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41-509: The idea of a special relation between Takelma and the Kalapuyan languages was first developed by Leo Frachtenberg (1918), who listed 55 lexical correspondences between Takelma and Central Kalapuya. Based on Frachtenberg's observations, Edward Sapir (1921) included both Takelma and Kalapuyan in his extended version of the Penutian "stock" , listing them however as individual members without positing

82-563: A bachelor's degree . Some programs provide for a joint bachelor's and master's after about five years. Some universities use the Latin degree names, such as Artium Magister (AM) or Scientiæ Magister (SM). For example, Harvard University , Dartmouth College , the University of Chicago , MIT , the University of Pennsylvania , and Brown University use the abbreviations AM and SM for some of their master's degrees. A Master of Arts may be given in

123-504: A "historical anachronism" and argued that "unearned qualifications" should be discontinued to preserve the academic integrity of the taught MA. Further, they warned that the title gave Oxbridge graduates an unfair advantage in the job market. On 21 October 2011, the bill received its second reading, but it failed to complete its passage through Parliament before the end of the session, meaning it fell. A number of different master's degrees may be earned at Oxford and Cambridge. The most common,

164-570: A "very high research" Master of Arts might have to earn credits also at the PhD level, and they may need to complete their program in about three years of full-time candidature, e.g. at Harvard in the United States and McGill in Canada. A thesis must be a distinct contribution to knowledge. It must demonstrate ability to plan and carry out research, organize results, and defend the approach and conclusions in

205-719: A PhD from Columbia in 1910 for his work on the Coosan languages . Frachtenberg lectured in anthropology at Columbia until 1912, and in 1913 he became a "Special Ethnologist " at the Smithsonian Institution 's Bureau of American Ethnology (BAE). While at BAE, he taught students at Chemawa Indian School in Salem, Oregon . From the school, he studied the ethnology of Alsea , Siletz , Quileute , Chimakum , and Shasta peoples with attention to art and religion. In late 1917, after returning from Salem to Washington, D.C., Frachtenberg

246-530: A combination of the two. The degree of Master of Arts traces its origins to the teaching license or Licentia docendi of the University of Paris , designed to produce "masters" who were graduate teachers of their subjects. Like all EU member states, the Czech Republic and Slovakia follow the Bologna Process. The Czech Republic and Slovakia both award two different types of master's degrees; both award

287-465: A dissertation based on independent research. Taught master's programs involve one or two years of full-time study. Many can be done part-time as well. Until recently, both the undergraduate and postgraduate master's degrees were awarded without grade or class (like the class of an honours degree ). Nowadays, however, master's degrees are normally classified into the categories of Fail, Pass, Pass with Merit, or Pass with Distinction. This education pattern in

328-460: A few days later from pneumonia at the age of 47. Master of Arts A Master of Arts ( Latin : Magister in Artibus or Artium Magister ; abbreviated MA or AM ) is the holder of a master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The degree is usually contrasted with that of Master of Science . Those admitted to the degree have typically studied subjects within the scope of

369-442: A scientific discipline, common at Ivy League universities . Many universities offer Master of Arts programs, which are differentiated either as Thesis or Non-Thesis programs. Usually, the duration for a Non-Thesis option is one to two years of full-time study. The period for a Thesis option may last longer, depending also on the required level of courses and complexity of the thesis . Sometimes, qualified students who are admitted to

410-482: A scientific thesis after completing the bachelor's degree. This fourth year typically constitutes the first half of a master's programme. If not, it may be supplemented by a fifth year and a master's thesis to obtain a master's degree in the field of study. Except at Aberdeen, Cambridge, Dublin, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St. Andrews (see below), the MA is typically a "taught" postgraduate degree, involving lectures, examination, and

451-533: A special relationship between the two. The first explicit proposal for a family comprising only Takelma and Kalapuyan (as member of the Penutian "stock") was made by Morris Swadesh (1965) in a lexicostatistic study , who found a lexical similarity of 48% between Takelma and Kalapuyan, although this figure was based on rather bold assumptions about lexical matches. Shipley (1969) made the first attempt towards establishing regular sound correspondences by strictly applying

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492-478: A title of Mgr. or Ing. to be used before the name. Prior to reforms for compliance with the Bologna process, a master's degree could only be obtained after five years of uninterrupted study. Under the new system, it takes only two years but requires a previously completed three-year bachelor's program (a Bc. title). Writing a thesis (in both master's and bachelor's programs) and passing final exams are necessary to obtain

533-475: A variety of four-year undergraduate integrated master's degrees such as MEng or MMath . In Canada and the United States, the Master of Arts ( Magister Artium ) and Master of Science ( Magister Scientiæ ) are the basic graduate-level degrees in most subjects and may be course-based, research-based, or, more typically, a combination of the two. Admission to a master's program is normally contingent upon holding

574-531: Is a research degree at the University of Cambridge , where the Master of Philosophy (MPhil) is the name given to the standard one-year taught degree with a unique research element, in contrast to the use of MPhil at other institutions for a research degree. Research in 2000 by the universities watchdog, the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education , showed that two-thirds of employers were unaware that

