90-690: The Summons of the Lord of Hosts is a collection of the tablets of Baháʼu'lláh , founder of the Baháʼí Faith , that were written to the kings and rulers of the world during his exile in Adrianople and in the early years of his exile to the fortress town of Acre (now in Israel) in 1868. Baháʼu'lláh claimed to be the Promised One of all religions and all ages and summoned the leaders of East and West to recognize him as
180-562: A collection of related dialects that constitute the precursor of Arabic, first emerged during the Iron Age . Previously, the earliest attestation of Old Arabic was thought to be a single 1st century CE inscription in Sabaic script at Qaryat al-Faw , in southern present-day Saudi Arabia. However, this inscription does not participate in several of the key innovations of the Arabic language group, such as
270-435: A corpus of poetic texts, in addition to Qur'an usage and Bedouin informants whom he considered to be reliable speakers of the ʿarabiyya . Arabic spread with the spread of Islam . Following the early Muslim conquests , Arabic gained vocabulary from Middle Persian and Turkish . In the early Abbasid period , many Classical Greek terms entered Arabic through translations carried out at Baghdad's House of Wisdom . By
360-1077: A dialect of Arabic and written in the Latin alphabet . The Balkan languages, including Albanian, Greek , Serbo-Croatian, and Bulgarian , have also acquired many words of Arabic origin, mainly through direct contact with Ottoman Turkish . Arabic has influenced languages across the globe throughout its history, especially languages where Islam is the predominant religion and in countries that were conquered by Muslims. The most markedly influenced languages are Persian , Turkish , Hindustani ( Hindi and Urdu ), Kashmiri , Kurdish , Bosnian , Kazakh , Bengali , Malay ( Indonesian and Malaysian ), Maldivian , Pashto , Punjabi , Albanian , Armenian , Azerbaijani , Sicilian, Spanish, Greek, Bulgarian, Tagalog , Sindhi , Odia , Hebrew and African languages such as Hausa , Amharic , Tigrinya , Somali , Tamazight , and Swahili . Conversely, Arabic has borrowed some words (mostly nouns) from other languages, including its sister-language Aramaic, Persian, Greek, and Latin and to
450-483: A lesser extent and more recently from Turkish, English, French, and Italian. Arabic is spoken by as many as 380 million speakers, both native and non-native, in the Arab world, making it the fifth most spoken language in the world, and the fourth most used language on the internet in terms of users. It also serves as the liturgical language of more than 2 billion Muslims . In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked Arabic
540-569: A message to the Sultan through a Turkish office asking for a face to face meeting where he could convey the truth of his message, and that he would be ready to produce anything the Sultan considered would be proof of the truth of his message. He stated that if in this meeting he fulfilled the Sultan's request, then the Sultan should release all the innocent prisoners. Baháʼu'lláh states that the Sultan never accepted His request. The Lawh-i Fu'ád ( Persian : لوحى فؤاد ) or Tablet of Fu'ád revealed in 1869
630-677: A millennium before the modern period . Early lexicographers ( لُغَوِيُّون lughawiyyūn ) sought to explain words in the Quran that were unfamiliar or had a particular contextual meaning, and to identify words of non-Arabic origin that appear in the Quran. They gathered shawāhid ( شَوَاهِد 'instances of attested usage') from poetry and the speech of the Arabs—particularly the Bedouin ʾaʿrāb [ ar ] ( أَعْراب ) who were perceived to speak
720-576: A result, many European languages have borrowed words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary, is seen in European languages (mainly Spanish and to a lesser extent Portuguese , Catalan , and Sicilian ) owing to the proximity of Europe and the long-lasting Arabic cultural and linguistic presence, mainly in Southern Iberia, during the Al-Andalus era. Maltese is a Semitic language developed from
810-462: A script derived from ASA attest to a language known as Hasaitic . On the northwestern frontier of Arabia, various languages known to scholars as Thamudic B , Thamudic D, Safaitic , and Hismaic are attested. The last two share important isoglosses with later forms of Arabic, leading scholars to theorize that Safaitic and Hismaic are early forms of Arabic and that they should be considered Old Arabic . Linguists generally believe that "Old Arabic",
900-465: A single language, despite mutual incomprehensibility among differing spoken versions. From a linguistic standpoint, it is often said that the various spoken varieties of Arabic differ among each other collectively about as much as the Romance languages . This is an apt comparison in a number of ways. The period of divergence from a single spoken form is similar—perhaps 1500 years for Arabic, 2000 years for
990-586: A third stage of Baháʼu'lláh's claim to the station of He whom God shall make manifest to the world. The first stage consisted of Baháʼu'lláh telling those who accompanied him to Constantinople in the Garden of Ridván ; the second stage consisted of Baháʼu'lláh announcing his station to all the members of the Bábí community in Adrianople through various tablets, and the final stage consisted of Baháʼu'lláh proclaiming his claim to
