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83-440: Traditional Confucian political theory favored strict agnatic primogeniture , with younger sons displaying filial obedience to the eldest upon the passing of the father. This rather straightforward system was somewhat complicated by polygamy : since later wives were subordinated to the first, their children – even when born first – were likewise subordinated to hers. Following Lu Jia 's conversion of Liu Bang to Confucianism in

166-458: A meritocratic ruling class, with the best students running the country. The imperial examinations gave many people the opportunity to pursue political power and honor and thus encouraged serious pursuit of formal education. Since the system did not formally discriminate based on social status, it provided an avenue for upward social mobility. However, even though the examination-based bureaucracy's heavy emphasis on Confucian literature ensured that

249-551: A 'sense of right and wrong' ( 耻 ; chǐ ), 'gentleness' ( 温 ; wēn ), 'kindheartenedness' ( 良 ; liáng ), 'respect' ( 恭 ; gōng ), 'frugality' ( 俭 ; jiǎn ), and 让 ; ràng ; 'modesty'). Ren (仁 ) is the Confucian virtue denoting the good feeling a virtuous human experiences when being altruistic . Internally ren can mean "to look up" meaning "to aspire to higher Heavenly principles or ideals", It

332-626: A climate of "studying well so as to become an official" 学而优则仕. In 1905, the Qing government abolished the imperial examination system, leading to the gradual disappearance of scholar-officials. Since only a select few could become court or local officials, the majority of the scholar-literati stayed in villages or cities as social leaders. The scholar-gentry carried out social welfare measures, taught in private schools, helped negotiate minor legal disputes, supervised community projects, maintained local law and order, conducted Confucian ceremonies, assisted in

415-428: A conversation between Confucius and his disciple Zeng Shen , is about how to set up a good society using the principle of xiao . In more general terms, filial piety means to be good to one's parents; to take care of one's parents; to engage in good conduct not just towards parents but also outside the home so as to bring a good name to one's parents and ancestors; to perform the duties of one's job well so as to obtain

498-399: A counterweight to subservience to authority. The famous thinker Huang Zongxi also strongly criticised the autocratic nature of the imperial system and wanted to keep imperial power in check. Many Confucians also realised that loyalty and filial piety have the potential of coming into conflict with one another. This may be true especially in times of social chaos, such as during the period of

581-460: A disciple who asked whether it is better to sacrifice to the god of the stove or to the god of the family (a popular saying), in 3.13 Confucius says that in order to appropriately pray to gods, one should first know and respect Heaven. In 3.12, he explains that religious rituals produce meaningful experiences, and one has to offer sacrifices in person, acting in presence, otherwise "it is the same as not having sacrificed at all". Rites and sacrifices to

664-574: A distinct social class. Scholar-officials were politicians and government officials appointed by the emperor of China to perform day-to-day political duties from the Han dynasty to the end of the Qing dynasty in 1912, China 's last imperial dynasty. After the Sui dynasty these officials mostly came from the scholar-gentry (紳士 shēnshì ) who had earned academic degrees (such as xiucai , juren , or jinshi ) by passing

747-536: A national Confucian Church ( 孔圣会 ; 孔聖會 ; Kǒngshènghuì ) in China to unify the many Confucian congregations and civil society organisations. Strictly speaking, there is no term in Chinese which directly corresponds to "Confucianism". The closest catch-all term for things related to Confucianism is the word ru ( 儒 ; rú ). Its literal meanings in modern Chinese include 'scholar', 'learned', or 'refined man'. In Old Chinese

830-535: A person may know the movements of tian , and this provides with the sense of having a special place in the universe. In 17.19 Confucius says that tian spoke to him, though not in words. The scholar Ronnie Littlejohn warns that tian was not to be interpreted as a personal God comparable to that of the Abrahamic faiths, in the sense of an otherworldly or transcendent creator. Rather it is similar to what Taoists meant by Dao : "the way things are" or "the regularities of

913-420: A philosophical system which regards "the secular as sacred ", Confucianism transcends the dichotomy between religion and humanism, considering the ordinary activities of human life—and especially human relationships—as a manifestation of the sacred, because they are the expression of humanity's moral nature ( 性 ; xìng ), which has a transcendent anchorage in tian ( 天 ; tiān ; 'heaven'). While

