The Takutu River Bridge ( Portuguese : Ponte do Rio Tacutu ) is a bridge across the Takutu River , linking Lethem in Guyana to Bonfim in Brazil . It was completed in 2009 and opened on 31 July 2009. Its official inauguration was on 14 September 2009, in the presence of leaders of both countries. It cost US$ 5 million and was paid for by Brazil. The bridge was a project within the Initiative for the Integration of the Regional Infrastructure of South America .
126-702: The bridge is the only instance in the Americas of a land border where drivers must change from driving on the left (in Guyana) to driving on the right (in Brazil), or vice versa. The changeover is achieved by means of a crossover bridge on the Guyanese side. This article about a bridge in Guyana is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about a bridge in Brazil
252-515: A Franciscan; all three Italians. In his last Consistory for the promotion of Cardinals, on 15 December 1302, Boniface VIII named two more cardinals: Pedro Rodríguez , bishop of Burgos, Spain, became Suburbicarian Bishop of Sabina; and Giovanni Minio da Morrovalle (or da Muro), OFM, Minister General of the Franciscans, was appointed Suburbicarian Bishop of Porto. A Franciscan, a Spaniard, no Benedictines, no French. In fact, there were only two French in
378-517: A change to RHT, but, a few years later, the government ordered it and it occurred on Sunday, 3 September 1967 at 5 am. The accident rate then dropped sharply, but soon rose to near its original level. The day was known as Högertrafikomläggningen, or Dagen H for short. When Iceland switched to RHT the following year, it was known as Hægri dagurinn or H-dagurinn ("The H-Day"). Most passenger cars in Iceland were already LHD. The United Kingdom
504-657: A clear view of other vehicles. The first keep-right law for driving in the United States was passed in 1792 and applied to the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike . Massachusetts formalized RHT in 1821. However, the National Road was LHT until 1850, "long after the rest of the country had settled on the keep-right convention". Today the United States is RHT except the United States Virgin Islands , which
630-450: A council... but... the grief which had hardened in the heart of Pope Boniface, by reason of the injury which he had received, produced in him, once he had come to Rome, a strange malady so that he gnawed at himself as if he were mad, and in this state he passed from this life on the twelfth day of October in the year of Christ 1303, and in the Church of St. Peter near the entrance of the doors, in
756-457: A dozen cardinals, Cardinal Benedetto was assigned the care ( commenda ) of the deaconry of S. Agata, and his old deaconry of S. Nicola in Carcere. As cardinal, he served as papal legate in diplomatic negotiations to France, Naples, Sicily, and Aragon. Pope Celestine V (who had been Brother Peter, the hermit of Mount Murrone near Sulmone) abdicated on 13 December 1294 at Naples , where, much to
882-527: A grand-nephew of Pope Nicholas III, was also appointed, along with Francesco Napoleone Orsini, a nephew of Pope Nicholas III. Three years later, on 4 December 1298, four new cardinals were named: Gonzalo Gudiel (Gundisalvus Rodericus Innojosa), Archbishop of Toledo, was appointed Bishop of Albano; Teodorico Ranieri, Archbishop-elect of Pisa and papal Chamberlain, became Cardinal Priest of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme; Niccolò Boccasini, OP, of Treviso, Master General of
1008-921: A heretical criminal to the French clergy. On 15 August 1303, the Pope suspended the right of all persons in the Kingdom of France to name anyone as Regent or Doctor, including the King. And in another document of the same day, he reserved to the Holy See the provision of all present and future vacancies in cathedral churches and monasteries, until King Philip should come to the Papal Court and make explanations of his behavior. On 7 September 1303, an army led by King Philip's minister Nogaret and Sciarra Colonna attacked Boniface at his palace in Anagni next to
1134-415: A newspaper said, "The cart was near to the right hand kerb. According to the rules of the road, it should have been on the left side. In turning sharp round a right-hand corner, a driver should keep away to the opposite side." That rule was codified when the first Highway Code was written in 1936. Samoa , a former German colony, had been RHT for more than a century, but switched to LHT in 2009, making it
1260-514: A peace gesture toward the French, Clement V pardoned Guillaume Nogaret for his offences committed at Anagni against Boniface VIII and the Church, for which he had been excommunicated, with the condition that Nogaret personally go to the Holy Land in the next wave of soldiers and serve there in the military. By the end of Spring 1310, Clement was feeling the embarrassment and the pressure over the material being produced by Boniface's accusers. His patience
1386-482: A rich chapel which was built in his lifetime, he was honorably buried. He died of a violent fever on 11 October, in full possession of his senses and in the presence of eight cardinals and the chief members of the papal household, after receiving the sacraments and making the usual profession of faith. The body of Boniface VIII was buried in 1303 in a special chapel that also housed the remains of Pope Boniface IV (A.D. 608–615), which had been moved by Boniface VIII from
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#17328549371871512-409: A simple traffic light to do the switch, but there are also interchanges that enable the switch while keeping up a continuous flow of traffic. There are six road border crossing points between Hong Kong and mainland China. In 2006, the daily average number of vehicle trips recorded at Lok Ma Chau was 31,100. The next largest is Man Kam To , where there is no changeover system and the border roads on
1638-532: A sixth part (or Book) these various papal decisions, including some 88 of his own legal decisions, as well as a collection of legal principles known as the Regulæ Juris . His contribution came to be known as the Liber Sextus . This material is still of importance to canon lawyers or canonists today, to interpret and analyze the canons and other forms of ecclesiastical law properly. The " Regulae Iuris " appear at
1764-466: A ten- shilling fine to anyone not driving or riding on the left side of the road within the county of the city of Dublin , and required the local road overseers to erect written or printed notices informing road users of the law. The Road in Down and Antrim Act 1798 (38 Geo. 3. c. 28 (I)) required drivers on the road from Dublin to Donadea to keep to the left. This time, the punishment was ten shillings if
1890-530: A tomb outside the Vatican Basilica in the portico. The body was accidentally exhumed in 1605, and the results of the excavation recorded by Giacomo Grimaldi (1568–1623), Apostolic Notary and Archivist of the Vatican Basilica, and others. The body lay within three coffins, the outermost of wood, the middle of lead, and the innermost of pine . The corporal remains were described as being "unusually tall" measuring seven palms when examined by doctors. The body
