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56-513: In 1985, The Trust for Public Land added 12 acres to the refuge. Besides providing habitat for birds and wildlife, the pristine coastal habitat is enjoyed by visitors who come to swim, hike, surf, fish, and birdwatch. The refuge includes the mouth of the Parker River, which drains the mainland on the other side of Plum Island Sound. The refuge also includes the southern three-quarters of Plum Island , an 8-mile (13 km) long barrier island off

112-433: A disaster: it's only when it affects people or is caused by them that is counts as a disaster. It is argued that natural disasters are always linked to human action or inaction or rooted in anthropogenic processes . Disasters, economic loss, and the underlying vulnerabilities that drive risk are increasing. Global risks like climate change are having major impacts everywhere. Scientists forecast climate change will increase

168-653: A high-quality park or open space within a 10-minute walk of every resident of every U.S. urban census tract. The Trust for Public Land simultaneously focuses on public access-oriented land protection, such as additions to Yosemite National Park , the Appalachian Trail , Cape Cod National Seashore , and other national, state, and municipal parks across America. The organization also prioritizes projects that celebrate and advance social equity , like helping to create Martin Luther King Jr. National Historical Park ,

224-896: A higher share of plant-based foods . This has both mitigation and adaptation benefits. Plant-based options have much lower energy and water requirements. Adaptation options can investigate the dietary patterns that are better suited to the regional, socioeconomic and cultural context. Social-cultural norms strongly affect preferences for foods. Policies such as subsidies, taxes, and marketing can also support dietary choices that help adaptation. Agriculture offers many opportunities for adaptation. These include changing planting times, or changing to crops and livestock that are better adapted to climate conditions and presence of pests. Other examples are breeding more resilient crops and selecting genetically modified crops. All these aim to improve food security and nutrition. Migration counts as behavioural climate adaptation for some, although others refer to it as

280-564: A knowledge loop that includes targeted user communities' access to, interpretation of, communication of, and use of pertinent, accurate, and trustworthy climate information, as well as their feedback on that use. Climate information services involve the timely production, translation and delivery of useful climate data, information and knowledge. Institutional responses include zoning regulations, new building codes , new insurance schemes, and coordination mechanisms. Policies are important tools to integrate issues of climate change adaptation. At

336-509: A year for the coming decades. In many cases, the cost will be less than the damage that it avoids. The IPCC defines climate change adaptation in this way: Adaptation actions can be incremental and transformative. Incremental actions are actions that aim to maintain the essence and integrity of a system. Transformative actions are actions that change the fundamental attributes of a system in response to climate change and its impacts. Research on climate change adaptation has been ongoing since

392-430: Is a closely related area of work and research topic that has recently emerged. It describes situations in which adaptation, mitigation and development solutions are pursued together. It is able to benefit from synergies from among the actions and reduce trade-offs. Strategies to limit climate change are complementary to efforts to adapt to it. Limiting warming, by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and removing them from

448-421: Is an important step in understanding current and future adaptation needs and options. As of 2022, the level of warming is 1.2 °C (34.2 °F) above levels before the industrial revolution. It is on track to increase to 2.5 to 2.9 °C (36.5 to 37.2 °F) by the end of the century. This is causing a variety of secondary effects. Many negative effects of climate change involve changes in extremes or

504-547: Is because evacuation and emergency access becomes easier. Reduced air pollution from public transport improves health. This in turn may lead to improved economic resilience, as healthy workers perform better. There are many adaptation responses. We sometimes call them adaptation measures, strategies or solutions. They help manage impacts and risks to people and nature. Current adaptation focuses on near-term climate risks. It also focuses on particular sectors, such as water and agriculture, and on regions, such as Africa and Asia. It

560-638: Is because transformational adaptation is connected with implementation at scale and ideally at the system-level. Strengthening resilience is therefore important for maintaining a capacity for transformation. Transformations, and the processes of transition, cover the major systems and sectors at scale. These are energy, land and ecosystems, urban and infrastructure, and industrial and societal. Transformations may fail if they do not integrate social justice, consider power differences and political inclusion, and if they do not deliver improvements in incomes and wellbeing for everyone. Climate resilient development

616-468: Is important to close gaps between adaptation that is carried out and the needs relative to today's climate in order to reduce risks to a tolerable level. However, future adaptation must also anticipate future climate change risks. Some options may become less effective or entirely unfeasible as global warming increases. Adaptation responses fall into four categories that all directly aim to reduce risks and exploit opportunities: We can also group options