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996-412: A son of the primary wife, giving him primacy over his other brothers. As taizi , the crown prince would possess a name separate both from his personal name and from his later era name , temple name and posthumous name . Confucianism Confucianism , also known as Ruism or Ru classicism , is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China , and is variously described as

1079-663: A tradition, philosophy ( humanistic or rationalistic ), religion , theory of government, or way of life. Confucianism developed from teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551–479 BCE), during a time that was later referred to as the Hundred Schools of Thought era. Confucius considered himself a transmitter of cultural values inherited from the Xia (c. 2070–1600 BCE), Shang (c. 1600–1046 BCE) and Western Zhou (c. 1046–771 BCE) dynasties. Confucianism

1162-468: Is a Chinese philosophical term often translated as " gentleman " or "superior person" and employed by Confucius in the Analects to describe the ideal man. Scholar-officials The scholar-officials , also known as literati , scholar-gentlemen or scholar-bureaucrats ( Chinese : 士大夫 ; pinyin : shì dàfū ), were government officials and prestigious scholars in Chinese society, forming

1245-444: Is another important institutional basis of the formation and prosperity of scholar-officials. The order of these Four Occupations were scholar-officials, farmers, artisans, and craftsmen/merchants. Confucianism is the core of traditional Chinese culture and the theoretical basis of the autocratic feudal monarchy. The Confucian school of thought became the mainstream of traditional Chinese society, and Confucian education also became

1328-515: Is exemplified by a normal adult's protective feelings for children. It is considered the essence of the human being, endowed by Heaven, and at the same time the means by which someone may act according to the principle of Heaven and become one with it. Yan Hui , Confucius's most outstanding student, once asked his master to describe the rules of ren and Confucius replied, "one should see nothing improper, hear nothing improper, say nothing improper, do nothing improper." Confucius also defined ren in

1411-479: Is identified as patriarchy, which is expressed in the worship of ancestors and deified progenitors in the male line, at ancestral shrines . Confucian ethical codes are described as humanistic. They may be practiced by all the members of a society. Confucian ethics is characterised by the promotion of virtues, encompassed by the Five Constants, elaborated by Confucian scholars out of the inherited tradition during

1494-563: Is minister; when the father is father, and the son is son." Particular duties arise from one's particular situation in relation to others. The individual stands simultaneously in several different relationships with different people: as a junior in relation to parents and elders, and as a senior in relation to younger siblings, students, and others. While juniors are considered in Confucianism to owe their seniors reverence, seniors also have duties of benevolence and concern toward juniors. The same

1577-399: Is not merely Confucian but shared by many Chinese religions , "the universe creates itself out of a primary chaos of material energy" ( hundun and qi ), and is organized through the polarity of yin and yang that characterises any thing and life. Creation is therefore a continuous ordering; it is not creation ex nihilo . "Yin and yang are the invisible and visible, the receptive and

1660-470: Is to say self-cultivation and world redemption—synthesised in the ideal of "sageliness within and kingliness without". Ren , translated as "humaneness" or the essence proper of a human being, is the character of compassionate mind; it is the virtue endowed by Heaven and at the same time the means by which man may achieve oneness with Heaven comprehending his own origin in Heaven and therefore divine essence. In

1743-456: Is true with the husband and wife relationship where the husband needs to show benevolence towards his wife and the wife needs to respect the husband in return. This theme of mutuality still exists in East Asian cultures even to this day. The Five Bonds are: ruler to ruled, father to son, husband to wife, elder brother to younger brother, friend to friend. Specific duties were prescribed to each of

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1826-478: Is variously translated as ' rite ' or ' reason ', 'ratio' in the pure sense of Vedic ṛta ('right', 'order') when referring to the cosmic law, but when referring to its realisation in the context of human social behaviour it has also been translated as ' customs ', 'measures' and 'rules', among other terms. Li also means religious rites which establish relations between humanity and the gods. According to Stephan Feuchtwang, rites are conceived as "what makes

1909-473: The Datong Shu  [ zh ] , it is defined as "to form one body with all things" and "when the self and others are not separated   ... compassion is aroused". "Lord Heaven" and " Jade Emperor " were terms for a Confucianist supreme deity who was an anthropromorphized tian , and some conceptions of it thought of the two names as synonymous. Tian , a key concept in Chinese thought, refers to