2016-592: Is LHT like many neighbouring islands. Some special-purpose vehicles in the United States, like certain postal service trucks, garbage trucks, and parking-enforcement vehicles, are built with the driver's seat on the right for safer and easier access to the curb. A common example is the Grumman LLV , which is used nationwide by the US Postal Service and by Canada Post . In Canada, the provinces of Quebec and Ontario were always RHT because they were created out of
2142-669: Is LHT, but two of its overseas territories , Gibraltar and the British Indian Ocean Territory , are RHT. In the late 1960s, the British Department for Transport considered switching to RHT, but declared it unsafe and too costly for such a built-up nation. Road building standards, for motorways in particular, allow asymmetrically designed road junctions, where merge and diverge lanes differ in length. Today, four countries in Europe continue to use LHT, all island nations:
2268-405: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Left- and right-hand traffic This is an accepted version of this page Left-hand traffic ( LHT ) and right-hand traffic ( RHT ) are the practices, in bidirectional traffic , of keeping to the left side and to the right side of the road, respectively. They are fundamental to traffic flow , and are sometimes called the rule of
2394-430: Is said that on one particular day some 30,000 people were counted. Giovanni Villani estimated that some 200,000 pilgrims came to Rome. Boniface and his aides managed the affair well, food was plentiful, and it was sold at moderate prices. It was an advantage to the pope that the great sums of money he collected could be used according to Boniface's own judgment. After King Edward I of England invaded Scotland and forced
2520-434: Is still geared to LHT as its neighbours India, Bangladesh and Thailand use LHT. Most cars are used RHD vehicles imported from Japan. Afghanistan was LHT until the 1950s, in line with Pakistan (former part of British India). Although Portuguese Timor (present-day East Timor ), which shares the island of Timor with Indonesia , who is LHT, switched to RHT with Portugal in 1928, it switched back to LHT in 1976 during
2646-426: Is the opposite: traffic keeps right, the driver usually sits on the left side of the car (LHD: left-hand drive), and roundabouts circulate anticlockwise. In most countries, rail traffic follows the handedness of the roads; but many of the countries that switched road traffic from LHT to RHT did not switch their trains. Boat traffic on bodies of water is RHT, regardless of location. Boats are traditionally piloted from
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#17328549371872772-413: The decima (ten percent tax) of France. On 20 March 1265, in order to expedite the business with Charles of Anjou, Cardinal Simon was authorized to provide benefices from cathedrals or otherwise within his province to five of his clerics. This may have been the occasion on which Benedetto Caetani acquired at least some of his French benefices. On 9 April 1265, on the petition of Cardinal Simon de Brion,
2898-624: The British Virgin Islands , and the United States Virgin Islands are LHD due to their being imported from the United States. Brazil , a Portuguese colony until the early 19th century, had in the 19th and the early 20th century mixed rules, with some regions still on LHT, switching these remaining regions to RHT in 1928, the same year Portugal switched sides. Other Central and South American countries that later switched from LHT to RHT include Argentina, Chile, Panama, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Suriname , along with neighbouring Guyana , are
3024-571: The Cape Colony (present-day South Africa and Lesotho ), as well as in British West Africa (present-day Ghana, Gambia, Sierra Leone and Nigeria); former British West Africa, however, has now switched to RHT, as all its neighbours, which are former French colonies, use RHT. South Africa, formerly the Cape Colony, introduced LHT in former German South West Africa , present-day Namibia , after
3150-458: The Crown of Naples and Sicily . On 1 May 1264 he was given permission to appoint two or three tabelliones (secretaries) for his mission, one of whom was Benedetto. On 26 February 1265, only eleven days after his coronation, the new pope, Pope Clement IV wrote to Cardinal Simon, telling him to break off negotiations and travel immediately to Provence , where he would receive further instructions. On
3276-555: The First War of Scottish Independence . These views, and his chronic intervention in temporal affairs, led to many bitter quarrels with Albert I of Germany , Philip IV of France , and Dante Alighieri , who expected the pope to soon arrive at the eighth circle of Hell in his Divine Comedy , among the simoniacs . Boniface systematized canon law by collecting it in a new volume, the Liber Sextus (1298), which continues to be important source material for canon lawyers. He established
3402-549: The French Revolution . Scholars who have looked for documentary evidence of this story have found none, and contemporary sources have not surfaced, as of 1999. In 1827, long after Napoleon's reign, Edward Planta wrote that, in Paris , "The coachmen have no established rule by which they drive on the right or left of the road, but they cross and jostle one another without ceremony." Rotterdam had no fixed rules until 1917, although
3528-843: The Indonesian occupation of East Timor . In the 1930s, parts of China such as the Shanghai International Settlement , Canton and Japanese-occupied northeast China used LHT. However, in 1946 the Republic of China made RHT mandatory in China (including Taiwan ). Taiwan was LHT under Japanese colonization from 1895–1945. Portuguese Macau (present-day Macau ) remained LHT, along with British Hong Kong , despite being transferred to China in 1999 and 1997 respectively. Both North Korea and South Korea use RHT since 1946, after liberation from Japanese colonialization . The Philippines
3654-551: The Maghreb , where it is still used. Countries in these areas include Mali , Mauritania , Ivory Coast , Burkina Faso , Benin , Niger , Morocco , Algeria , and Tunisia . Other French former colonies that are RHT include Cameroon , Central African Republic , Chad , Djibouti , Gabon , and the Republic of the Congo . Rwanda and Burundi are RHT but are considering switching to LHT (see "Potential future shifts" section below). In
3780-582: The Papal States from 24 December 1294 until his death in 1303. The Caetani family was of baronial origin, with connections to the papacy. He succeeded Pope Celestine V , who had abdicated from the papal throne. Boniface spent his early career abroad in diplomatic roles. Boniface VIII put forward some of the strongest claims of any pope to temporal as well as spiritual power. He involved himself often with foreign affairs, including in France, Sicily, Italy, and
3906-455: The Peace of Caltabellotta in 1302, which saw Pedro's son Frederick III recognized as king of Sicily while Charles II was recognized as the king of Naples . To prepare for a Crusade, Boniface ordered Venice and Genoa to sign a truce; they fought each other for three more years, and turned down his offer to mediate peace. Boniface also placed the city of Florence under an interdict and invited
