Taconic Trails or Taconic Trail may refer to any or all of three long distance recreational trails and associated networks of shorter trails within the Taconic Mountains of Massachusetts , New York , Connecticut , and Vermont .
90-487: The three main trails are: Trail networks in the northern Taconic region (northwest Massachusetts, southwest Vermont, and adjacent New York) are sometimes referred to as the "North Taconic Trails." In the late 1990s, the Taconic Crest Trail and Taconic Skyline Trail were re-designated, lengthening the former by 6 miles (9.7 km) and shortening the latter by 9 miles (14 km). This redesignation also resulted in
180-491: A 20-year period, actively managed FSC -certified forests experienced substantially lower rates of deforestation than nearby protected areas, and forest fires only affected 0.1 percent of certified land area, compared to 10.4 percent of protected areas. However, it must be duly noted that short term decisions regarding forest sector employment and harvest practices can have long-term effects on biodiversity. Planted forests become increasingly important as they supply approximately
270-539: A Great Marsh Coastal Greenway linking the Parker River National Wildlife Refuge and Crane Beach; creation of bicycle and pedestrian corridors along Route 22 and Route 133 , which would link now isolated scenic areas in the towns of Wenham , Hamilton , Manchester , Beverly , Essex , and Ipswich, Massachusetts ; and the completion of the part of the Bay Circuit Trail which passes through
360-539: A bridge or underpass may be enough to join two fragments. This has the potential to mitigate the problem of isolation but not the loss of interior habitat. Wildlife corridors can help animals to move and occupy new areas when food sources or other natural resources are lacking in their core habitat, and animals can find new mates in neighbouring regions so that genetic diversity can increase. Species that relocate seasonally can do so more safely and effectively when it does not interfere with human development barriers. Due to
450-613: A coordinated statewide greenway system. This strategy would involve the creation of a "public clearinghouse" of resources: human, technical, and financial; engage in outreach and support initiatives geared toward helping local greenway development efforts; and establish a flow of information between various state, federal, non-profit, and private entities with the aim of increasing overall efficacy. 7. Increase funding for greenways and trails. Efforts here are aimed at: creating legislative opportunities that would increase existing funding and provide new, creative funding possibilities; maximizing
540-522: A great loss of amphibian diversity, but simultaneously the drier climate spurred on a burst of diversity among reptiles. Habitat fragmentation is frequently caused by humans when native plants are cleared for human activities such as agriculture , rural development , urbanization and the creation of hydroelectric reservoirs. Habitats which were once continuous become divided into separate fragments. Due to human activities, many tropical and temperate habitats have already been severely fragmented, and in
630-435: A great risk and further decreases their chances of survival. Habitat fragmentation due to anthropogenic activities has been shown to greatly affect the predator-prey dynamics of many species by altering the number of species and the members of those species. This affects the natural predator-prey relationships between animals in a given community and forces them to alter their behaviours and interactions, therefore resetting
720-789: A habitat becomes fragmented and reduced in area, gene flow and migration are typically reduced. Fewer individuals will migrate into the remaining fragments, and small disconnected populations that may have once been part of a single large population will become reproductively isolated. Scientific evidence that gene flow is reduced due to fragmentation depends on the study species. While trees that have long-range pollination and dispersal mechanisms may not experience reduced gene flow following fragmentation, most species are at risk of reduced gene flow following habitat fragmentation. Reduced gene flow, and reproductive isolation can result in inbreeding between related individuals. Inbreeding does not always result in negative fitness consequences, but when inbreeding
810-470: A larger number of males in the species means a larger variety of songs being transmitted. Fragmentation of the Dupont's Lark territory from agriculture, forestry and urbanization appears to have a large effect on their communication structures. Males only perceive territories of a certain distance to be rivals and so isolation of territory from others due to fragmentation leads to a decrease in territorial calls as
900-451: A quarter of global industrial roundwood production and are predicted to account for 50% of global output within two decades (Brown, 1998; Jaakko Poyry, 1999). Although there have been many difficulties, the implementation of forest certification has been quite prominent in being able to raise effective awareness and disseminating knowledge on a holistic concept, embracing economic, environmental and social issues, worldwide. While also providing
990-399: A sea of pastures, fields, subdivisions, shopping malls, etc. These fragments will then begin to undergo the process of ecosystem decay . Forest fragmentation also includes less subtle forms of discontinuities such as utility right-of-ways (ROWs). Utility ROWs are of ecological interest because they have become pervasive in many forest communities, spanning areas as large as 5 million acres in