1992-406: The tao , and/or gods from Chinese folk religion . These movements are not a part of mainstream Confucianism, although the boundary between Chinese folk religion and Confucianism can be blurred. Other movements, such as Mohism which was later absorbed by Taoism, developed a more theistic idea of Heaven. Feuchtwang explains that the difference between Confucianism and Taoism primarily lies in

2075-492: The Five Classics which were the basic texts of Confucianism, all edited into their received versions around 500 years later by Imperial Librarian Liu Xin . The scholar Yao Xinzhong allows that there are good reasons to believe that Confucian classics took shape in the hands of Confucius, but that "nothing can be taken for granted in the matter of the early versions of the classics". Yao suggests that most modern scholars hold

2158-503: The Han dynasty . The Five Constants are: These are accompanied by the classical four virtues ( 四字 ; sìzì ), one of which ( Yi ) is also included among the Five Constants: There are many other traditionally Confucian values, such as 'honesty' ( 诚 ; chéng ), 'bravery' ( 勇 ; yǒng ), 'incorruptibility' ( 廉 ; lián ), 'kindness', 'forgiveness' ( 恕 ; shù ),

2241-476: The Lu clan of Fanyang . These clans were prominent in having Confucian scholars and high-ranking government officials, with male family members serving as official for generations and some clans or families serving several chancellors. They formed a huge network through political marriages with each other or the imperial family and also formed a monopoly on education and government officials. Officially established in 587,

2324-665: The Ming dynasty , the traditional Confucian principles of succession were upheld by the Hongwu Emperor 's Instructions of the Ancestor of the August Ming . These presented a grave problem when his eldest son died early, leaving a power struggle between a sheltered teenage grandson and his many experienced and well-armed uncles. One of these, the Prince of Yan , eventually overthrew his nephew under

2407-535: The Ming-Qing transition . In Confucian philosophy, "filial piety" ( 孝 ; xiào ) is a virtue of respect for one's parents and ancestors, and of the hierarchies within society: father–son, elder–junior and male–female. The Confucian classic Xiaojing ("Book of Piety"), thought to be written during the Qin or Han dynasties, has historically been the authoritative source on the Confucian tenet of xiao . The book,

2490-474: The Neo-Confucian school , further enriching the Confucian ideological system. This directly increased the prosperity of the scholar-official class and also contributed to the unique moral code of the scholar-officials, which had a huge impact on the Chinese literati of later generations. The traditional Chinese official selection systems are the institutional basis of the formation of scholar-officials. Using

2573-630: The Republic of China , and then Maoism under the People's Republic of China . In the late twentieth century, the Confucian work ethic has been credited with the rise of the East Asian economy . With particular emphasis on the importance of the family and social harmony , rather than on an otherworldly source of spiritual values, the core of Confucianism is humanistic . According to American philosopher Herbert Fingarette 's conceptualisation of Confucianism as

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2656-567: The Song dynasty (960–1297). The abolition of the examination system in 1905 marked the end of official Confucianism. The intellectuals of the New Culture Movement of the early twentieth century blamed Confucianism for China's weaknesses . They searched for new doctrines to replace Confucian teachings; some of these new ideologies include the " Three Principles of the People " with the establishment of

2739-518: The Yuan , Ming and Qing dynasties, the stereotyped writing style of the eight-legged essay (八股文) format dominated the Imperial Examination, and scholar-officials from this period were relatively unable to speak and create freely due to the harsh political environment. The strong relationship between Imperial Examination and the official position were still present, though the entire society formed

2822-472: The imperial examinations . Scholar-officials were the elite class of imperial China. They were highly educated, especially in literature and the arts, including calligraphy and Confucian texts. They dominated the government administration and local life of China until the early 20th century. Scholar-official as a concept and social class first appeared during the Warring States period ; before that,

2905-419: The "pragmatic" view that Confucius and his followers did not intend to create a system of classics, but nonetheless "contributed to their formation". The scholar Tu Weiming explains these classics as embodying "five visions" which underlie the development of Confucianism: Confucianism revolves around the pursuit of the unity of the individual self and tian ("heaven"). To put it another way, it focuses on

2988-639: The Civil Service Examination allowed for selection of scholar-officials. Beginning with the Sui dynasty , those with the right family background who passed this examination would become scholar-officials. In the early part of the Tang dynasty , empress Wu Zetian reformed and improved the Imperial Examination system by establishing the Metropolitan Exam ; people who passed it were called Jinshi (metropolitan graduates, highest degree), and people passed