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4032-526: The secular arm . By July 1297, Boniface yielded completely in the bull Etsi de statu , conceding that kings could raise taxes on church property and incomes during emergencies without prior papal approval. Philip rescinded his embargoes and even accepted Boniface's nuncios as arbitrators to delay and conclude his war with the English, with the 1303 Treaty of Paris restoring the status quo but obliging Edward to come to France in person to do homage for
4158-419: The starboard side (and not the port side like RHT road traffic vehicles) to facilitate priority to the right . Historically, many places kept left, while many others kept right, often within the same country. There are many myths that attempt to explain why one or the other is preferred. About 90 percent of people are right-handed , and many explanations reference this. Horses are traditionally mounted from
4284-516: The 1274 papal bull Ubi periculum had not envisioned an abdication, but declared that election proceedings should begin ten days after the death of the incumbent. The 1294 papal conclave accordingly began on 23 December, ten days after Celestine's abdication. This gave all twenty-two cardinals the chance to assemble at the Castel Nuovo in Naples, the site of the abdication. Hugh Aycelin presided over
4410-410: The 73-year-old Boniface was probably beaten and nearly executed, but was released from captivity after three days. He died a month later. The famous Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani, wrote: And when Sciarra and the others, his enemies, came to him, they mocked at him with vile words and arrested him and his household which had remained with him. Among others, William of Nogaret, who had conducted
4536-600: The Apostolic See, and caused an alliance between Her and your enemies?." In the face of the support of French clergy such as Pierre de Mornay for Philip's general position and the need for French revenue to combat unrest in Rome from the Colonna family , Boniface retreated still further. In February 1297, the bull Romana mater ecclesia permitted voluntary clerical donations without papal approval in times of emergency as determined by
4662-681: The Cardinal was received at the French Court by King Louis IX . There he learned that Simon de Montfort and his son Henry had been killed at the Battle of Evesham earlier that month. Cardinal Ottobono did not reach Boulogne until October 1265. He was accompanied by Benedetto Caetani. He was in England until July 1268, working to suppress the remnants of Simon de Montfort's barons who were still in arms against King Henry III of England. To finance their rebellion,
4788-484: The Council of Vienne, opened on 16 October 1311, with more than 300 bishops in attendance. When the Council met (so it is said), three cardinals appeared before it and testified to the orthodoxy and morality of the dead pope. Two knights, as challengers, threw down their gauntlets to maintain his innocence by trial by combat . No one accepted the challenge, and the Council declared the matter closed. Clement's order disbanding
4914-565: The Dominicans, became Cardinal Priest of Santa Sabina; and Riccardo Petroni of Siena, Vice-Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church, was named a Cardinal Deacon. A pattern begins to emerge, though one sees the pattern only in terms of negatives: of the ten new cardinals, only two are monks, and neither of them Benedictine (Celestine V had been excessively partial to Benedictines); and there are no Frenchmen (Celestine had named seven Frenchmen, under
5040-488: The French clergy. To forestall the ecclesiastical council proposed by Boniface, Philip summoned the three estates of his realm to meet at Paris in April. At this first French Estates-General in history, all three classes – nobles, clergy, and commons – wrote separately to Rome in defence of the king and his temporal power. Some forty-five French prelates, despite Philip's prohibition, and the confiscation of their property, attended
5166-673: The Papal Curia to Rome, where he was crowned at the Vatican Basilica on Sunday, 23 January 1295. One of his first acts as pontiff was to imprison his predecessor in the Castle of Fumone in Ferentino , where he died on 19 May 1296 at the age of 81. In 1300, Boniface VIII formalized the custom of the Roman Jubilee , which afterwards became a source of both profit and scandal to the church. Boniface VIII founded Sapienza University of Rome in 1303. In
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5292-556: The Papal States. These measures had the effect of blocking a main source of papal revenue. Philip also banished from France the papal agents who were raising funds for a new crusade in the Middle East. In the bull Ineffabilis amor of September 1296, Boniface pledged approval of reasonable taxation for genuine emergencies but contested Philip's demands, asking him rhetorically: "What would happen to you—God forbid!—if you gravely offended
5418-443: The Pope formally excused the King for everything that he had said against the memory of Pope Boniface, on the grounds that he was speaking with good intentions. This statement was written down and published as a bull, and the bull contained the statement that the matter would be referred by the Pope to the forthcoming Council. The Pope then announced that he was reserving the whole matter to his own judgment. The XV Ecumenical Council,
5544-499: The Sacred College at Boniface's death, only five regular clergy (only one Benedictine). When Frederick III of Sicily attained his throne after the death of his father Peter III of Aragon , Boniface tried to dissuade him from accepting the throne of Sicily . When Frederick persisted, Boniface excommunicated him in 1296, and placed the island under interdict . Neither the king nor the people were moved. The conflict continued until
5670-535: The United Kingdom, Ireland (formerly part of the UK), Cyprus and Malta (both former British colonies). Many former British colonies in the region have always been LHT, including Australia, New Zealand, Fiji , Kiribati , Solomon Islands , Tonga , and Tuvalu ; and nations that were previously administered by Australia: Nauru and Papua New Guinea . Initially traffic was slow and very sparse, but, as early as 1856,
5796-487: The abdication of the Scottish King John Balliol , the deposed king was released into the custody of Pope Boniface on condition that he remain at a papal residence. The hard-pressed Scottish Parliament, then in the early stages of what came to be known as First Scottish War of Independence , condemned Edward I's invasion and occupation of Scotland and appealed to the Pope to assert a feudal overlordship over
5922-573: The ambitious Charles, Count of Valois to enter Italy in 1300 to end the feud of the Black and White Guelphs , the poet Dante Alighieri being in the party of the Whites. Boniface's political ambitions directly affected Dante when the pope invited Count Charles to intervene in the affairs of Florence. Charles's intervention allowed the Black Guelphs to overthrow the ruling White Guelphs, whose leaders, including