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#17331041659401080-406: A single large patch of equivalent size. Land sharing strategies could therefore have more positive impacts on species than land sparing strategies. Although the negative effects of habitat loss are generally viewed to be much larger than that of habitat fragmentation, the two events are heavily connected and observations are not usually independent of one another. Area is the primary determinant of
1170-517: A smaller pool of fitness-maintaining alleles to survive in the face of environmental change. However, in some scenarios, where subsets of genetic diversity are partitioned among multiple habitat fragments, almost all original genetic diversity can be maintained despite each individual fragment displaying a reduced subset of diversity. Gene flow occurs when individuals of the same species exchange genetic information through reproduction. Populations can maintain genetic diversity through migration . When
1260-556: A source of immigrants by some barrier are less likely to be repopulated than adjoining fragments. Even small species such as the Columbia spotted frog are reliant on the rescue effect . Studies showed 25% of juveniles travel a distance over 200m compared to 4% of adults. Of these, 95% remain in their new locale, demonstrating that this journey is necessary for survival. Additionally, habitat fragmentation leads to edge effects . Microclimatic changes in light, temperature, and wind can alter
1350-591: A study found that there is no increase in nest predation on fragmented forests - thus not supporting the edge effect hypothesis. Habitat fragmentation has profound effects on ecosystem services , impacting nutrient retention, species richness, and local biophysical conditions. Fragmentation-mediated processes cause generalizable responses at the population , community , and ecosystem levels, resulting in decreased nutrient retention. Furthermore, habitat fragmentation alters relationships between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning across multiple scales, affecting both
1440-405: A substantial impact on endogenous processes by fundamentally altering species behavior. Habitat subdivision or isolation can lead to changes in dispersal or movement of species including changes to seasonal migration. These changes can lead to a decrease in a density of species, increased competition or even increased predation. One of the major ways that habitat fragmentation affects biodiversity
1530-472: A tool for a range of other applications than assessment of sustainability , such as e.g. verifying carbon sinks. Two approaches are typically used to understand habitat fragmentation and its ecological impacts. The species-oriented approach focuses specifically on individual species and how they each respond to their environment and habitat changes with in it. This approach can be limited because it does only focus on individual species and does not allow for
1620-488: A university based newspaper statement stating that 70% of the world's remaining forest stands within one kilometre of a forest edge putting biodiversity at an immense risk based on research conducted by international scientists. Reduced fragment area, increased isolation, and increased edge initiate changes that percolate through all ecosystems. Habitat fragmentation is able to formulate persistent outcomes which can also become unexpected such as an abundance of some species and
1710-675: Is a greenway and conservation initiative co-developed by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation (DCR), the National Park Service , and over fifty trail and land conservation agencies and non-profit organizations. Begun in 1999, the initiative was designed to create "a coordinated greenway and trail network that will help conserve important resources, provide recreation and alternative transportation opportunities close to where people live, and connect communities throughout Massachusetts." The initiative
1800-413: Is a form of habitat fragmentation where forests are reduced (either naturally or man-made) to relatively small, isolated patches of forest known as forest fragments or forest remnants. The intervening matrix that separates the remaining woodland patches can be natural open areas, farmland , or developed areas. Following the principles of island biogeography , remnant woodlands act like islands of forest in
1890-474: Is a stronger evolutionary force than genetic drift. Recent studies on the impacts of habitat fragmentation on adaptation in some plant species have suggested that organisms in fragmented landscapes may be able to adapt to fragmentation. However, there are also many cases where fragmentation reduces adaptation capacity because of small population size. Some species that have experienced genetic consequences due to habitat fragmentation are listed below: Although
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#17331041659401980-402: Is an important cause of species extinction. Population dynamics of subdivided populations tend to vary asynchronously . In an unfragmented landscape a declining population can be "rescued" by immigration from a nearby expanding population. In fragmented landscapes, the distance between fragments may prevent this from happening. Additionally, unoccupied fragments of habitat that are separated from
2070-494: Is associated with fitness reduction it is called inbreeding depression . Inbreeding becomes of increasing concern as the level of homozygosity increases, facilitating the expression of deleterious alleles that reduce the fitness. Habitat fragmentation can lead to inbreeding depression for many species due to reduced gene flow. Inbreeding depression is associated with conservation risks, like local extinction. Small populations are more susceptible to genetic drift . Genetic drift