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#17328593323311080-503: A type of Arabic. Cypriot Arabic is recognized as a minority language in Cyprus. The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia , which is the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. Tawleed is the process of giving a new shade of meaning to an old classical word. For example, al-hatif lexicographically means
1170-499: A variety of regional vernacular Arabic dialects , which are not necessarily mutually intelligible. Classical Arabic is the language found in the Quran , used from the period of Pre-Islamic Arabia to that of the Abbasid Caliphate . Classical Arabic is prescriptive, according to the syntactic and grammatical norms laid down by classical grammarians (such as Sibawayh ) and the vocabulary defined in classical dictionaries (such as
1260-470: A wider audience." In the wake of the industrial revolution and European hegemony and colonialism , pioneering Arabic presses, such as the Amiri Press established by Muhammad Ali (1819), dramatically changed the diffusion and consumption of Arabic literature and publications. Rifa'a al-Tahtawi proposed the establishment of Madrasat al-Alsun in 1836 and led a translation campaign that highlighted
1350-727: Is a Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world . The ISO assigns language codes to 32 varieties of Arabic , including its standard form of Literary Arabic, known as Modern Standard Arabic , which is derived from Classical Arabic . This distinction exists primarily among Western linguists; Arabic speakers themselves generally do not distinguish between Modern Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic, but rather refer to both as al-ʿarabiyyatu l-fuṣḥā ( اَلعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْفُصْحَىٰ "the eloquent Arabic") or simply al-fuṣḥā ( اَلْفُصْحَىٰ ). Arabic
1440-585: Is a minimum level of comprehension between all Arabic dialects, this level can increase or decrease based on geographic proximity: for example, Levantine and Gulf speakers understand each other much better than they do speakers from the Maghreb. The issue of diglossia between spoken and written language is a complicating factor: A single written form, differing sharply from any of the spoken varieties learned natively, unites several sometimes divergent spoken forms. For political reasons, Arabs mostly assert that they all speak
1530-542: Is a sister language rather than their direct ancestor. Arabia had a wide variety of Semitic languages in antiquity. The term "Arab" was initially used to describe those living in the Arabian Peninsula , as perceived by geographers from ancient Greece . In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside the Ancient South Arabian family (e.g. Southern Thamudic) were spoken. It
1620-469: Is believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages (non-Central Semitic languages) were spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hejaz , Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages. In Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested. In eastern Arabia, inscriptions in
1710-408: Is credited with establishing the rules of Arabic prosody . Al-Jahiz (776–868) proposed to Al-Akhfash al-Akbar an overhaul of the grammar of Arabic, but it would not come to pass for two centuries. The standardization of Arabic reached completion around the end of the 8th century. The first comprehensive description of the ʿarabiyya "Arabic", Sībawayhi's al - Kitāb , is based first of all upon
1800-468: Is credited with standardizing Arabic grammar , or an-naḥw ( النَّحو "the way" ), and pioneering a system of diacritics to differentiate consonants ( نقط الإعجام nuqaṭu‿l-i'jām "pointing for non-Arabs") and indicate vocalization ( التشكيل at-tashkīl ). Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi (718–786) compiled the first Arabic dictionary, Kitāb al-'Ayn ( كتاب العين "The Book of the Letter ع "), and
1890-566: Is not present in the spoken varieties, but deletes Classical words that sound obsolete in MSA. In addition, MSA has borrowed or coined many terms for concepts that did not exist in Quranic times, and MSA continues to evolve. Some words have been borrowed from other languages—notice that transliteration mainly indicates spelling and not real pronunciation (e.g., فِلْم film 'film' or ديمقراطية dīmuqrāṭiyyah 'democracy'). The current preference
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#17328593323311980-836: Is official in Mali and recognized as a minority language in Morocco, while the Senegalese government adopted the Latin script to write it. Maltese is official in (predominantly Catholic ) Malta and written with the Latin script . Linguists agree that it is a variety of spoken Arabic, descended from Siculo-Arabic , though it has experienced extensive changes as a result of sustained and intensive contact with Italo-Romance varieties, and more recently also with English. Due to "a mix of social, cultural, historical, political, and indeed linguistic factors", many Maltese people today consider their language Semitic but not
2070-559: Is the third most widespread official language after English and French, one of six official languages of the United Nations , and the liturgical language of Islam . Arabic is widely taught in schools and universities around the world and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, governments and the media. During the Middle Ages , Arabic was a major vehicle of culture and learning, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As