6048-569: The archbishop of Toledo, who had died in 1299, as Cardinal Bishop of Albano. The second was Gentile Partino , OFM, Doctor of Theology and Lector of Theology in the Roman Curia, who was made Cardinal Priest of S. Martin in montibus. The third was Luca Fieschi , of the Counts of Lavagna, of Genoa, named Cardinal Deacon of S. Maria in Via Lata (the deaconry which had once belonged to Jacopo Colonna). A relative,
6174-498: The barons had imposed a 10% tax on church property, which the Pope wanted back because the tithe was uncanonical. This drawback was a major concern of Cardinal Ottobono and his entourage. While in England, Benedetto Caetani became rector of St. Lawrence's church in Towcester , Northamptonshire . Upon Benedetto's return from England, there is an eight-year period in which nothing is known about his life. This period, however, included
6300-460: The bull Ausculta Fili ("Listen, [My] Son", December 1301) Boniface VIII appealed to Philip IV to listen modestly to the Vicar of Christ as the spiritual monarch over all earthly kings. He protested against the trial of churchmen before Philip's royal courts and the continued use of church funds for state purposes and he announced that he would summon the bishops and abbots of France to take measures "for
6426-458: The cathedral. The Pope responded with a bull dated 8 September 1303, in which Philip and Nogaret were excommunicated. The French Chancellor and the Colonnas demanded the Pope's abdication; Boniface VIII responded that he would "sooner die". In response, Colonna allegedly slapped Boniface, a "slap" historically remembered as the schiaffo di Anagni ("Anagni slap"). According to a modern interpreter,
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#17328549371876552-593: The cities Milan , Turin , and Florence . In 1915, allied forces of World War I imposed LHT in areas of military operation, but this was revoked in 1918. Rome was reported by Goethe as LHT in the 1780s. Naples was also LHT although surrounding areas were often RHT. In cities, LHT was considered safer since pedestrians, accustomed to keeping right, could better see oncoming vehicular traffic. Finally, in 1923 Benito Mussolini decreed that all LHT areas would gradually transition to RHT. In spite of this, some Italian heavy commercial vehicles were right-hand drive until
6678-667: The city which "nourished him while still of tender years", and as a place where he "held lasting memories". Later in life he repeatedly expressed his gratitude to Anagni, Todi, and his family. In 1264, Benedetto entered the Roman Curia , perhaps with the office of Advocatus. He served as secretary to Cardinal Simon de Brion, the future Pope Martin IV , on a mission to France. Cardinal Simon had been appointed by Pope Urban IV (Jacques Pantaléon), between 25 and 27 April 1264, to engage in negotiations with Charles of Anjou , Comte de Provence , over
6804-546: The council at Rome in October 1302. Following that council, on 18 November 1302, Boniface issued the bull Unam sanctam ("One holy [catholic and apostolic Church]"). It declared that both spiritual and temporal power were under the pope's jurisdiction, and that kings were subordinate to the power of the Roman pontiff. The Pope also appointed Cardinal Jean le Moine as Apostolic Legate to King Philip, to attempt to find some resolution of
6930-513: The countries that were part of the French colonial empire adopted RHT. Historical switches of traffic handedness have often been motivated by factors such as changes in political administration, a desire for uniformity within a country or with neighboring states, or availability and affordability of vehicles. In LHT, traffic keeps left and cars usually have the steering wheel on the right (RHD: right-hand drive) and roundabouts circulate clockwise. RHT
7056-419: The country. In a study of the ancient traffic system of Pompeii , Eric Poehler was able to show that drivers of carts drove in the middle of the road whenever possible. This was the case even on roads wide enough for two lanes. The wear marks on the kerbstones, however, prove that when there were two lanes of traffic, and the volume of traffic made it necessary to divide the lanes, the drivers always drove on
7182-505: The country. The Pope assented, condemning Edward's invasions and occupation of Scotland in the papal bull Scimus, Fili (Latin for "We know, my son") of 27 June 1299. The bull ordered Edward to desist from his attacks and start negotiations with the Scots. However, Edward ignored the bull; in 1301, a letter was composed in which the English rejected its authority, but it was never sent. The feud between Boniface and Philip IV reached its peak in
7308-507: The diocese of Vasio (Vaison), on 18 October 1309. Both the King of Aragon and the King of Castile immediately sent ambassadors to Pope Clement, complaining that scandal was being poured into the ears of the Faithful, when they heard that a Roman pontiff was being charged with a crime of heresy. Complaints also came from Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands. On 27 April 1310, in what was certainly
7434-475: The discomfort of a number of cardinals, he had established the papal court under the patronage of Charles II of Naples . He had continued to live like a monk there, even turning a room in the papal apartment into the semblance of a monastic cell. A contemporary, Bartholomew of Lucca , who was present in Naples in December 1294 and witnessed many of the events of the abdication and election, said that Benedetto Caetani
7560-412: The early 14th century, when Philip began to launch a strong anti-papal campaign against Boniface. A quarrel arose between Philip's aides and a papal legate, Bernard Saisset . The legate was arrested on a charge of inciting an insurrection, was tried and convicted by the royal court, and committed to the custody of the archbishop of Narbonne , Giles Aycelin – one of his key ministers and allies, in 1301. In
7686-621: The end of World War I . Sudan, formerly part of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan , switched to RHT in 1973. Most of its neighbours were RHT countries, with the exception of Uganda and Kenya, but since the independence of South Sudan in 2011, all of its neighbours drive on the right (including South Sudan, despite its land borders with two LHT countries). Although Portugal switched to RHT in 1928, its colony of Mozambique remained LHT because it has land borders with former British colonies (with LHT). France introduced RHT in French West Africa and
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#17328549371877812-537: The end of the Liber Sextus (in VI°) , and now published as part of the five Decretales in the Corpus Juris Canonici . They appear as simple aphorisms, such as "Regula VI: Nemo potest ad impossibile obligari." ('No one can be obligated for something impossible.') Other systems of law also have their own Regulæ Juris , whether by the same name or something serving a similar function. Boniface VIII put forward some of
7938-468: The field of canon law Boniface VIII had considerable influence. Earlier collections of canon law had been codified in the Decretales Gregorii IX , published under the authority of Pope Gregory IX in 1234, but in the succeeding sixty years, numerous legal decisions were made by one pope after another. By Boniface's time a new and expanded edition was needed. In 1298 Boniface ordered published as