3071-525: The Confucian concept of tian shares some similarities with the concept of a deity, it is primarily an impersonal absolute principle like the tao or the Brahman . Most scholars and practitioners do not think of tian as a god, and the deities that many Confucians worship do not originate from orthodox Confucianism. Confucianism focuses on the practical order that is given by a this-worldly awareness of tian . The worldly concern of Confucianism rests upon

3154-615: The God of Heaven, the northern culmen of the skies and its spinning stars, earthly nature and its laws which come from Heaven, to 'Heaven and Earth' (that is, "all things"), and to the awe-inspiring forces beyond human control. There are so many uses in Chinese thought that it is impossible to give a single English translation. Confucius used the term in a mystical way. He wrote in the Analects (7.23) that tian gave him life, and that tian watched and judged (6.28; 9.12). In 9.5 Confucius says that

3237-507: The Provincial Exam were called Juren (provincial graduates). Wu's reforms gradually led to today's concept of scholar-officials and the intellectual class. The government would select scholar-officials by examining their poems and essays writings for knowledge of Confucian texts and some Buddhist texts. Intellectuals who passed the exam served as officials. Many famous Tang poets were scholar-officials, such as Du Mu . However, because

3320-621: The Recommendatory System and Nine-rank System to select governments officials and candidates were popular during the long period beginning with the Han dynasty and ending after the Northern and Southern dynasties period. Scholars-officials during this period usually from prominent clans, including the Zheng clan of Xingyang , Xie clan of Chen Commandery , Cui clan of Qinghe , Cui clan of Boling , Wang clan of Langya , Wang clan of Taiyuan , and

3403-564: The Shi and Da Fu were two different classes. During the Western Zhou dynasty, the Duke of Zhou divided the social classes into the king, feudal lords, Da Fu, Shi, ordinary people, and slaves. Da Fu were people from the aristocracy who served as officers and were a higher class than Shi, who were people from the social class between Da Fu and ordinary people and could only serve as low-level officials. During

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3486-661: The Tang Dynasty was a rapidly changing period for the final formation of the structure and composition of scholar-officials, there is some ambiguity of the usage of the words "scholar-officials": according to the Old Book of Tang , scholars/intellectuals who passed the imperial exam but took no official position could only be referred to Shi 士; according to the New Book of Tang , as long as they were scholars, whether official or not, they could be called scholar-officials. The Song dynasty

3569-652: The Warring States period, with the annexation wars between states and the rise of bureaucracy, many talented individuals from the Shi class provided valuable services to their lords. Shi became more influential and Da Fu gradually evolved into an official position in the bureaucracy, not a hereditary peerage. The Shi and Da Fu gradually merged and became the Scholar-officials (士大夫 Shi Da Fu). The feudal social structure came to divide ordinary people into four categories, with scholar-officials at its top level, this structure

3652-593: The ability to cultivate and centre natural forces. Li embodies the entire web of interaction between humanity, human objects, and nature. Confucius includes in his discussions of li such diverse topics as learning, tea drinking, titles, mourning, and governance. Xunzi cites "songs and laughter, weeping and lamentation   ... rice and millet, fish and meat   ... the wearing of ceremonial caps, embroidered robes, and patterned silks, or of fasting clothes and mourning clothes   ... spacious rooms and secluded halls, soft mats, couches and benches" as vital parts of

3735-425: The active, the unshaped and the shaped; they characterise the yearly cycle (winter and summer), the landscape (shady and bright), the sexes (female and male), and even sociopolitical history (disorder and order). Confucianism is concerned with finding "middle ways" between yin and yang at every new configuration of the world." Confucianism conciliates both the inner and outer polarities of spiritual cultivation—that

3818-399: The belief that human beings are fundamentally good, and teachable, improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavor, especially self-cultivation and self-creation. Confucian thought focuses on the cultivation of virtue in a morally organised world. Some of the basic Confucian ethical concepts and practices include ren , yi , li , and zhi . Ren is the essence of

3901-527: The cardinal moral values of ren and yi . Traditionally, cultures and countries in the Chinese cultural sphere are strongly influenced by Confucianism, including China , Taiwan , Korea , Japan , and Vietnam , as well as various territories settled predominantly by Han Chinese people , such as Singapore . Today, it has been credited for shaping East Asian societies and overseas Chinese communities , and to some extent, other parts of Asia. Most Confucianist movements have had significant differences from

