a central part of this celebration. It was originally a Shi'ite festival from Persia and arriving in Timbuktu around 1600. The "most joyful occasion on Timbuktu's calendar", it combines "rituals of Sufi Islam with celebrating Timbuktu's rich literary traditions". It

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3192-616: The changing architectural styles and religious practices of the region. The Sankore Mosque, built between 1325 and 1463, played a central role in Timbuktu's intellectual and educational landscape. As the city flourished as a centre of Islamic learning, the Sankore Mosque became a renowned centre of learning, attracting scholars and students from across the Muslim world. Its libraries housed thousands of manuscripts on subjects ranging from theology to astronomy, contributing to Timbuktu's reputation as

3268-681: The circumfix ma ⟩...⟨ š around the verb together with all its prefixes and suffixed direct- and indirect-object pronouns. For example, Egyptian bitgibuhum-laha "you bring them to her" is negated as ma⟩bitgibuhum-lahā⟨š "you don't bring them to her". In Berber languages the feminine is marked with the circumfix t ⟩...⟨ t . The word afus "hand" becomes t ⟩ afus ⟨ t . In Kabyle , θ ⟩ issli ⟨ θ "bride" derives from issli "groom". From bni , to build, with t ⟩...⟨ t we obtain tbnit "thou buildest". Negation in Guaraní

3344-486: The circumfixal forms, Old Japanese also had a suffixal form similar to the modern forms (e.g., kak-u-na ), as well as a prefixal form na-kak-i 1 , which is also not reflected in any modern Japonic variety. Malay has eight circumfixes: For example, the circumfix ke- ⟩...⟨ -an can be added to the root adil "fair/just" to form ke-adil-an "fairness/justice". In most North African and some Levantine varieties of Arabic , verbs are negated by placing

3420-538: The city had seen many rulers. The end of the 18th century saw the grip of the Moroccan rulers on the city wane, resulting in a period of unstable government by quickly changing tribes. During the rule of one of those tribes, the Hausa , a 14-year-old child named Shabeni (or Shabeeny) from Tetuan on the north coast of Morocco accompanied his father on a visit to Timbuktu. Shabeni stayed in Timbuktu for three years before moving to

3496-560: The city of Timbuktu entered a brief period of rule under the Tuaregs before it fell to the Songhai people. Despite major shifts in power, Timbuktu generally flourished until the Moroccans invaded the Songhai Empire in 1590 and began to occupy Timbuktu in 1591, after the Battle of Tondibi . In 1593, most of the university faculty was executed or exiled for disloyalty to the new rulers and this, along with

3572-468: The city until much later, due to the difficult and lengthy journey, thus garnering the city an aura of mystery. Timbuktu primarily gained its wealth from local gold and salt mining, in addition to the trans-Saharan slave trade. Gold was a highly valued commodity in the Mediterranean region and salt was most popular south of the city, though arguably the biggest asset Timbuktu had was its location. The city

3648-467: The dredging project, the canal was re-excavated so that now when the River Niger floods, Timbuktu is again connected to Kabara. The Malian government has promised to address problems with the design of the canal as it currently lacks footbridges and the steep, unstable banks make access to the water difficult. Kabara can function as a port only in December to January when the river is in full flood. When

3724-452: The farmers are being encouraged to change their agricultural practices. Most tourists visit Timbuktu between November and February when the air temperature is lower. In the 1980s, accommodation for tourists was provided by Hendrina Khan Hotel and two other small hotels: Hotel Bouctou and Hotel Azalaï. Over the following decades the tourist numbers increased so that by 2006 there were seven small hotels and guest houses. The town benefited by

3800-516: The floodwater takes time to pass down the river system and through the Inner Niger Delta . At Koulikoro , 60 km (37 mi) downstream from Bamako , the flood peaks in September, while in Timbuktu the flood lasts longer and usually reaches a maximum at the end of December. In the past, the area flooded by the river was more extensive and in years with high rainfall, floodwater would reach

3876-567: The former has become widely used in recent years. Major English-language works have employed the spelling 'Timbuctoo', and this is considered the correct English form by scholars; 'Timbuctou' and 'Timbuctu' are sometimes used as well. The French continue to use the spelling 'Tombouctou', as they have for over a century; variants include 'Temboctou' (used by explorer René Caillié) and 'Tombouktou', but they are seldom seen. Variant spellings exist for other places as well, such as Jenne (Djenné) and Segu (Ségou). As well as its spelling, Timbuktu's toponymy

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3952-401: The initial syllable. Tamasheq's two main morphological processes are ablaut and affixation , with the former permeating the language. Many processes also undergo a combination of the two. Most of Tamasheq nouns are underived, although some are derived by "some combination of ablaut and prefixation." For example, the noun t-æ-s-ȁnan-t , which means 'oxpecker,' is prefixally derived from