8064-464: The final mandate of the Pope, Cardinal Latino Orsini of Ostia , Cardinal Pietro Peregrosso of S. Marco , and Cardinal Benedetto of S. Nicola in Carcere appended their signatures and seals. Three years later, on 22 September 1291, Pope Nicholas IV (Girolamo Maschi d'Ascoli, O.Min.) promoted him to the Order of Cardinal Priests , with the title of SS. Silvester and Martin. Given the fact that there were only
8190-524: The first Catholic jubilee year to take place in Rome . Boniface had first entered into conflict with King Philip IV in 1296 when the latter sought to reinforce the nascent nation state by imposing taxes on the clergy and barring them from administration of the law. Boniface excommunicated Philip and all others who prevented French clergy from traveling to the Holy See , after which the king sent his troops to attack
8316-407: The first creation, in 1295, only one cardinal was appointed, the Pope's nephew Benedetto Caetano. This was no surprise. Nor was the second creation, on 17 December 1295. Two more relatives were appointed, Francesco Caetano, the son of Boniface VIII's brother Peter; and Jacopo (Giacomo) Tomassi Caetani, OFM, a son of the Pope's sister, was made Cardinal Priest of S. Clemente. Giacomo Caetani Stefaneschi,
8442-506: The first territory in almost 30 years to change sides. The move was legislated in 2008 to allow Samoans to use cheaper vehicles imported from Australia, New Zealand, or Japan, and to harmonise with other South Pacific nations. A political party, The People's Party , was formed by the group People Against Switching Sides (PASS) to protest against the change, with PASS launching a legal challenge; in April 2008 an estimated 18,000 people attended demonstrations against switching. The motor industry
8568-553: The following were declared public holidays, to reduce traffic. The change included a three-day ban on alcohol sales, while police mounted dozens of checkpoints, warning drivers to drive slowly. Rwanda and Burundi , former Belgian colonies in Central Africa , are RHT but are considering switching to LHT like neighbouring members of the East African Community (EAC). A survey in 2009 found that 54% of Rwandans favoured
8694-407: The former Austrian Partition changed in the 1920s. Croatia-Slavonia switched on joining the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1918, although Istria and Dalmatia were already RHT. The switch in Czechoslovakia from LHT to RHT had been planned for 1939, but was accelerated by the start of the German occupation of Czechoslovakia that year. Similarly, Hungary switched in 1941. West Ukraine was LHT, but
8820-437: The former French colony of New France . The province of British Columbia changed to RHT in stages from 1920 to 1923, New Brunswick , Nova Scotia , and Prince Edward Island in 1922, 1923, and 1924 respectively, and the British colony of Newfoundland (part of Canada since 1949) in 1947, in order to allow traffic (without side switch) to or from the United States. In the West Indies , colonies and territories drive on
8946-441: The front. For example, a driver in an LHT country would typically overtake on the right of the vehicle being overtaken. RHT is used in 165 countries and territories, mainly in the Americas , Continental Europe , most of Africa and mainland Asia (except South Asia ), while 75 countries use LHT, which account for about a sixth of the world's land area, a quarter of its roads, and about a third of its population. In 1919, 104 of
9072-475: The great Pope Boniface abode prisoner among his enemies for three days.... the People of Anagni beholding their error and issuing from their blind ingratitude, suddenly rose in arms... and drove out Sciarra della Colonna and his followers, with loss to them of prisoners and slain, and freed the Pope and his household. Pope Boniface... departed immediately from Anagni with his court and came to Rome and St. Peter's to hold
9198-442: The impasse that had developed; he was granted the specific power of absolving King Philip from excommunication. On Maundy Thursday , 4 April 1303, the Pope again excommunicated all persons who were impeding French clerics from coming to the Holy See, "etiam si imperiali aut regali fulgeant dignitati." This included King Philip IV, though not by name. In response, Guillaume de Nogaret , Philip's chief minister, denounced Boniface as
9324-458: The influence of Charles II of Naples). Pope Boniface was distinctly changing the complexion of the membership of the Sacred College. Without the Colonnas, the influence of the King of France was greatly diminished. On 2 March 1300, during the Great Jubilee, Boniface VIII created three more cardinals. The first was Leonardo Patrasso, Archbishop of Capua, who was Boniface VIII's uncle; he replaced
9450-411: The king. On 3 April 1297, seven French archbishops and forty bishops, provided this authorisation, agreed to concede to the King the fifth part of their ecclesiastical revenues under the form of two tithes, the first of which to be paid by Pentecost , the second at the end of September. This subsidy could be collected just in case the war with England should go on, with Church authority and not by means of
9576-597: The land and furthermore to hand over the family's strongholds of Colonna, Palestrina , and other towns to the Papacy. Jacopo refused. Jacopo Colonna and his nephew, Pietro Colonna, had also seriously compromised themselves by maintaining highly questionable relations with the political enemies of the pope, James II of Aragon and Frederick III of Sicily. In May, Boniface removed them from the College of Cardinals and excommunicated them and their followers. The Colonna family (aside from
9702-400: The late 18th century, right-hand traffic started to be introduced in the United States of America based on teamsters ' use of large freight wagons pulled by several pairs of horses and without a driver's seat; the (typically right-handed) postilion held his whip in his right hand and thus sat on the left rear horse, and therefore preferred other wagons passing on the left so that he would have
9828-421: The latter, supposing him to be ahead of his time. The conflict between Boniface VIII and King Philip IV of France (1268–1314) came at a time of expanding nation states and the desire for the consolidation of power by the increasingly powerful monarchs. The increase in monarchical power and its conflicts with the Church of Rome were only exacerbated by the rise to power of Philip IV in 1285. In France,
9954-569: The left, and led from the left, with the reins in the right hand. So people walking horses might use RHT, to keep the animals separated. Also referenced is the need for pedestrians to keep their swords in the right hand and pass on the left as in LHT, for self-defence. It has been suggested that wagon-drivers whipped their horses with their right hand, and thus sat on the left-hand side of the wagon, as in RHT. Academic Chris McManus notes that writers have stated that in
10080-505: The legation which had been assigned him by Pope Urban was declared not to have expired on the death of Urban IV. There would have been no point in making such a ruling if Cardinal Simon had already ceased to be Legate . On 4 May 1265 Cardinal Ottobono Fieschi was appointed Apostolic Legate to England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland by the new Pope Clement IV. In fact, he was sent as the successor of Cardinal Guy Folques, who had been elected Clement IV on 5 February 1265. On 29 August 1265