615-475: Is awarded in the arts (visual arts, literature, foreign languages, filmmaking, theatre etc.), natural sciences, mathematics, computer science fields, and economics. The completion of a research thesis is required. All master's degrees in Poland qualify for a doctorate program. In Finland, Denmark and Norway, the master's degree is a combined taught/research degree, awarded after two years of studies after completing

656-657: Is generally awarded for master's studies in social sciences or the humanities while an MgA. (Magister of Arts) is awarded for studies in the arts. In Germany, the Master of Arts degree was called in Latin Magister Artium . This degree, which usually required five years of studies, existed in the Holy Roman Empire and its successors, including the German Empire and the Federal Republic of Germany , but not in

697-519: Is not as close as previously assumed, Tarpent and Kendall's discussion does not invalidate the hypothesis that Takelma and Kalapuyan are "each other's closest genetic relatives", albeit only at an extremely distant level. The Kalapuyan languages and Takelma were spoken in two discontiguous areas: while Kalapuyan speakers inhabited the Willamette Valley, Takelma speakers lived in the Rogue Valley in

738-426: Is otherwise characterized by a very critical stance against wide-range proposals. Takelma-Kalapuyan is also tentatively accepted by Victor Golla (2011). In an unpublished, but widely cited conference paper, Tarpent and Kendall (1998) critically evaluated the evidence for Takelma-Kalapuyan, and concluded that a grouping which exclusively comprises Takelma and Kalapuyan is not justified, and that features shared between

779-413: Is placed before one's name, like the title Dr). At the technical universities, a student is awarded with inżynier (engineer) after three years and then with "magister" after completing another two years of study and graduating. Such persons use titles "mgr inż". In the 1990s, the MA programs usually lasting five years were replaced by separate three-year bachelor's and two-year master's programs. The degree

820-468: Is possibly related to archaeological evidence of a transition in the material cultures of the Rogue Valley that occurred around 300 CE, from the "Glade Tradition" to the "Siskiyou Pattern". Proto-Takelma–Kalapuyan ("Proto-Takelman") reconstructions by William Shipley (1969): Leo Frachtenberg Leo Joachim Frachtenberg (February 24, 1883 – November 26, 1930) was an anthropologist who studied Native American languages . Frachtenberg helped write

861-731: The Handbook of American Indian Languages , BAE Bulletin 40, and also wrote "Alsea Texts and Myths", BAE Bulletin 67. Frachtenberg was born to Abraham Frachtenberg and Jeanette (Rottenstreich) in Czernowtz, Austria , now a city in Ukraine , on February 24, 1883. He graduated from the Imperial Royal Gymnasium , Przemysl, Austria , now in Poland , in 1904. After immigrating to the United States in 1904, Frachtenberg enrolled at Cornell University . He

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902-758: The Central Powers . Ironically, after his termination from BAE, Frachtenberg joined the United States Army and attained the rank of lieutenant colonel by the time of his discharge in 1920. After military service, Frachtenberg became general secretary of the Young Men's Hebrew Association in Troy, New York . He was also national field director of Keren Hayesod during the 1920s. While conferring with Jewish leaders in Waterloo, Iowa , in 1930, Frachtenberg became ill. He died

943-467: The University of Dublin , the title of Master of Arts is conferred after a certain number of years , without further examination, to those who have graduated as Bachelor of Arts and who have the requisite years' standing as members of the university or as graduates. This happens, in England, only at the universities of Oxford , four years after completing a bachelor's degree, and Cambridge , six years after

984-450: The comparative method , and listed sixty-five preliminary reconstructions for "Proto-Takelman". Further lexical cognate sets were given by Berman (1988), while Kendall (1997) presented phonological and morphological correspondences. Lyle Campbell (1997) considered the proposed Takelma-Kalapuyan hypothesis "highly likely, if not fully demonstrated", and listed them as a single subgroup in an overview of Native American language families that

1025-411: The doctorandus degree, which gave the title "Doctorandus" before their name, abbreviated to 'drs.'; in the case of ingenieur, this would be 'ir.'), or else opt for a master's degree as postnominals behind their name, in accordance with the new standard ('MA' or 'MSc'). A master's degree can take one or two years to complete. The Polish equivalent of Master of Arts is "magister" (its abbreviation "mgr"

1066-461: The humanities and social sciences , such as history , literature , languages , linguistics , public administration , political science , communication studies , law or diplomacy ; however, different universities have different conventions and may also offer the degree for fields typically considered within the natural sciences and mathematics. The degree can be conferred in respect of completing courses and passing examinations, research, or

1107-411: The Master of Arts and the Master of Science degrees were introduced in 2002. Until that time, a single program that led to the doctorandus degree (or the ingenieur degree in the case of technical subjects) was in effect, which comprised the same course-load as the bachelor's and master's programs put together. Those who had already started the doctorandus program could, upon completing it, opt for