2160-563: Is by reducing the amount of suitable habitat available for organisms. Habitat fragmentation often involves both habitat destruction and the subdivision of previously continuous habitat. Plants and other sessile organisms are disproportionately affected by some types of habitat fragmentation because they cannot respond quickly to the altered spatial configuration of the habitat. Habitat fragmentation consistently reduces biodiversity by 13 to 75% and impairs key ecosystem functions by decreasing biomass and altering nutrient cycles . This underscores
2250-434: Is considered as an invasive threat to biodiversity , due to its implications of affecting large number of species than biological invasions , overexploitation , or pollution . Additionally, the effects of habitat fragmentation damage the ability for species, such as native plants , to be able to effectively adapt to their changing environments. Ultimately, this prevents gene flow from one generation of population to
2340-535: Is found in the fossil record. Studies have demonstrated the impacts of individual species at the landscape level For example, From research the results show that the impact of deer herbivory on forest plant communities can be observed at the landscape level at the Rondeau Provincial park for the period of 1955-1978 and also, habitat fragmentation of tropical rainforests in Euramerica 300 million years ago led to
2430-498: Is loosely based on the grassroots success of the Appalachian Trail and on Frederick Law Olmsted 's Emerald Necklace vision of an interconnected greenway linking metropolitan Boston parkland; it includes the development of new trails, maintenance and rehabilitation of existing trails, environmental and experiential education , land conservation, and support for research, stewardship, and regional conservation planning. Emphasis
2520-425: Is often a cause of species becoming threatened or endangered . The existence of viable habitat is critical to the survival of any species, and in many cases, the fragmentation of any remaining habitat can lead to difficult decisions for conservation biologists. Given a limited amount of resources available for conservation is it preferable to protect the existing isolated patches of habitat or to buy back land to get
2610-445: Is often more expensive and could require significant time and effort to restore. The best solution is generally dependent on the particular species or ecosystem that is being considered. More mobile species, like most birds, do not need connected habitat while some smaller animals, like rodents, may be more exposed to predation in open land. These questions generally fall under the headings of metapopulations island biogeography . As
2700-452: Is often referred to as SLOSS (Single Large or Several Small). Habitat loss in a biodiversity hotspot can result in a localized extinction crisis, generally speaking habitat loss in a hotspot location can be a good indicator or predictor of the number of threatened and extinct endemic species. One solution to the problem of habitat fragmentation is to link the fragments by preserving or planting corridors of native vegetation. In some cases,
2790-580: Is on both local and multi-regional cooperative projects (rural, suburban, and urban), and includes hiking trails, universal access trails, bicycling and mountain biking trails, river corridors, as well as recreational trails used for motorized vehicles. The Massachusetts DCR contributes to the Commonwealth Connections program by enabling trails projects through providing town agencies and non-profit organizations with information, education, training, and matching grants. Initial efforts (2003) of
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2880-406: Is one of the greatest threats to biodiversity in forests, especially in the tropics. The problem of habitat destruction that caused the fragmentation in the first place is compounded by: The effect of fragmentation on the flora and fauna of a forest patch depends on a) the size of the patch, and b) its degree of isolation. Isolation depends on the distance to the nearest similar patch, and
2970-473: Is random changes to the genetic makeup of populations and leads to reductions in genetic diversity. The smaller the population is, the more likely genetic drift will be a driving force of evolution rather than natural selection. Because genetic drift is a random process, it does not allow species to become more adapted to their environment. Habitat fragmentation is associated with increases to genetic drift in small populations which can have negative consequences for
3060-440: Is to apply and practice sustainable forest management to risk further loss. There is a high industrial demand for wood , pulp , paper , and other resources which the forest can provide with, thus businesses which will want more access to the cutting of forests to gain those resources. The rainforest alliance has efficiently been able to put into place an approach to sustainable forest management, and they established this in
3150-621: The Bay Circuit Trail and the Cape Cod Rail Trail ; and the creation of a collaborative regional clearing-house of trail and conservation data to more effectively facilitate cooperative efforts between agencies and non-profits. The Metropolitan Boston region includes Boston and its suburbs west toward Massachusetts Route 128 . The goals of Commonwealth Connections in this region include protecting water quality, natural resources, and recreational opportunities along major riverways such as