10206-611: The long vacancy of the papal throne from 29 November 1268 to February 1272, when Pope Gregory X accepted the papal throne. It also includes the time span when Pope Gregory and his cardinals went to France in 1273 for the second Council of Lyon, as well as the Eighth Crusade , led by Louis IX, in 1270. The Pope and some of the cardinals began their return to Italy at the end of November 1275. Pope Gregory celebrated Christmas in Arezzo and died there on 10 January 1276. In 1276, however, Benedetto
10332-477: The mainland side Wenjindu intersect as one-way streets with a main road. The Takutu River Bridge (which links LHT Guyana and RHT Brazil ) is the only border in the Americas where traffic changes sides. Pope Boniface VIII Pope Boniface VIII ( Latin : Bonifatius PP. VIII ; born Benedetto Caetani ; c. 1230 – 11 October 1303) was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of
10458-568: The memory of Boniface VIII to proceed." He gave a mandate to the Bishop of Paris, Guillaume de Baufet d'Aurillac, and to Guillaume Pierre Godin, OP, that the complainants should choose prosecutors and determine a day on which the Inquiry would begin in the presence of the Pope ( coram nobis Avinione ). The Pope signed his mandate at his current place of residence, the Priory of Grauselle near Malusan (Malausène) in
10584-475: The negotiations for the king of France, scorned him and threatened him, saying that he would take him bound to Lyons on the Rhone, and there in a general council would cause him to be deposed and condemned.... no man dared to touch [Boniface], nor were they pleased to lay hands on him, but they left him robed under light arrest and were minded to rob the treasure of the Pope and the Church. In this pain, shame and torment,
10710-543: The offence of sodomy , although there is no substantive evidence for this, and it is likely that this was the standard accusation Philip made against enemies. The same charge was brought against the Templars. Before the actual trial could be held, Clement persuaded Philip to leave the question of Boniface's guilt to the Council of Vienne , which met in 1311. On 27 April 1311, in a public Consistory, with King Philip's agents present,
10836-421: The offender was not the owner of the vehicle, or one Irish pound (twenty shillings) if he/she was. The Grand Juries (Ireland) Act 1836 ( 6 & 7 Will. 4 c. 116) mandated LHT for the whole country, violators to be fined up to five shillings and imprisoned in default for up to one month. An oft-repeated story is that Napoleon changed the custom from LHT to RHT in France and the countries he conquered after
10962-559: The only two remaining LHT countries in South America . LHT was introduced by the U.K. in British India (now India , Pakistan , Myanmar , and Bangladesh ), British Malaya and British Borneo (now Malaysia , Brunei and Singapore), as well as British Hong Kong . These countries, except Myanmar, are still LHT, as well as neighbouring countries Bhutan and Nepal . Myanmar switched to RHT in 1970, although much of its infrastructure
11088-543: The other side". It was later legislated as the London Bridge Act 1756 ( 29 Geo. 2 c. 40), which required that "all carriages passing over the said bridge from London shall go on the east side thereof" – those going south to remain on the east, i.e. the left-hand side by direction of travel. This may represent the first statutory requirement for LHT. In the Kingdom of Ireland , a law of 1793 (33 Geo. 3. c. 56 (I)) provided
11214-442: The papal conclave as the senior cardinal bishop. Benedetto Caetani was elected by ballot and accession on Christmas Eve, 24 December 1294, taking the name Boniface VIII. On the first (secret) ballot, he had a majority of the votes, and at the accessio a sufficient number joined his majority to form the required two-thirds. He was consecrated bishop of Rome in Rome by Cardinal Hugh Aycelin on 23 January 1295. He immediately returned
11340-502: The permission of Pope Alexander IV. The earliest record of him is as a witness to an act of Bishop Pandulf of Anagni on 16 October 1250. In 1252, when his paternal uncle Pietro Caetani became Bishop of Todi , in Umbria , Benedetto followed him to Todi and began his legal studies there. His uncle Pietro granted him a canonry in the Cathedral of Todi in 1260. He also came into possession of
11466-613: The poet Dante, allegedly in Rome at the time to argue Florence's case before Boniface, were sentenced to exile. Dante settled his score with Boniface in the first canticle of the Divine Comedy , the Inferno , by damning the pope, placing him within the circles of Fraud , in the bolgia (ditch) of the simoniacs . In the Inferno , Pope Nicholas III , mistaking the Poet for Boniface, is surprised to see
11592-529: The pope's residence in Anagni on 7 September 1303 and capture him. Boniface was held for three days; however, there is no evidence that the Pope was beaten or physically harmed. He died a month afterwards. King Philip IV pressured Pope Clement V of the Avignon Papacy into staging a posthumous trial of Boniface. He was accused of heresy and sodomy but no verdict against him was delivered. Benedetto Caetani
11718-445: The preservation of the liberties of the Church". When the bull was presented to Philip IV, Robert II, Count of Artois , reportedly snatched it from the hands of Boniface's emissary and flung it into the fire. On 10 February 1302 the bull Ausculta Fili was officially burned at Paris before Philip IV and a large crowd. Nonetheless, on 4 March 1302, Pope Boniface sent cardinal Jean Lemoine as his legate to reassert papal control over
11844-480: The process of centralizing royal power and developing a genuine national state began with the Capetian kings. During his reign, Philip surrounded himself with the best civil lawyers and decidedly expelled the clergy from all participation in the administration of the law. With the clergy beginning to be taxed in France and England to finance their ongoing wars against each other, Boniface took a hard stand against it. He saw
11970-578: The rest of Ukraine, having been part of the Russian Empire, was RHT. In Italy, it had been decreed in 1901 that each province define its own traffic code , including the handedness of traffic, and the 1903 Baedeker guide reported that the rule of the road varied by region. For example, in Northern Italy , the provinces of Brescia , Como , Vicenza , and Ravenna were RHT while nearby provinces of Lecco , Verona , and Varese were LHT, as were
12096-687: The rest of the Netherlands was RHT. In May 1917 the police in Rotterdam ended traffic chaos by enforcing right hand traffic. In Russia, in 1709, the Danish envoy under Tsar Peter the Great noted the widespread custom for traffic in Russia to pass on the right, but it was only in 1752 that Empress Elizabeth officially issued an edict for traffic to keep to the right. After the Austro-Hungarian Empire broke up,