3984-431: The early 1st century BC, Chinese dynasties observed it in theory though not always in practice. Liu Bang himself began to favor Concubine Qi , a later concubine, to his primary empress, Lü Zhi , and doubted the competence of his heir Liu Ying . Even worse conflicts could occur when invaders – previously observing their own rules of inheritance – began to sinicize , as happened to the 10th-century Liao dynasty . Under

4067-401: The entire network of social relations, even the respect for rulers. This is shown in the story where Duke Jing of Qi asks Confucius about government, by which he meant proper administration so as to bring social harmony: 齊景公問政於孔子。孔子對曰：君君，臣臣，父父，子子。 The duke Jing, of Qi , asked Confucius about government. Confucius replied, "There is government, when the prince is prince, and the minister

4150-468: The fabric of li . Confucius envisioned proper government being guided by the principles of li . Some Confucians proposed that all human beings may pursue perfection by learning and practising li . Overall, Confucians believe that governments should place more emphasis on li and rely much less on penal punishment when they govern. Loyalty ( 忠 ; zhōng ) is particularly relevant for the social class to which most of Confucius's students belonged, because

4233-575: The fact that the former focuses on the realisation of the starry order of Heaven in human society, while the latter on the contemplation of the Dao which spontaneously arises in nature. However, Confucianism does venerate many aspects of nature and also respects various tao , as well as what Confucius saw as the main tao , the "[Way] of Heaven." The Way of Heaven involves "lifelong and sincere devotion to traditional cultural forms" and wu wei , "a state of spontaneous harmony between individual inclinations and

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4316-450: The family and society to create a harmonious community. Joël Thoraval studied Confucianism as a diffused civil religion in contemporary China, finding that it expresses itself in the widespread worship of five cosmological entities: Heaven and Earth ( 地 ; dì ), the sovereign or the government ( 君 ; jūn ), ancestors ( 親 ; qīn ), and masters ( 師 ; shī ). According to the scholar Stephan Feuchtwang , in Chinese cosmology, which

4399-548: The following way: "wishing to be established himself, seeks also to establish others; wishing to be enlarged himself, he seeks also to enlarge others." Another meaning of ren is "not to do to others as you would not wish done to yourself." Confucius also said, " ren is not far off; he who seeks it has already found it." Ren is close to man and never leaves him. Li ( 礼 ; 禮 ) is a word which finds its most extensive use in Confucian and post-Confucian Chinese philosophy . Li

4482-406: The gods have an ethical importance: they generate good life, because taking part in them leads to the overcoming of the self. Analects 10.11 tells that Confucius always took a small part of his food and placed it on the sacrificial bowls as an offering to his ancestors . Some Confucian movements worship Confucius, although not as a supreme being or anything else approaching the power of tian or

4565-418: The government's collection of taxes, and preached Confucian moral teachings. As a class, these scholars claimed to represent morality and virtue. The district magistrate , who by regulation was not allowed to serve in his home district, depended on the local gentry for advice and for carrying out projects, which gave them the power to benefit themselves and their clients. Theoretically, this system would create

4648-416: The harmony of the family and the society as a whole. A Confucian revival began during the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE). In the late Tang, Confucianism further developed in response to the increasing influence of Buddhism and Taoism and was reformulated as Neo-Confucianism . This reinvigorated form was adopted as the basis of the imperial exams and the core philosophy of the scholar-official class in

4731-517: The human being which manifests as compassion. It is the virtue-form of Heaven. Yi is the upholding of righteousness and the moral disposition to do good. Li is a system of ritual norms and propriety that determines how a person should properly act in everyday life in harmony with the law of Heaven. Zhi ( 智 ; zhì ) is the ability to see what is right and fair, or the converse, in the behaviors exhibited by others. Confucianism holds one in contempt, either passively or actively, for failure to uphold

4814-564: The hundred things coming into being. What does Tian say?") as implying that even though Tian is not a "speaking person", it constantly "does" through the rhythms of nature, and communicates "how human beings ought to live and act", at least to those who have learnt to carefully listen to it. Duanmu Ci , a disciple of Confucius, said that Tian had set the master on the path to become a wise man (9.6). In 7.23 Confucius says that he has no doubt left that Tian gave him life, and from it he had developed right virtue ( de ). In 8.19, he says that