3240-632: The Berkshire mountains, from the eastern limit of those mountains to the western boundary of the state. Suggested recommendations and projects for this section include securing protection for the area's major long distance trails (the Appalachian Trail , the Taconic Trails , and the Mahican-Mohawk Trail ); creating greenway links between the Taconic Trails and Appalachian Trail; creating new greenway corridors that would link open space parcels within
3330-560: The Charles River , Concord River , Mystic River , and Neponset River ; the creation of a network of interconnecting bicycle paths and trails through Boston and its suburbs; the completion of the Bay Circuit Trail; permanent protection for the Warner Trail and the creation of a link it to from Boston's Blue Hills Reservation ; and support for the creation of a Boston Harborwalk and an East Boston Greenway. Northeast Massachusetts includes
3420-584: The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority to identify and transfer surplus utility corridors to towns and cities for the use of greenways at no cost. It would also facilitate the creation of emergency loans for towns and cities for the purchase of defunct utility corridors. Finally, it would establish partnerships with utility companies to address liability and access issues. 6. Assist the greenways and trails development community with technical support and funding needed to establish
3510-650: The Midstate Trail ; the development and support of rail and canal trails such as the Mass Central Rail Trail , East Coast Greenway , Nashua River Rail Trail , and Blackstone River Bikeway ; protecting water quality, natural resources and recreational opportunities along major riverways in central Massachusetts such as the Blackstone River , Sudbury River , Nashua River , Squannacook River , Nissitissit River , and others. Southeast Massachusetts includes
3600-677: The microbiota of an environment. Increased fragmentation has been linked to reduced populations and diversity of fungi responsible for decomposition, as well as the insects they are host to. This has been linked to simplified food webs in highly fragmented areas compared to old growth forests. Furthermore, edge effects have been shown to result in significantly varied microenvironments compared to interior forest due to variations in light availability, presence of wind, changes in precipitation, and overall moisture content of leaf litter. These microenvironments are often not conducive to overall forest health as they enable generalist species to thrive at
3690-694: The tall grass prairie of North America has been cleared, resulting in extreme habitat fragmentation. There are two types of processes that can lead to habitat fragmentation. There are exogenous processes and endogenous processes. Endogenous is a process that develops as a part of species biology so they typically include changes in biology, behavior, and interactions within or between species. Endogenous threats can result in changes to breeding patterns or migration patterns and are often triggered by exogenous processes. Exogenous processes are independent of species biology and can include habitat degradation, habitat subdivision or habitat isolation. These processes can have
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3780-751: The 600 miles (970 km) of existing long-distance trails in the state of Massachusetts which would serve as "spines" for further and more extensive greenway development. Trails include the Appalachian Trail , Metacomet-Monadnock Trail , Midstate Trail , Warner Trail , Bay Circuit , and Taconic Trails . The strategy proposes earmarking these trails for federal and state funding; working with government, non-profit, and private entities to protect trail corridors; increasing tax break incentives to landowners who allow trail easements through their property; and completing protection of 200 miles (320 km) of these trails by 2010. 2. Protect critical river corridors and their tributaries statewide. This strategy would build on
3870-589: The Berkshires; promoting, protecting, and creating a Housatonic River greenway; creating a bikeway that would run from Connecticut to Vermont and include the Ashuwillticook Rail Trail ; and creating and protecting a greenway along the federally designated wild and scenic Westfield River . The Connecticut River Valley region includes an area from the eastern front of the Berkshires east to western Worcester County . Initiatives in this area would include
3960-475: The Commonwealth Connections initiative produced a teleologic greenway proposal map, a seven part strategy for greenway development, and a series of recommendations based on region. The seven strategies proposed are: 1. Protect and promote long-distance trail corridors as primary spines of the Massachusetts Greenway and Trail System. This strategy emphasizes increased protection and maintenance of
4050-568: The Taconic Crest Trail marked as non-motorized and the Taconic Skyline trail as motorized/ multi-use. The Taconic Trails are supported by Massachusetts' Commonwealth Connections greenway initiative, as well as the efforts of various conservation and recreation non-profit organizations in the four-state Taconic region. This United States trail or long-distance path–related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Commonwealth Connections Commonwealth Connections