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672-483: Is important to help countries manage climate risks. Plans, policies or strategies are in place in more than 70% of countries. Agreements like the Paris Agreement encourage countries to develop adaptation plans. Other levels of government like cities and provinces also use adaptation planning. So do economic sectors. Donor countries can give money to developing countries to help develop national adaptation plans. This

728-458: Is important to help them implement more adaptation. Monitoring and evaluation activities are key parts of adaptation efforts. They ensure strategies work well and allow for necessary changes along the way. The adaptation carried out so far is not enough to manage risks at current levels of climate change. And adaptation must also anticipate future risks of climate change. The costs of climate change adaptation are likely to cost billions of dollars

784-799: Is in three categories: 1. Structural and physical adaptation (including engineering and built environment, technological, ecosystem-based, services); 2. Social adaptation (educational, informational, behavioural); 3. Institutional adaptation (economic organizations, laws and regulation, government policies and programmes). Other ways to distinguish types of adaptation are anticipatory versus reactive, autonomous versus planned and incremental versus transformational. Built environment options include installing or upgrading infrastructure to protect against flooding, sea level rise, heatwaves and extreme heat. They also include infrastructure to respond to changed rainfall patterns in agriculture. This could be infrastructure for irrigation. These are explained further in

840-407: Is known as Great Marsh , which has a much greater area than the refuge. Hiking, jogging and cycling along Plum Island Drive only is permitted any time the refuge is open. Photography is permitted from any location open to the public. Beach locations may be visited over boardwalks out of nesting season. Trailers and licensed fishing are permitted on the beach in the autumn. Access is via roads through

896-507: Is not limited in such spending. This affiliate entity is now called the Trust for Public Land Action Fund and frequently works with the Trust for Public Land to help pass local and state conservation finance measures. Climate change adaptation Climate change adaptation is the process of adjusting to the effects of climate change . These can be both current or expected impacts. Adaptation aims to moderate or avoid harm for people, and

952-443: Is not possible to directly reduce hazards. This is because hazards are affected by current and future changes in climate. Instead, adaptation addresses the risks of climate impacts that arise from the way climate-related hazards interact with the exposure and vulnerability of human and ecological systems. Exposure refers to the presence of people, livelihoods, ecosystems and other assets in places that could suffer negative effects. It

1008-470: Is one way to reduce vulnerability to climate hazards. For instance, mangroves can dampen storm energy. So they can help prevent flooding. In this way, protection of the mangrove ecosystem can be a form of adaptation. Insurance and livelihood diversification increase resilience and decrease vulnerability. Other ways to decrease vulnerability include strengthening social protection and building infrastructure more resistant to hazards. Adaptive capacity in

1064-412: Is part of the broader consideration of sustainable development . Climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction have similar goals (to reduce potential impacts of hazards and increase the resilience of people at risk). They use similar concepts and are informed by similar sources and studies. Disasters are often triggered by natural hazards. A natural event such as a fire or flood is not of itself

1120-447: Is possible to reduce exposure by retreating from areas with high climate risks, such as floodplains. Improving systems for early warnings and evacuations are other ways to reduce exposure. The IPCC defines climate change vulnerability as "the propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected" by climate change. It can apply to humans but also to natural systems . Human and ecosystem vulnerability are interdependent. According to

1176-504: Is strong variation within countries. The determinants of adaptive capacity include: The IPCC considers climate resilience to be “the capacity of social, economic and ecosystems to cope with a hazardous event or trend or disturbance”. It includes the abilities to reorganise and learn. This definition is similar to that of climate change adaptation. However, resilience involves a more systematic approach to absorbing change. It involves using those changes to become more efficient. The idea

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1232-423: Is that people can intervene to reorganise the system when disturbance creates an opportunity to do so. Implemented adaptation most often builds upon resilience as a way of bouncing back to recover after a disturbance. Experts consider it to be incremental rather than transformational. On the other hand, climate resilience-focused projects can be activities to promote and support transformational adaptation. This

1288-1252: Is usually done alongside climate change mitigation . It also aims to exploit opportunities. Humans may also intervene to help adjust for natural systems. There are many adaptation strategies or options. For instance, building hospitals that can withstand natural disasters, roads that don't get washed away in the face of rains and floods. They can help manage impacts and risks to people and nature. The four types of adaptation actions are infrastructural , institutional, behavioural and nature-based options. Some examples of these are building seawalls or inland flood defenses, providing new insurance schemes, changing crop planting times or varieties, and installing green roofs or green spaces. Adaptation can be reactive (responding to climate impacts as they happen) or proactive (taking steps in anticipation of future climate change). The need for adaptation varies from place to place. Different regions must adapt differently because they each face particular sets of climate risks . For instance, coastal regions might prioritize sea-level rise defenses and mangrove restoration. Arid areas could focus on water scarcity solutions, land restoration and heat management. The needs for adaptation will also depend on how much