4897-466: The influence of the founding emperor of Song Zhao Kuangyin , almost all Song emperors showed great respect to intellectuals. If a scholar-official from the Song dynasty committed a crime, he couldn't be held accountable directly. Instead, an internal impeachment replaced the formal judicial process. If his crime wasn't serious, he only needed to be punished with a reprimand instead of a criminal penalty. During

4980-420: The invisible visible", making possible for humans to cultivate the underlying order of nature. Correctly performed rituals move society in alignment with earthly and heavenly (astral) forces, establishing the harmony of the three realms—Heaven, Earth and humanity. This practice is defined as "centering" ( 央 ; yāng or 中 ; zhōng ). Among all things of creation, humans themselves are "central" because they have

5063-488: The lives of the sages are interwoven with Tian . Regarding personal gods ( shen , energies who emanate from and reproduce Tian ) enliving nature, in the Analects Confucius says that it is appropriate ( yi ) for people to worship ( 敬 ; jìng ) them, although only through proper rites ( li ), implying respect of positions and discretion. Confucius himself was a ritual and sacrificial master. Answering to

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5146-463: The mainstay of selecting officials at most levels of administration. Despite the hierarchical tendencies of Confucianism, scholar-officials and ministers are not mere obedient subordinates of the ruler, but theoretically have equal roles in the maintenance of social order. This includes the possibility of running counter against or opposing the ruler, should he prove to be unfit to uphold righteous principles and fail to provide and promote well-being for

5229-422: The material means to support parents as well as carry out sacrifices to the ancestors; not be rebellious; show love, respect and support; the wife in filial piety must obey her husband absolutely and take care of the whole family wholeheartedly. display courtesy; ensure male heirs, uphold fraternity among brothers; wisely advise one's parents, including dissuading them from moral unrighteousness, for blindly following

5312-449: The most eloquent writers and erudite scholars achieved high positions, the system lacked formal safeguards against political corruption, only the Confucian moral teachings tested by the examinations. Once their political futures were secured by success in the examinations, officials were tempted by corruption and abuse of power. The Princeton scholar Benjamin Elman writes that some criticized

5395-459: The most important way for an ambitious young scholar to become a prominent official was to enter a ruler's civil service. Confucius himself did not propose that "might makes right", but rather that a superior should be obeyed because of his moral rectitude. In addition, loyalty does not mean subservience to authority. This is because reciprocity is demanded from the superior as well. As Confucius stated "a prince should employ his minister according to

5478-456: The original Zhou -era teachings, and are typically much more complex because of their reliance on "elaborate doctrine " and other factors such as traditions with long histories. In the past few decades, there have been talks of a "Confucian Revival" in the academic and the scholarly community, and there has been a grassroots proliferation of various types of Confucian churches . In late 2015, many Confucian personalities formally established

5561-419: The parents' wishes is not considered to be xiao ; display sorrow for their sickness and death; and carry out sacrifices after their death. Filial piety is considered a key virtue in Chinese culture, and it is the main concern of a large number of stories. One of the most famous collections of such stories is " The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars ". These stories depict how children exercised their filial piety in

5644-434: The participants in these sets of relationships. Such duties are also extended to the dead, where the living stand as sons to their deceased family. The only relationship where respect for elders is not stressed was the friend to friend relationship, where mutual equal respect is emphasised instead. All these duties take the practical form of prescribed rituals, for instance wedding and death rituals. The junzi ('lord's son')

5727-454: The past. While China has always had a diversity of religious beliefs, filial piety has been common to almost all of them; historian Hugh D.R. Baker calls respect for the family the only element common to almost all Chinese believers. Social harmony results in part from every individual knowing his or her place in the natural order, and playing his or her part well. Reciprocity or responsibility ( renqing ) extends beyond filial piety and involves

5810-410: The people. Thus, the balance of power is ideally split between the meritocratic Confucian scholars and the dynastic emperors, and a ruler should maintain power with the acceptance of their ministers, who have the ultimate right to sanction and forcibly depose a tyrannical or failing ruler. During the Song and Ming dynasties, Confucian philosophers combined Taoist and Buddhist thought to produce

5893-455: The pretense of saving him from ill counsel. His own legitimacy was precariously established: a charred body was procured from the ruins of Nanjing and proclaimed to be the accidentally-killed emperor; the nephew's reign was then condemned and delegitimized and the surviving son kept imprisoned and single; and imperial records were falsified to establish the Prince of Yan as his father's favorite and as