4140-600: The United States. Utility ROWs include electricity transmission ROWs, gas pipeline and telecommunication ROWs. Electricity transmission ROWs are created to prevent vegetation interference with transmission lines. Some studies have shown that electricity transmission ROWs harbor more plant species than adjoining forest areas, due to alterations in the microclimate in and around the corridor. Discontinuities in forest areas associated with utility right-of-ways can serve as biodiversity havens for native bees and grassland species, as
4230-447: The aid of polarized light to guide them, however, due to ecosystem modifications caused by humans they are led onto artificial structures which emit artificial light which are induced by dry asphalt dry roads for an example. While habitat fragmentation is often associated with its effects on large plant and animal populations and biodiversity, due to the interconnectedness of ecosystems there are also significant effects that it has on
4320-421: The area by dividing large populations into smaller ones. In turn, smaller populations are more inclined to be affected by genetic drift and population performance, as well as experience increases in inbreeding activities. Moreover, fragmentation can affect the relationship present between animals and plants, such as the relationships regarding seed-dispersal or pollinator-plant relationship. Forest fragmentation
4410-460: The behaviours of species and the dynamics between differing species. Behaviours affected can be within a species such as reproduction, mating, foraging, species dispersal, communication and movement patterns or can be behaviours between species such as predator-prey relationships. In addition, when animals happen to venture into unknown areas in between fragmented forests or landscapes, they can supposedly come into contact with humans which puts them at
4500-412: The boreal woodland caribous of British Columbia, the effects of fragmentation are demonstrated. The species refuge area is peatland bog which has been interrupted by linear features such as roads and pipelines. These features have allowed their natural predators, the wolf, and the black bear to more efficiently travel over landscapes and between patches of land. Since their predators can more easily access
4590-451: The caribous' refuge, the females of the species attempt to avoid the area, affecting their reproductive behaviours and offspring produced. Fragmentation affecting the communication behaviours of birds has been well studied in Dupont's Lark. The Larks primarily reside in regions of Spain and are a small passerine bird which uses songs as a means of cultural transmission between members of the species. The Larks have two distinct vocalizations,
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#17331041659404680-422: The continuous expansion of urban landscapes, current research is looking at green roofs being possible vectors of habitat corridors. A recent study has found that green roofs are beneficial in connecting the habitats of arthropods, specifically bees and weevils. Another mitigation measure is the enlargement of small remnants to increase the amount of interior habitat. This may be impractical since developed land
4770-634: The contrast with the surrounding areas. For example, if a cleared area is reforested or allowed to regenerate , the increasing structural diversity of the vegetation will lessen the isolation of the forest fragments. However, when formerly forested lands are converted permanently to pastures, agricultural fields, or human-inhabited developed areas, the remaining forest fragments, and the biota within them, are often highly isolated. Forest patches that are smaller or more isolated will lose species faster than those that are larger or less isolated. A large number of small forest "islands" typically cannot support
4860-440: The counteracting immigration debts may never fully be paid. Indeed, the experiments here reveal ongoing losses of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning two decades or longer after fragmentation occurred. Understanding the relationship between transient and long-term dynamics is a substantial challenge that ecologists must tackle, and fragmentation experiments will be central for relating observation to theory. Habitat fragmentation
4950-409: The creation of such links; using such links as a way of connecting resources to population centers; and linking ecologically important areas to greenways as a way of economically combining both ecologic and recreational conservation efforts. 4. Create a cross-state multi-use trail reaching from Boston to the Berkshires. This effort would address the lack of east-west greenway corridors in the state and
5040-581: The development of urban expansion such as roads interfering with habitat loss . Aquatic species’ habitats have been fragmented by dams and water diversions . These fragments of habitat may not be large or connected enough to support species that need a large territory where they can find mates and food. The loss and fragmentation of habitats makes it difficult for migratory species to find places to rest and feed along their migration routes. The effects of current fragmentation will continue to emerge for decades. Extinction debts are likely to come due, although
5130-411: The east, west, and central parts of the state). 5. ‘Trail bank’ unused rail corridors and work to gain public access to utility corridors. Strategies here include forging agreements that would make use of electric, gas, road, and rail right-of-ways as potential linear greenway routes, especially in areas where existing development has isolated open space parcels. This strategy would involve working with