1344-670: The National Conservation Easement Database , LandVote , and "Climate-Smart Cities" Decision Support Tools . The Trust for Public Land was founded in San Francisco in 1972 by Huey Johnson , the former western regional director of The Nature Conservancy , and other San Francisco Bay Area and national lawyers and conservationists. Johnson's goal was to create an organization that would use emerging real estate, legal, and financial techniques to conserve land for human use and public benefit. An additional founding goal

1400-881: The Stonewall National Monument , and the Kashia Coastal Reserve. Although the Trust for Public Land is an accredited land trust , the organization differs from conventional land trusts in that it does not generally hold or steward conservation property interests. Instead, the Trust for Public Land works with community members, public agencies, and other conservation non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to identify park-creation and land protection projects, and then helps plan, fund, protect, and/or create those spaces, with ownership of any resulting property interests typically transferring to local, state, or federal public agencies, or to other conservation NGOs. In addition to creating parks and protecting open spaces,

1456-461: The United States Fish and Wildlife Service . The Trust for Public Land The Trust for Public Land is a U.S. nonprofit organization with a mission to "create parks and protect land for people, ensuring healthy, livable communities for generations to come". Since its founding in 1972, the Trust for Public Land has completed 5,000 park-creation and land conservation projects across

1512-628: The codes or regulations that buildings must conform to is important for keeping people healthy and comfortable during extremes of hot and cold and protecting them from floods. There are many ways to do this. They include increasing the insulation values, adding solar shading, increasing natural ventilation or passive cooling , codes for green roofs to reduce urban heat island effects or requiring waterfront properties to have higher foundations. Land use zoning controls are central to investment in urban development . They can reduce risks to areas threatened by floods and landslides. Insurance spreads

1568-740: The 1990s. The number and variety of subtopics has greatly increased since then. Adaptation has become an established policy area in the 2010s and since the Paris Agreement, and an important topic for policy research. Scientific research into climate change adaptation generally starts with analyses of the likely effects of climate change on people, ecosystems, and the environment. These impacts cover its effects on lives, livelihoods, health and well-being, ecosystems and species, economic, social and cultural assets, and infrastructure. Impacts may include changed agricultural yields, increased floods, and droughts or coral reef bleaching. Analysis of such impacts

1624-613: The Global Goal are in development as of 2023. It will support the long-term adaptation goals of the governments that are parties to the agreement. It also aims to fund support for the most vulnerable countries’ adaptation needs in the context of the 1.5/2 °C goal. It has three core components. These are reducing vulnerability to climate change, enhancing adaptive capacity, and strengthening resilience. Adaptation can help decrease climate risk by addressing three interacting risk factors. These are hazards , vulnerability , and exposure. It

1680-602: The IPCC, climate change vulnerability encompasses a variety of concepts and elements, including sensitivity or susceptibility to harm and lack of capacity to cope and adapt. Sensitivity to climate change could be reduced by for example increasing the storage capacity of a reservoir, or planting crops that are more resistant to climate variability. It is also possible to reduce vulnerability in towns and cities with green garden spaces. These can reduce heat stress and food insecurity for low-income neighbourhoods. Ecosystem-based adaptation

1736-789: The Trust for Public Land is a leading advocate for public conservation funding at the local, state, and federal levels. Through campaigns, ballot measures, and legislative advocacy, the organization works—often in concert with its affiliated 501(c)(4) nonprofit, the Trust for Public Land Action Fund—to ensure adequate funding for many of the federal and state public funding programs relied on by public park and conservation agencies, and by conservation NGOs. The Trust for Public Land also researches, publishes, and contributes to many authoritative national databases and platforms providing information about U.S. parks, protected open spaces, conservation finance, and urban climate risks, including ParkScore , ParkServe , Parkology , The Conservation Alamanac ,

Parker River National Wildlife Refuge - Misplaced Pages Continue

1792-494: The UN is running a partnership titled "Climate Risk and Early Warning Systems" to aid high risk countries with neglected warning systems in developing them. Climate Information Services (CIS) (or climate services) entail the dissemination of climate data in a way that aids people and organizations in making decisions. CIS helps its users foresee and control the hazards associated with a changing and unpredictable climate. It encompasses