5976-454: The principles of humaneness and righteousness at its core. In the Western world, the character for water is often used as a symbol for Confucianism, which is not the case in modern China. However, the five phases were used as important symbols representing leadership in Han dynasty thought, including Confucianist works. Traditionally, Confucius was thought to be the author or editor of

6059-414: The relationship between humanity and heaven. The principle or way of Heaven ( tian li or tian tao ) is the order of the world and the source of divine authority. Tian li or tian tao is monistic , meaning that it is singular and indivisible. Individuals may realise their humanity and become one with Heaven through the contemplation of such order. This transformation of the self may be extended to

6142-535: The ruled to the ruler, and less on the ruler's obligations to the ruled. Like filial piety, loyalty was often subverted by the autocratic regimes in China. Nonetheless, throughout the ages, many Confucians continued to fight against unrighteous superiors and rulers. Many of these Confucians suffered and sometimes died because of their conviction and action. During the Ming-Qing era, prominent Confucians such as Wang Yangming promoted individuality and independent thinking as

6225-416: The ruler is incompetent, he should be replaced. If the ruler is evil, then the people have the right to overthrow him. A good Confucian is also expected to remonstrate with his superiors when necessary. At the same time, a proper Confucian ruler should also accept his ministers' advice, as this will help him govern the realm better. In later ages, however, emphasis was often placed more on the obligations of

6308-455: The rules of propriety; ministers should serve their prince with faithfulness (loyalty)." Similarly, Mencius also said that "when the prince regards his ministers as his hands and feet, his ministers regard their prince as their belly and heart; when he regards them as his dogs and horses, they regard him as another man; when he regards them as the ground or as grass, they regard him as a robber and an enemy." Moreover, Mencius indicated that if

6391-483: The sacred Way". Kelly James Clark argued that Confucius himself saw Tian as an anthropomorphic god that Clark hypothetically refers to as "Heavenly Supreme Emperor", although most other scholars on Confucianism disagree with this view. As explained by Stephan Feuchtwang, the order coming from Heaven preserves the world, and has to be followed by humanity finding a "middle way" between yin and yang forces in each new configuration of reality. Social harmony or morality

6474-403: The term has been "burdened   ... with the ambiguities and irrelevant traditional associations". Ruism, as he states, is more faithful to the original Chinese name for the school. The term "Traditionalist" has been suggested by David Schaberg to emphasize the connection to the past, its standards, and inherited forms, in which Confucius himself placed so much importance. This translation of

6557-526: The word ru is followed by e.g. Yuri Pines. According to Zhou Youguang , ru originally referred to shamanic methods of holding rites and existed before Confucius's times, but with Confucius it came to mean devotion to propagating such teachings to bring civilisation to the people. Confucianism was initiated by the disciples of Confucius, developed by Mencius ( c. 372–289 BCE) and inherited by later generations, undergoing constant transformations and restructuring since its establishment, but preserving

6640-525: The word had a distinct set of meanings, including 'to tame', 'to mould', 'to educate', and 'to refine'. Several different terms, some of which with modern origin, are used in different situations to express different facets of Confucianism, including: Three of them use ru . These names do not use the name "Confucius" at all, but instead focus on the ideal of the Confucian man. The use of the term "Confucianism" has been avoided by some modern scholars, who favor "Ruism" and "Ruists" instead. Robert Eno argues that

6723-410: The world", which Stephan Feuchtwang equates with the ancient Greek concept of physis , "nature" as the generation and regenerations of things and of the moral order. Tian may also be compared to the Brahman of Hindu and Vedic traditions. The scholar Promise Hsu, in the wake of Robert B. Louden, explained 17:19 ("What does Tian ever say? Yet there are four seasons going round and there are

6806-482: Was suppressed during the Legalist and autocratic Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE), but survived. During the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), Confucian approaches edged out the "proto-Taoist" Huang–Lao as the official ideology, while the emperors mixed both with the realist techniques of Legalism. Confucianism regards principles contained in the Five Classics , the key tenets that should be followed to promote

6889-463: Was the golden age for scholar-officials. By this time, passing the Imperial Examination had become the major path for people to hold an official position in the government. With the continuous improvements and reforms of Imperial Examination, the bureaucracy completely replaced the aristocracy, and the scholar-officer's polity was completely established. Song was the only dynasty in Chinese history that provided scholar-officials judicial privilege. Due to

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