4028-517: The last century, due to climate change and a series of political conflicts, notably the Arab-Tuareg rebellion of 1990–1995 in Mali which resulted in ethnic cleansing of the Tuareg in the form of reprisal killings and exile. Tamashek is currently classified as a developing language (5), partly due to the Malian government's active promotion of the language; it is currently taught in public education, from primary schools to adult literacy classes. Tamashek

4104-643: The miners and returning with each camel loaded with four or five 30 kg (66 lb) slabs of salt. The salt transport was largely controlled by desert nomads of the Arabic-speaking Berabich (or Barabish) tribe. Although there are no roads, the slabs of salt are now usually transported from Taoudenni by truck. From Timbuktu the salt is transported by boat to other towns in Mali. Between the 12th and 14th centuries, Timbuktu's population grew immensely due to an influx of Bono , Tuaregs , Fulanis , and Songhais seeking trade, security, or to study. By 1300,

4180-508: The modern arid surroundings. Situated on the northern edge of the Niger Delta, Timbuktu is at the crossroads of the Saharan trade routes and the River Niger. Founded in 1100 by the Tuareg, this cultural centre boasts significant architectural landmarks, including three great mosques: Djinguere Ber, Sankore and Sidi Yahya. The Djinguere Ber Mosque, built in 1328 under the patronage of Mansa Musa,

4256-631: The name "Johannis Leo de Medici", and commissioned him to write, in Italian, a detailed survey of Africa. His accounts provided most of what Europeans knew about the continent for the next several centuries. Describing Timbuktu when the Songhai Empire was at its height, the English edition of his book includes the description: The rich king of Tombuto hath many plates and sceptres of gold, some whereof weigh 1300 pounds. ... He hath always 3000 horsemen ... (and)

4332-519: The only goods that are routinely transported across the desert are slabs of rock salt brought from the Taoudenni mining centre in the central Sahara 664 km (413 mi) north of Timbuktu. Until the second half of the 20th century most of the slabs were transported by large salt caravans or azalai , one leaving Timbuktu in early November and the other in late March. The caravans of several thousand camels took three weeks each way, transporting food to

4408-500: The outskirts of Timbuktu. In November 2011, gunmen attacked tourists staying at a hotel in Timbuktu, killing one of them and kidnapping three others . This was the first terrorist incident in Timbuktu itself. On 1 April 2012, one day after the capture of Gao , Timbuktu was captured from the Malian military by the Tuareg rebels of the MNLA and Ansar Dine . Five days later, the MNLA declared

4484-423: The population increased to 10,000 and continued increasing until it reached about 50,000 in the 1500s. There is insufficient rainfall in the Timbuktu region for purely rain-fed agriculture and crops are therefore irrigated using water from the River Niger. The main agricultural crop is rice. African floating rice ( Oryza glaberrima ) has traditionally been grown in regions near the river that are inundated during

4560-497: The premises before the attack by the Islamist groups, and that the whereabouts of about 2,000 manuscripts remained unknown. It was intended to be a resource for Islamic research. On 30 March 2013, jihadist rebels infiltrated into Timbuktu nine days before a suicide bombing on a Malian army checkpoint at the international airport, killing a soldier. Fighting lasted until 1 April, when French warplanes helped Malian ground forces chase

4636-575: The prohibitive with a suffixal particle na (which is probably related to the prefixal part of the Old Japanese construction) attached to a non-past form of the verb; e.g., Tōkyō Japanese ka ku-na , Kyōto Japanese ka ku -na , Kagoshima Japanese kaʔ- na or kan- na , Hachijō kaku-na , Yamatohama Amami kʰakʰu-na , Nakijin Kunigami hḁkˀu:- na , Shuri Okinawan kaku-na , Irabu Miyakoan kafï-na , Hateruma Yaeyaman hḁku-na , and Yonaguni kʰagu-n-na (all ′don't write!′). In addition to

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4712-459: The rarity of one of Timbuktu's trade commodities: salt. The inhabitants are very rich, especially the strangers who have settled in the country [..] But salt is in very short supply because it is carried here from Tegaza , some 500 miles [800 km] from Timbuktu. I happened to be in this city at a time when a load of salt sold for eighty ducats . The king has a rich treasure of coins and gold ingots . These descriptions and passages alike caught

4788-402: The region independent of Mali as the nation of Azawad . The declared political entity was not recognized by any regional nations or the international community and it collapsed three months later on 12 July. On 28 January 2013, French and Malian government troops began retaking Timbuktu from the Islamist rebels. The force of 1,000 French troops with 200 Malian soldiers retook Timbuktu without