1848-514: The United States, protected over 3 million acres, and helped pass more than 500 ballot measures—creating $ 70 billion in voter-approved public funding for parks and open spaces. The Trust for Public Land also researches and publishes authoritative data about parks, open space, conservation finance, and urban climate change adaptation . Headquartered in San Francisco , the organization is among

1904-578: The ability to design and implement effective adaptation strategies, or to react to evolving hazards and stresses. Societies that can respond to change quickly and successfully have a high adaptive capacity. Conversely, high adaptive capacity does not necessarily lead to successful adaptation action. It does not necessarily succeed in goals of equity and enhancing well-being. In general, adaptation capacity differs between high and low-income countries. By some indices such as ND-GAIN , high-income countries tend to have higher adaptive capacity. However, there

1960-418: The adoption of resilient building codes to mitigate potential damages. Coordination helps achieve goals shared by a range of people or organizations. Examples are information-sharing or joint implementation of adaptation options. Coordination helps use resources effectively. It avoids duplication, promotes consistency across government, and makes it easier for all people and organizations involved to understand

2016-400: The atmosphere, is also known as climate change mitigation . There are some synergies or co-benefits between adaptation and mitigation. Synergies include the benefits of public transport for both mitigation and adaptation. Public transport has lower greenhouse gas emissions per kilometer travelled than cars. A good public transport network also increases resilience in case of disasters. This

2072-451: The character of the fish and the bird species that fed on them. Even today coastal currents from the Merrimack in flood deposit unacceptable levels of debris on the beach, which are typically removed in public campaigns. The creation of the reservation involved the purchase and evacuation of the farmland, the stabilization of the dunes by planting Black Pine , an intrusive Alpine species, and

2128-500: The climate changes or is expected to change, which is different from place to place. Adaptation is particularly important in developing countries because they are most vulnerable to climate change. Adaptation needs are high for food, water and other sectors important for economic output, jobs and incomes. One of the challenges is to prioritize the needs of communities, including the poorest, to help ensure they are not disproportionately affected by climate change. Adaptation planning

2184-526: The coast of mainland Essex County. The southern tip of the island, however, belongs to Sandy Point State Reservation . Trails and observation stations are scattered throughout the refuge. Included in the refuge is Plum Island Sound and all the smaller islands within it, and the mouth of the Plum Island River on the Plum Island Sound side only. The marsh in and around the winding channels of the rivers

2240-433: The context of climate change covers human, natural, or managed systems. It looks at how they respond to both climate variability and extremes. It covers the ability of a system to adjust to climate change to moderate potential damages, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with consequences. Adaptive capacity is the ability to reduce the likelihood of negative impacts of climate-related hazards. It does this through

2296-426: The dunes. Licensed deer hunting is permitted for one day of the year up to a maximum limit of kills. The process is controlled by the park employees and volunteers. Seasonal licensed commercial shellfishing is permitted at one location where a stream through the marsh bends close to the island. Licensed seasonal wildfowl hunting is permitted in a special area on the right bank of the Parker River. It must be accessed from

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2352-512: The enhancement of biodiversity by the creation of artificial fresh-water pools on the inland side. More recently heavy equipment was used to replace the parallel channels with unconnected pools in some places, recreating the original marsh. Since the prohibition of the public from the beach in the summer, seals from the Atlantic have been basking there. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of

2408-432: The financial impact of flooding and other extreme weather events. There is an increasing availability of such options. For example, index-based insurance is a new product which triggers payment when weather indices such as precipitation or temperature cross a threshold. It aims to help customers such as farmers deal with production risks. Access to reinsurance may make cities more resilient. Where there are failures in

2464-624: The food supply chain. Thus it can be a risk to food security and nutrition. Adaptation measures can review the production, processing and other handling practices of suppliers. Examples include further sorting to separate damaged products, drying the product for better storage or improved packaging. Other behaviour change options for retailers and consumers include accepting fruit and vegetables that appear less than perfect, redistributing food surpluses, and lowering prices on nearly expired food. Dietary change options in regions with excess consumption of calories include replacing meat and dairy foods with

2520-506: The frequency and severity of extreme weather events and disasters. So adaptation may include measures to increase preparedness and relevant disaster response capacities. For humans, adaptation aims to moderate or avoid harm, and to exploit opportunities. For natural systems, humans may intervene to help adjustment. The Paris Agreement of 2015 requires countries to keep global temperature rise this century to less than 2 °C above pre-industrial levels, and to pursue efforts to limit