5220-449: The ecology around the fragment, and in the interior and exterior portions of the fragment. Fires become more likely in the area as humidity drops and temperature and wind levels rise. Exotic and pest species may establish themselves easily in such disturbed environments, and the proximity of domestic animals often upsets the natural ecology. Also, habitat along the edge of a fragment has a different climate and favours different species from
5310-588: The effective use of existing federal transportation funds currently allocated for greenway development; using existing state funded programs such as the Land and Water Conservation Fund and Urban Self-Help programs as greenways development catalysts by ranking greenway initiatives as a high priority. The Commonwealth Commons plan divides the state into five regions, Berkshires, Connecticut River Valley, Central Massachusetts, Southeast Massachusetts, Metropolitan Boston, and Northeast Massachusetts. The Berkshires region includes
5400-415: The environment much faster and causes the extinction of many species. More specifically, habitat fragmentation is a process by which large and contiguous habitats get divided into smaller, isolated patches of habitats. The term habitat fragmentation includes five discrete phenomena: "fragmentation ... not only causes loss of the amount of habitat but by creating small, isolated patches it also changes
5490-573: The expense of specialists that depend on specific environments. A metadata analysis has found that habitat fragmentation greatly affects mutualistic relationships while affecting antagonistic relationships, such as predation and herbivory , to a less degree. For example, the mutualistic relationship between Mesogyne insignis and Megachile . A study has found greater pollination and increased fruit production of M. insignis in unfragmented forests verses fragmented forests. As for an example of an antagonistic relationship of nest predation,
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#17331041659405580-886: The favour of prey, increasing prey refuge and subsequently decreasing predation rates. Fragmentation may also increase predator abundance or predator efficiency and therefore increase predation rates in this manner. Several other factors can also increase or decrease the extent to which the shifting predator-prey dynamics affect certain species, including how diverse a predators diet is and how flexible habitat requirements are for predators and prey. Depending on which species are affected and these other factors, fragmentation and its effects on predator-prey dynamics may contribute to species extinction. In response to these new environmental pressures, new adaptive behaviours may be developed. Prey species may adapt to increased risk of predation with strategies such as altering mating tactics or changing behaviours and activities related to food and foraging. In
5670-919: The genetic diversity of the populations. However, research suggests that some tree species may be resilient to the negative consequences of genetic drift until population size is as small as ten individuals or less. Habitat fragmentation decreases the size and increases plant populations' spatial isolation. With genetic variation and increased methods of inter-population genetic divergence due to increased effects of random genetic drift , elevating inbreeding and reducing gene flow within plant species. While genetic variation may decrease with remnant population size, not all fragmentation events lead to genetic losses and different types of genetic variation. Rarely, fragmentation can also increase gene flow among remnant populations, breaking down local genetic structure. In order for populations to evolve in response to natural selection, they must be large enough that natural selection
5760-441: The interior habitat. Small fragments are therefore unfavourable for species that require interior habitat. The percentage preservation of contiguous habitats is closely related to both genetic and species biodiversity preservation. Generally a 10% remnant contiguous habitat will result in a 50% biodiversity loss . Much of the remaining terrestrial wildlife habitat in many third world countries has experienced fragmentation through
5850-570: The landscape (referred to as fragmentation per se ), has been suggested to be small. A review of empirical studies found that, of the 381 reported significant effect of habitat fragmentation per se on species occurrences, abundances or diversity in the scientific literature, 76% were positive whereas 24% were negative. Despite these results, the scientific literature tends to emphasize negative effects more than positive effects. Positive effects of habitat fragmentation per se imply that several small patches of habitat can have higher conservation value than
5940-513: The largest possible contiguous piece of land. In rare cases, a conservation reliant species may gain some measure of disease protection by being distributed in isolated habitats, and when controlled for overall habitat loss some studies have shown a positive relationship between species richness and fragmentation; this phenomenon has been called the habitat amount hypothesis, though the validity of this claim has been disputed. The ongoing debate of what size fragments are most relevant for conservation
6030-741: The late 1980s. Their conservation was deemed successful as it has saved over nearly half a billion acres of land around the world. A few approaches and measures which can be taken in order to conserve forests are methods by which erosion can be minimized, waste is properly disposed, conserve native tree species to maintain genetic diversity , and setting aside forestland (provides habitat for critical wildlife species ). Additionally, forest fires can also occur frequently and measures can also be taken to further prevent forest fires from occurring. For example, in Guatemala ’s culturally and ecologically significant Petén region, researchers were able to find over