12222-578: The resulting countries gradually changed to RHT. In Austria , Vorarlberg switched in 1921, North Tyrol in 1930, Carinthia and East Tyrol in 1935, and the rest of the country in 1938. In Romania , Transylvania , the Banat and Bukovina were LHT until 1919, while Wallachia and Moldavia were already RHT. Partitions of Poland belonging to the German Empire and the Russian Empire were RHT, while
12348-421: The return of Aquitaine. Boniface proclaimed 1300 a " jubilee " year, the first of many such jubilees to take place in Rome . He probably wanted to gather money from pilgrims to Rome as a substitute for the missing money from France, or it may be that he was seeking moral and political support against the hostile behaviour of the French king. The event was a success; Rome had never received such crowds before. It
12474-515: The right-hand side. These considerations can also be demonstrated in the archaeological findings of other cities in the Roman Empire . One of the first references in England to requiring traffic direction was an order by the London Court of Aldermen in 1669, requiring a man to be posted on London Bridge to ensure that "all cartes going to keep on the one side and all cartes coming to keep on
12600-409: The road . The terms right- and left-hand drive refer to the position of the driver and the steering wheel in the vehicle and are, in automobiles, the reverse of the terms right- and left-hand traffic . The rule also includes where on the road a vehicle is to be driven, if there is room for more than one vehicle in the one direction, and the side on which the vehicle in the rear overtakes the one in
12726-515: The same day, Clement wrote to Charles of Anjou, informing him that the pope had 35 conditions that Charles must agree to in accepting the crown; he also wrote to Henry III of England and his son Edmund that they had never been possessors of the Kingdom of Sicily . He also commended to the Cardinal the Sienese bankers who had been working for Urban IV to raise funds for Charles of Anjou, and that he should transfer to them some 7,000 pounds Tournois from
12852-565: The same side as their parent countries, except for the United States Virgin Islands . Many of the island nations are former British colonies and drive on the left, including Jamaica , Antigua and Barbuda , Barbados , Dominica , Grenada , Saint Kitts and Nevis , Saint Lucia , Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , Trinidad and Tobago , and The Bahamas . However, most vehicles in The Bahamas, Cayman Islands , Turks and Caicos Islands and both
12978-623: The small nearby castello of Sismano , a place with twenty-one fires (hearths, families). In later years Father Vitalis , the Prior of S. Egidio de S. Gemino in Narni testified that he knew him and conversed with him in Todi and that Benedetto was in a school run by Rouchetus , a Doctor of Laws , from that city. Benedetto never forgot his roots in Todi , later describing the city as "the dwelling place of his early youth",
13104-853: The strongest claims of any pope to temporal as well as spiritual power. He involved himself often with foreign affairs. In his Papal bull of 1302, Unam sanctam , Boniface VIII stated that since the Church is one, since the Church is necessary for salvation, and since Christ appointed Peter to lead it, it is "absolutely necessary for salvation that every human creature be subject to the Roman pontiff". These views, and his chronic intervention in "temporal" affairs, led to many bitter quarrels with Albert I of Germany , Philip IV of France , and Dante Alighieri , who wrote his treatise De Monarchia to dispute Boniface's claims of papal supremacy. In 1297, Cardinal Jacopo Colonna disinherited his brothers Ottone, Matteo, and Landolfo of their lands. The latter three appealed to Pope Boniface VIII, who ordered Jacopo to return
13230-459: The switch. Reasons cited were the perceived lower costs of RHD vehicles, easier maintenance and the political benefit of harmonising traffic regulations with other EAC countries. The survey indicated that RHD cars were 16% to 49% cheaper than their LHD counterparts. In 2014, an internal report by consultants to the Ministry of Infrastructure recommended a switch to LHT. In 2015, the ban on RHD vehicles
13356-690: The taxation as an assault on traditional clerical rights and ordered the bull Clericis laicos in February 1296, forbidding lay taxation of the clergy without prior papal approval. In the bull, Boniface states "they exact and demand from the same the half, tithe , or twentieth, or any other portion or proportion of their revenues or goods; and in many ways they try to bring them into slavery, and subject them to their authority. And also whatsoever emperors, kings, or princes, dukes, earls or barons...presume to take possession of things anywhere deposited in holy buildings... should incur sentence of excommunication." It
13482-631: The three brothers allied with the Pope) declared that Boniface had been elected illegally following the unprecedented abdication of Pope Celestine V. The dispute led to open warfare, and in September Boniface appointed Landolfo to the command of his army to put down the revolt of Landolfo's relatives. By the end of 1298 Landolfo had captured Colonna, Palestrina and other towns and razed them to the ground after they had surrendered peacefully under Boniface's assurances that they would have been spared. Dante says it
13608-759: The traffic code was changed in 1959. Portugal switched to RHT in 1928. Finland , formerly part of LHT Sweden, switched to RHT in 1858 as the Grand Duchy of Finland by Russian decree. Spain switched to RHT in 1918, but not in the entire country. In Madrid people continued to drive on the left until 1924 when a national law forced drivers in Madrid switch to RHT. Madrid Metro still uses LHT. Sweden switched to RHT in 1967, having been LHT from about 1734 despite having land borders with RHT countries Norway and Finland, and approximately 90% of cars being left-hand drive (LHD). A referendum in 1955 overwhelmingly rejected
13734-476: The world's territories were LHT and an equal number were RHT. Between 1919 and 1986, 34 of the LHT territories switched to RHT. While many of the countries using LHT were part of the British Empire , others such as Indonesia , Japan , Nepal , Bhutan , Macao , Thailand , Mozambique , Suriname , Sweden and Iceland (which use RHT since September 1967 and late May 1968 respectively) were not. Most of
13860-564: The year 1300, Pope Boniface VIII directed pilgrims to keep left; however, others suggest that he directed them to keep to the right, and there is no documented evidence to back either claim. The UK introduced LHT in the East Africa Protectorate (present-day Kenya ), the Protectorate of Uganda , Tanganyika (formerly part of German East Africa ; present-day Tanzania ), Rhodesia (present-day Zambia / Zimbabwe ), Eswatini and
13986-449: The year Japan's first railway was introduced, built with technical aid from the British – that this unwritten rule received official acknowledgment. Gradually, a massive network of railways and tram tracks was built, with all railway vehicles driven on the left-hand side. However, it took another half-century, until 1924, until left-hand traffic was legally mandated. Post- World War II Okinawa