2576-508: The global south. Behavioural adaptation is a change in the strategies, practices and actions that help to reduce risk. These can include protecting homes from flooding, protecting crops from drought, and adopting different income-earning activities. Behavioural change is the most common form of adaptation. Food waste spoilage increases with exposure to higher temperatures and humidity. It also increases with extreme events such as flooding and contamination. This can happen at different points in

2632-480: The island, however, is not in its original state, due to earlier draining of Great Marsh by parallel channels and destabilization of the dunes by overuse. Much of the inland side of the island was cleared for farming. The farmers also used the marsh grass for haying and pasturing animals. In the waters, the chemical pollution of the Merrimack River and the damming of its stream at a number of locations totally changed

2688-556: The largest U.S. conservation nonprofits, with approximately 30 field offices across the U.S., including a federal affairs function in Washington, D.C. Consistent with its "Land for People" mission, the Trust for Public Land is widely known for urban conservation work, including New York City playgrounds and community gardens, Chicago's 606 linear park, Los Angeles green alleys, Climate-Smart Cities programs in 20 American cities, and "The 10-Minute Walk" initiative, which aims to put

2744-728: The mainland side. New visitor facilities offering exhibits and programs are located on the mainland bordering Plum Island Airport. Any other activities within the refuge are strictly forbidden; the brochure presents a long list. The refuge consists of 4,662 acres (18.87 km) of diverse habitats including sandy beach and dune , shrub / thicket , bog , swamp , freshwater marsh , saltwater marsh and associated creek, river, mudflat , and newly created salt pannes . These and other refuge habitats support varied and abundant populations of resident and migratory wildlife including more than 300 species of birds and additional species of mammals, reptiles, amphibians, insects, and plants. The ecology of

2800-794: The national level, adaptation strategies appear in National Adaptation Plans (NAPS) and National Adaptation Programmes of Action ( NAPA ). They also occur in national climate change policies and strategies. These are at different levels of development in different countries and in cities. This is discussed further in the section below on "implementation". Cities, states, and provinces often have considerable responsibility in land use planning, public health, and disaster management. Institutional adaptation actions occur more frequently in cities than in other sectors. Some have begun to adapt to threats intensified by climate change, such as flooding, bushfires, heatwaves, and rising sea levels. Managing

2856-648: The private insurance market, the public sector can subsidize premiums. One study identified key equity issues for policy considerations: Government-subsidized insurance, such as the U.S. National Flood Insurance Program, comes under criticism for providing a perverse incentive to develop properties in hazardous areas. This increases overall risk. Insurance can also undermine other efforts such as property level protection and resilience to increase adaptation. Appropriate land-use policies can counter this behavioural effect. These policies limit new construction where there are current or future climate risks. They also encourage

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2912-455: The section below "by type of climate change impact". Because of changes in extreme weather and sea level rise , due to climate change, the UN has recommended early warning systems as key elements of climate change adaptation and climate risk management . Flooding, cyclones and other rapidly changing weather events can make communities in coastal areas, along floodzones and reliant on agriculture very vulnerable to extreme events. To this end

2968-402: The temperature increase to 1.5 °C. Even if greenhouse gas emissions are stopped relatively soon, global warming and its effects will last many years. This is due to the inertia of the climate system . So both carbon neutrality ("net zero") and adaptation are necessary. The Global Goal on Adaptation was also established under the Paris Agreement. The specific targets and indicators for

3024-562: The way conditions vary rather than changes in average conditions. For example, the average sea level in a port might not be as important as the height of water during a storm surge. That is because a storm surge can cause flooding. The average rainfall in an area might not be as important as how frequent and severe droughts and extreme precipitation events become. Climate change contributes to disaster risk. So experts sometimes see climate change adaptation as one of many processes within disaster risk reduction . In turn, disaster risk reduction

3080-450: The work. In the food production sector, adaptation projects financed through the UNFCCC often include coordination between national governments and administrations at the state, provincial or city level. There are fewer examples of coordination between community-level and national government. Individuals and households play a central role in adaptation. There are many examples particularly in

3136-445: Was to extend the conservation and environmental movements to cities, where an increasingly large segment of the population lived. Early Trust for Public Land programs of the 1970s and '80s included: As a 501(c)(3) nonprofit, the Trust for Public Land is legally limited in the amount it can spend on campaigning for legislative and ballot measures. In 2000, the organization launched a 501(c)(4) affiliate, The Conservation Campaign , which

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