6120-446: The local loss of biodiversity and the local loss of function. Moreover, fragmentation can change the microclimate at both local and regional scales, influencing biodiversity through interactions with anthropogenic climate change . Overall, habitat fragmentation significantly disrupts ecosystem services by altering nutrient retention, biodiversity, and ecosystem functioning at various spatial and temporal scales. Forest fragmentation
6210-552: The males no longer have any reason to use it or have any songs to match. Humans have also brought on varying implications into ecosystems which in turn affect animal behaviour and responses generated. Although there are some species which are able to survive these kinds of harsh conditions, such as, cutting down wood in the forests for pulp and paper industries, there are animals which can survive this change but some that cannot. An example includes, varying aquatic insects are able to identify appropriate ponds to lay their eggs with
6300-441: The near future, the degree of fragmentation will significantly rise. After intensive clearing, the separate fragments tend to be very small islands isolated from each other by cropland, pasture, pavement, or even barren land. The latter is often the result of slash and burn farming in tropical forests . In the wheat belt of central-western New South Wales , Australia , 90% of the native vegetation has been cleared and over 99% of
6390-504: The next, especially for species living in smaller population sizes. Whereas, for species of larger populations have more genetic mutations which can arise and genetic recombination impacts which can increase species survival in those environments. Overall, habitat fragmentation results in habitat disintegration and habitat loss which both tie into destructing biodiversity as a whole. Evidence of habitat destruction through natural processes such as volcanism , fire, and climate change
6480-450: The number of species in a fragment and the relative contributions of demographic and genetic processes to the risk of global population extinction depend on habitat configuration, stochastic environmental variation and species features. Minor fluctuations in climate, resources, or other factors that would be unremarkable and quickly corrected in large populations can be catastrophic in small, isolated populations. Thus fragmentation of habitat
6570-426: The part of the state south of suburban Boston and extending east and south through Cape Cod and the islands of Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard . Initiatives would include the creation of "River Greenways" along the major rivers within this region; the creation an east-west greenway through this area by linking major state parks and other protected open space; the protection and extension of existing greenways such as
6660-933: The pattern that long temporal scales are required to discern many strong system responses. The presence of forest fragments influences the supply of various ecosystems in adjacent agricultural fields (Mitchell et al. 2014). Mitchell et al. (2014), researched on six varying ecosystem factors such as crop production, decomposition , pesticide regulation , carbon storage, soil fertility , and water quality regulation in soybean fields through separate distances by nearby forest fragments which all varied in isolation and size across an agricultural landscape in Quebec, Canada . Sustainable forest management can be achieved in several ways including by managing forests for ecosystem services (beyond simple provisioning), through government compensation schemes, and through effective regulation and legal frameworks. The only realistic method of conserving forests
6750-411: The phenomenon of habitat being cut into smaller pieces without significant reduction in habitat area. Scientists who use the stricter definition of "habitat fragmentation" per se would refer to the loss of habitat area as "habitat loss" and explicitly mention both terms if describing a situation where the habitat becomes less connected and there is less overall habitat. Furthermore, habitat fragmentation
6840-410: The properties of the remaining habitat" (van den Berg et al. 2001) . Habitat fragmentation is the landscape level of the phenomenon, and patch level process. Thus meaning, it covers; the patch areas, edge effects, and patch shape complexity. In scientific literature, there is some debate whether the term "habitat fragmentation" applies in cases of habitat loss , or whether the term primarily applies to
6930-1051: The protection of the sub-ranges of the Metacomet Ridge ; the linking of the trails on the Metacomet Ridge to the Connecticut River ; protection of the Connecticut River and its tributaries including the Deerfield , Westfield, and Millers rivers; creating east-west rail trail greenways through the region using the Norwottuck Rail Trail , Northampton Bike Path , Manhan Rail Trail , and the Amherst Bikeway , as well as new trails; developing greenways that would link together areas notable for their biodiversity, natural features, and recreational opportunities; securing and protecting existing long distance trail corridors through
7020-534: The region north of the Boston suburbs and east of Worcester County. Initiatives in this region would include the protection of unused Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority corridors for future conversion via rails-to trails programs; the protection of water quality, natural resources and recreational opportunities along major riverways such as the Merrimack River , Shawsheen River , and Ipswich River ; creation of