1148-451: The Master of Philosophy degree (MPhil), is a two-year research degree. To prepare to graduate as a Master of Science (MSc) or a Master of Studies (MSt) takes only one year, both courses often combining some coursework with research. A Master of Letters (MLitt) is the holder of a pure research master's degree. In comparison to the LLM at Cambridge, Oxford offers two master's degrees in law depending on

1189-567: The Oxford and Cambridge MA did not represent any kind of post-graduate achievement. In February 2011, the Labour Member of Parliament Chris Leslie sponsored a private member's bill in Parliament, the master's degrees (Minimum Standards) Bill, to "prohibit universities awarding master's degrees unless certain standards of study and assessment are met". The bill's supporters described the practice as

1230-559: The United Kingdom is followed in India and many Commonwealth Nations . The Master of Laws (LLM) is the standard degree taught for law, but certain courses may lead to MA, MLitt, Master of Studies (MSt), and the Bachelor of Civil Law (BCL) at Oxford . All of these degrees are considered substitutes to one another and are thus generally equivalent. In the ancient universities of Scotland ,

1271-510: The bachelor's degree. The student is required to write a scientific thesis. In Finland, this master's degree is called a filosofian maisteri (in Finnish) or filosofie magister (in Swedish), and it is abbreviated as FM or "fil.mag.". In Sweden, there is still an intermediate degree between the bachelor's ( kandidat ) and master's called magister which only requires one year of studies, including

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1312-489: The degree of Master of Arts is awarded in universities as a four-year undergraduate degree, see Master of Arts (Scotland) . The degree of Master of Arts is the first degree awarded in arts , humanities , theology , and social sciences . However, some universities in Scotland award the degree of Master of Letters (MLitt) to students in the arts , humanities , divinity , and social sciences . At Oxford , Cambridge and

1353-475: The degree. It is mostly the case that the final exams cover the main study areas of the whole study program, i.e. a student is required to prove their knowledge in the subjects they attended during the two resp. three years of their study. Exams also include the defence of a thesis before an academic board. Ing. (Engineer) degrees are usually awarded for master's degrees achieved in the natural sciences or mathematics-heavy study programmes, whereas an Mgr. (Magister)

1394-481: The first term of study. It is also the case at the University of Dublin. The abbreviated name of the university (Oxon, Cantab or Dubl) is therefore almost always appended in parentheses to the initials "MA" in the same way that it is to higher degrees, e.g. "John Smith, MA (Cantab), PhD (Lond)", principally so that it is clear (to those who are aware of the system) that these are nominal and unexamined degrees. The MLitt

1435-517: The former East Germany , where all degree courses led to a Diplom . Traditional Magister degrees are granted in social sciences and most of the humanities ( international business , European studies and economics included), with the exception of visual and performing arts such as music and theatre. The Magister Artium held either a double major degree or a combination of one major and two minors. German postgraduate Master of Arts and Master of Science degrees were introduced in 2001. Therefore,

1476-465: The jurisdictional background of the student. The degree of Bachelor of Civil Law (BCL) is for those from a common law background, whilst the more recent Magister Juris is for those from civil law jurisdictions. More recently, Oxford and Cambridge offer the degree of Master of Business Administration. Master's degrees are generally offered without classification, although the top five percent may be deemed worthy of Distinction. Both universities also offer

1517-458: The new Master of Arts and the old Magister Artium degrees have existed side by side, since 2010; Magister Artium degrees are still awarded by some universities, as of 2020. The new Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts degrees together also require five years of studies, which is the reason the new Master of Arts and the old Magister Artium degrees are considered equivalent. In the Netherlands,

1558-567: The southernmost part of Oregon. Inbetween, the Athabaskan Upper Umpqua language was spoken. This suggests that Takelma was initially spoken in the direct neighborhood of the Kalapuyan area, being separated from the Kalapuyans, and pushed southwards by intruding Athabaskan speakers. Golla (2011) suggests that Takelma replaced an earlier Karuk -like language in the Rogue Valley, based on aeral features shared by Takelma and Karuk. This event

1599-431: The two have to be assessed in a wider Penutian context (a similar position was taken before by Silverstein (1979)). Marianne Mithun (1999) accepts Tarpent and Kendall's findings, but remains sceptical about the validity of the Penutian hypothesis, and therefore lists Takelma as a language isolate and Kalapuyan as a primary language family. Grant (2002) maintains that even though the relation between Takelma and Kalapuyan

1640-587: Was abruptly fired from his job at BAE for making comments derogatory to the government of the United States, at a time of heightened nationalism and World War I . Franz Boas tried to defend him, but the Secretary of the Smithsonian, Charles Walcott , dismissed him because he believed the comments were "inimical to the public welfare." He did not, however, consider the comments disloyal, or treasonous. Frachtenberg had immigrated from then Austria-Hungary , part of

1681-404: Was awarded a Master of Arts from Columbia University in 1906 where his thesis was titled, Richard Wagner, his life and his works . During his studies at Columbia, Frachtenberg became a student of Franz Boas , often called the father of American anthropology. Frachtenberg's research centered around some of the subdivisions of what later became the Penutian language group , and he received

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