14112-523: Was also opposed, as 14,000 of Samoa's 18,000 vehicles were designed for RHT and the government refused to meet the cost of conversion. After months of preparation, the switch from right to left happened in an atmosphere of national celebration. There were no reported incidents. At 05:50 local time, Monday 7 September, a radio announcement halted traffic, and an announcement at 6:00 ordered traffic to switch to LHT. The change coincided with more restrictive enforcement of speeding and seat-belt laws. That day and
14238-451: Was born in Anagni , some 50 kilometres (31 mi) southeast of Rome . He was a younger son of Roffredo Caetani (Podestà of Todi in 1274–1275), a member of a baronial family of the Papal States , the Caetani or Gaetani dell'Aquila . Through his mother, Emilia Patrasso di Guarcino, a niece of Pope Alexander IV (Rinaldo dei Conti di Segni—who was himself a nephew of Pope Gregory IX ), he
14364-418: Was during the issuing of Clericis laicos that hostilities between Boniface and Philip began. At war with both his English and his Flemish vassals , Philip was convinced that the wealth of the Catholic Church in France should be used in part to support the state. He countered the papal bull by decreeing laws prohibiting the export of gold, silver, precious stones, horses, arms, or food from France to
14490-563: Was formalized, RHD vehicles such as public buses were still imported into the Philippines until a law passed banning the importation of RHD vehicles except in special cases. These RHD vehicles are required to be converted to LHD. Japan was never part of the British Empire, but its traffic also drives on the left. Although this practice goes back to the Edo period (1603–1868), it was not until 1872 –
14616-494: Was found quite intact, especially the shapely hands, thus disproving the myth that he had died in a frenzy, gnawing his hands, beating his brains out against the wall. The body wore ecclesiastical vestments common for Boniface's lifetime: long stockings covered legs and thighs, and it was garbed also with the maniple , cassock , and pontifical habit made of black silk, as well as stole , chasuble , rings, and bejeweled gloves. After this exhumation and examination, Boniface's body
14742-567: Was got by treachery by "long promises and short performances" as Guido of Montefeltro counselled, but this account by the implacable Ghibelline has long since been discredited. Palestrina was razed to the ground, the plough driven through and salt strewn over its ruins . A new city — the Città Papale — later replaced it. Only the city's cathedral was spared. To deal with the problem of the cardinals left to him by his predecessors, Boniface created new cardinals on five occasions during his reign. In
14868-580: Was lifted; RHD trucks from neighbouring countries cost $ 1,000 less than LHD models imported from Europe. Although many LHT jurisdictions are on islands, there are cases where vehicles may be driven from LHT across a border into a RHT area. Such borders are mostly located in Africa and southern Asia. The Vienna Convention on Road Traffic regulates the use of foreign registered vehicles in the 78 countries that have ratified it. LHT Thailand has three RHT neighbours: Cambodia, Laos, and Myanmar. Most of its borders use
14994-593: Was mostly LHT during its Spanish and American colonial periods, as well as during the Commonwealth era . During the Japanese occupation , the Philippines remained LHT, as was required by the Japanese; but during the Battle of Manila , the liberating American forces drove their tanks to the right for easier facilitation of movement. RHT was formalized in 1945 through a decree by president Sergio Osmeña . Even though RHT
15120-451: Was moved to the Chapel of Pope Gregory and Andrew. His body now lies in the crypt (grotte) of St. Peter's in a large marble sarcophagus, inscribed BONIFACIVS PAPA VIII. After the papacy had been removed to Avignon in 1309, Pope Clement V , under extreme pressure from King Philip IV, consented to a posthumous trial . He said, "[I]t was permissible for any persons who wanted to proceed against
15246-538: Was not far distant from the seat of ecclesiastical power and patronage. His father's younger brother, Atenolfo, was Podestà di Orvieto . Benedetto took his first steps into religious life when he was sent to the monastery of the Friars Minor in Velletri , where he was put under the care of his maternal uncle Fra Leonardo Patrasso. He was granted a canonry at the cathedral in the family's stronghold of Anagni , with
15372-410: Was only one of several cardinals who pressured Celestine to abdicate. However, it is also on record that Celestine V abdicated by his own design after consultation with experts, and that Benedetto merely showed that it was allowed by Church law. Either way, Celestine V vacated the throne and Benedetto Caetani was elected in his place as pope, taking the name Boniface VIII. The regulations promulgated in
15498-928: Was ruled by the United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands until 1972, and was RHT until 6 a.m. the morning of 30 July 1978, when it switched back to LHT . The conversion operation was known as 730 ( Nana-San-Maru , which refers to the date of the changeover). Okinawa is one of only a few places to have changed from RHT to LHT in the late 20th century. While Japan drives on the left and most Japanese vehicles are RHD, imported vehicles (e.g. BMW, Mercedes-Benz, Porsche) are generally bought as LHD since LHD cars are considered to be status symbols. Vietnam became RHT as part of French Indochina , as did Laos and Cambodia . In Cambodia, RHD cars, many of which were smuggled from Thailand, were banned in 2001, even though they accounted for 80% of vehicles in
15624-417: Was sent as Legate to Umbria to attempt to calm the strife between Guelphs and Ghibellines , which was taking the form of a war between the cities of Perugia and Foligno . In the winter of 1289, he was one of Pope Nicholas IV's advisors as he decided on a settlement of the disputes over the election or appointment of Portuguese bishops, in which King Denis played a major role. To give greater authority to
15750-596: Was sent to France to supervise the collection of a tithe , which is perhaps when he held the office of Advocatus in the Roman Curia, and then was appointed a papal Notary in the late 1270s. During this time, Benedetto accumulated seventeen benefices, which he was permitted to keep when he was promoted. Some of these are enumerated in a bull by Pope Martin IV, in which he bestowed the deaconry of S. Nicolas in Carcere on Cardinal Benedetto Caetani. At Orvieto, on 12 April 1281, Pope Martin IV created Benedetto Caetani cardinal deacon of Saint Nicholas in Carcere. In 1288 he
15876-697: Was wearing thin. He issued a mandate on 28 June 1310, in which he complained about the quality of the testimony and the corruption of the various accusers and witnesses. Then he ordered the Quaesitores that future examinations should proceed under threat of excommunication for perjury. A process (judicial investigation) against the memory of Boniface was held by an ecclesiastical consistory at Priory Groseau, near Malaucène , which held preliminary examinations in August and September 1310. and collected testimonies that alleged many heretical opinions of Boniface VIII. This included
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