7110-558: The region, including the Metacomet-Monadnock Trail , Robert Frost Trail , Pocumtuck Ridge Trail , and Mahican-Mohawk Trail; and creating a loop trail through the outlying areas of the Quabbin Reservoir watershed. Central Massachusetts includes most of Worcester County east to the outlying suburbs of Boston between I-495 and Massachusetts Route 128 . Recommendations for this region would include securing and protecting
7200-489: The region. Habitat fragmentation Habitat fragmentation describes the emergence of discontinuities (fragmentation) in an organism's preferred environment ( habitat ), causing population fragmentation and ecosystem decay . Causes of habitat fragmentation include geological processes that slowly alter the layout of the physical environment (suspected of being one of the major causes of speciation ), and human activity such as land conversion , which can alter
7290-438: The remaining habitat patches are smaller, they tend to support smaller populations of fewer species. Small populations are at an increased risk of a variety of genetic consequences that influence their long-term survival. Remnant populations often contain only a subset of the genetic diversity found in the previously continuous habitat. In these cases, processes that act upon underlying genetic diversity, such as adaptation , have
7380-432: The right-of-ways are preserved in an early successional stage. Forest fragmentation reduces food resources and habitat sources for animals thus splitting these species apart. Thus, making these animals become much more susceptible to effects of predation and making them less likely to perform interbreeding - lowering genetic diversity. Additionally, forest fragmentation affects the native plant species present within
7470-562: The same biodiversity that a single contiguous forest would hold, even if their combined area is much greater than the single forest. However, forest islands in rural landscapes greatly increase their biodiversity. In the Maulino forest of Chile fragmentation appear to not affect overall plant diversity much, and tree diversity is indeed higher in fragments than in large continuous forests. McGill University in Montreal , Quebec , Canada released
7560-422: The severe and lasting ecological impacts of fragmentation, which could be highlighted in the sections discussing the consequences of fragmentation. Habitat loss, which can occur through the process of habitat fragmentation, is considered to be the greatest threat to species. But, the effect of the configuration of habitat patches within the landscape, independent of the effect of the amount of habitat within
7650-480: The so-called "behavioral space race". The way in which fragmentation changes and re-shapes these interactions can occur in many different forms. Most prey species have patches of land that are a refuge from their predators, allowing them the safety to reproduce and raise their young. Human introduced structures such as roads and pipelines alter these areas by facilitating predator activity in these refuges, increasing predator-prey overlap. The opposite could also occur in
7740-452: The song, and the territorial call. The territorial call is used by males to defend and signal territory from other male Larks and is shared between neighbouring territories when males respond to a rivals song. Occasionally it is used as a threat signal to signify an impending attack on territory. A large song repertoire can enhance a male's ability to survive and reproduce as he has a greater ability to defend his territory from other males, and
7830-453: The strategic difficulty of developing such greenways (most current greenways are north-south corridors). This strategy identifies abandoned railway beds as possible routes. Specific efforts here would include developing state-wide coalitions to address the creation of and east-west greenways. (The goal of securing these east-west corridor trail elements by 2003 was recently met by the development and extension of several rails-to-trails projects in
7920-646: The success of federal and state river protection programs to further conserve river corridors and habitat in Massachusetts. Specific strategies would include earmarking critical corridors and habitat for state and federal funding; enforcing river protection efforts via education and outreach; ensuring the creation and protection of public river access points and walkways; and facilitating the creation of zoning laws to protect river corridors and public access areas. 3. Strategically link important natural and human communities. The purpose of this strategy would be to strengthen
8010-438: The viability of existing recreational areas and habitats by extending them and linking them to each other and to inhabited areas, thereby reducing habitat fragmentation , increasing resource awareness through the proliferation of public contact points, and expanding the recreational value of previously isolated resource islands. Specifics here would include identifying potential links between existing resources and focusing funds on
8100-413: The way habitat fragmentation affects the genetics and extinction rates of species has been heavily studied, fragmentation has also been shown to affect species' behaviours and cultures as well. This is important because social interactions can determine and have an effect on a species' fitness and survival. Habitat fragmentation alters the resources available and the structure of habitats, as a result, alters
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