4864-458: The remaining rebels out of the city center. Tales of Timbuktu's fabulous wealth helped prompt European exploration of the west coast of Africa. Among the most famous descriptions of Timbuktu are those of Leo Africanus and Shabeni. Perhaps most famous among the accounts written about Timbuktu is that by Leo Africanus , born El Hasan ben Muhammed el- Wazzan-ez-Zayyati in Granada in 1485. His family

4940-413: The remains over the past centuries. Without consensus , the etymology of Timbuktu remains unclear. Like other important Medieval West African towns such as Djenné ( Jenné-Jeno ), Gao , and Dia , Iron Age settlements have been discovered near Timbuktu that predate the traditional foundation date of the town. Although the accumulation of thick layers of sand has thwarted archaeological excavations in

5016-612: The revenue from the CFA ;5000 tourist tax, the sale of handicrafts and employment of local guides. Starting in 2008, al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb began kidnapping groups of tourists in the Sahel region. In January 2009, four tourists were kidnapped near the Mali–Niger border after attending a cultural festival at Anderamboukané . One of these tourists was subsequently murdered. As

5092-551: The south of the town and is connected to an arm of the river by a 3 km (2 mi) canal. The canal had become heavily silted but in 2007 it was dredged as part of a Libyan financed project. The annual flood of the Niger River is a result of the heavy rainfall in the headwaters of the Niger and Bani rivers in Guinea and northern Ivory Coast . The rainfall in these areas peaks in August but

5168-416: The south of the town: Daye (392 ha), Koriomé (550 ha) and Hamadja (623 ha). Water is pumped from the river using ten large Archimedes' screws which were first installed in the 1990s. The irrigated areas are run as cooperatives with approximately 2,100 families cultivating small plots. Nearly all the rice produced is consumed by the families themselves. The yields are still relatively low and

5244-617: The start of the siege. The siege began after the withdrawal of MINUSMA , the United Nations mission to Mali during the Mali War . Timbuktu is located on the southern edge of the Sahara 15 km ( 9 + 1 ⁄ 2  mi) north of the main channel of the River Niger . The town is surrounded by sand dunes and the streets are covered in sand. The port of Kabara is 8 km (5 mi) to

5320-519: The table below. The table places the two laryngeal consonants, and /h/ and /ʔ/, according to the IPA chart (the source did not specify their manners of articulation). Consonants in a single parenthesis are of marginal use, "confined largely to loanwords." Consonants of Arabic origins – /sˤ/, /ɫ/, /ħ/, /ʕ/, and /ʔ/ – occur in Arabic loanwords. The glottal stop /ʔ/ is already largely absent in local Arabic dialects,

5396-407: The town itself, some of the surrounding landscape is deflating and exposing pottery shards on the surface. A survey of the area by Susan and Roderick McIntosh in 1984 identified several Iron Age sites along the el-Ahmar, an ancient wadi system that passes a few kilometers to the east of the modern town. An Iron Age tell complex located nine kilometres ( 5 + 1 ⁄ 2  mi) southeast of

5472-608: The town's Islamic scholars and extensive trade network supported an important book trade. Together with the campuses of the Sankore Madrasah , an Islamic university , this established Timbuktu as a scholarly centre in Africa. Notable historic writers, such as Shabeni and Leo Africanus , wrote about the city. These stories fuelled speculation in Europe, where the city's reputation shifted from being rich to mysterious. The city's golden age as

5548-615: The water levels are lower, boats dock at Korioumé which is linked to Timbuktu by 18 km (11 mi) of paved road. Timbuktu features a hot desert climate ( BWh ) according to the Köppen Climate Classification . The weather is extremely hot and dry throughout much of the year, with most of the city's rainfall occurring between June and September, due to the influence of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The degree of diurnal temperature variation

5624-490: The wealthy ruler of the Mali Empire, served as a testament to the city's prosperity during this golden age. Mansa Musa's legendary pilgrimage to Mecca, during which he distributed vast amounts of gold, contributed to the construction of the mosque and cemented Timbuktu's reputation as a centre of Islamic culture and learning. Over the centuries, the Djinguere Ber mosque has undergone various renovations and extensions, reflecting

5700-403: The western outskirts of Timbuktu itself. A small navigable creek to the west of the town is shown on the maps published by Heinrich Barth in 1857 and Félix Dubois in 1896. Between 1917 and 1921, during the colonial period, the French used slave labour to dig a narrow canal linking Timbuktu with Kabara. Over the following decades this became silted and filled with sand, but in 2007 as part of

5776-528: Was among the thousands of Muslims expelled by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabel after their reconquest of Spain in 1492. They settled in Morocco , where he studied in Fes and accompanied his uncle on diplomatic missions throughout North Africa. During these travels, he visited Timbuktu. As a young man he was captured by pirates and presented as an exceptionally learned slave to Pope Leo X , who freed him, baptized him under

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