2160-677: Is the Manifestation of God for this day, and that they should accept his message. The message to Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, which is the longest message, was delivered to the Shah by Badíʻ , a youth who was killed by the Shah shortly thereafter. The Súriy-i-Ra'ís ( Persian : سورةى رئيس , Suriy-e Ra'is ), or "Tablet of the Chief", which addresses Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha , the Ottoman Prime Minister,
2250-512: Is the concept of divine destiny in Islam . The term "tablet" is part of the title of many shorter works of Baháʼu'lláh , founder of the Baháʼí Faith , and his son and successor ʻAbdu'l-Bahá . Arabic Arabic (endonym: اَلْعَرَبِيَّةُ , romanized : al-ʿarabiyyah , pronounced [al ʕaraˈbijːa] , or عَرَبِيّ , ʿarabīy , pronounced [ˈʕarabiː] or [ʕaraˈbij] )
2340-584: Is the variety used in most current, printed Arabic publications, spoken by some of the Arabic media across North Africa and the Middle East, and understood by most educated Arabic speakers. "Literary Arabic" and "Standard Arabic" ( فُصْحَى fuṣḥá ) are less strictly defined terms that may refer to Modern Standard Arabic or Classical Arabic. Some of the differences between Classical Arabic (CA) and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) are as follows: MSA uses much Classical vocabulary (e.g., dhahaba 'to go') that
2430-413: Is to avoid direct borrowings, preferring to either use loan translations (e.g., فرع farʻ 'branch', also used for the branch of a company or organization; جناح janāḥ 'wing', is also used for the wing of an airplane, building, air force, etc.), or to coin new words using forms within existing roots ( استماتة istimātah ' apoptosis ', using the root موت m/w/t 'death' put into
2520-516: Is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the industrial and post-industrial era , especially in modern times. Due to its grounding in Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic is removed over a millennium from everyday speech, which is construed as a multitude of dialects of this language. These dialects and Modern Standard Arabic are described by some scholars as not mutually comprehensible. The former are usually acquired in families, while
2610-641: The Haykal ("the Temple ") and explains the glory which is invested in it. Baháʼu'lláh, in response to a question, has stated that the Haykal is the person of Baháʼu'lláh. Adib Taherzadeh has written that "[i]t is fascinating to know that the One Who speaks with the voice of God in this Tablet is identical with the One spoken to." Regarding the Haykal, Baháʼu'lláh writes that it refers to
2700-445: The Lisān al-ʻArab ). Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary
2790-502: The Book of Exodus , God delivered the tablets twice, the first set having been smashed by Moses in his anger at the idol worship of the Israelites . The Preserved Tablet ( al-Lawhu 'l-Mahfuz ), the heavenly preserved record of all that has happened and will happen, contains qadar . Qadar ( Arabic : قدر , transliterated qadar , meaning "fate", "divine fore-ordainment", "predestination")
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2880-529: The Sasanian emperor against Muhammad . Regarding Âli Pasha's superior, Sultan Abdülaziz , Baháʼu'lláh prophesies that the Sultan will no longer control Adrinople: Land of Mystery (Adrianople) and what is beside it ... shall pass out of the hands of the King, and commotions shall appear, and the voice of lamentation shall be raised, and the evidences of mischief shall be revealed on all sides. Another topic discussed in
2970-561: The Xth form , or جامعة jāmiʻah 'university', based on جمع jamaʻa 'to gather, unite'; جمهورية jumhūriyyah 'republic', based on جمهور jumhūr 'multitude'). An earlier tendency was to redefine an older word although this has fallen into disuse (e.g., هاتف hātif 'telephone' < 'invisible caller (in Sufism)'; جريدة jarīdah 'newspaper' < 'palm-leaf stalk'). Colloquial or dialectal Arabic refers to
3060-494: The northern Hejaz . These features are evidence of common descent from a hypothetical ancestor , Proto-Arabic . The following features of Proto-Arabic can be reconstructed with confidence: On the other hand, several Arabic varieties are closer to other Semitic languages and maintain features not found in Classical Arabic, indicating that these varieties cannot have developed from Classical Arabic. Thus, Arabic vernaculars do not descend from Classical Arabic: Classical Arabic
3150-419: The "learned" tradition (Classical Arabic). This variety and both its classicizing and "lay" iterations have been termed Middle Arabic in the past, but they are thought to continue an Old Higazi register. It is clear that the orthography of the Quran was not developed for the standardized form of Classical Arabic; rather, it shows the attempt on the part of writers to record an archaic form of Old Higazi. In
3240-454: The 11th and 12th centuries in al-Andalus , the zajal and muwashah poetry forms developed in the dialectical Arabic of Cordoba and the Maghreb. The Nahda was a cultural and especially literary renaissance of the 19th century in which writers sought "to fuse Arabic and European forms of expression." According to James L. Gelvin , " Nahda writers attempted to simplify the Arabic language and script so that it might be accessible to
3330-562: The 4th to the 6th centuries, the Nabataean script evolved into the Arabic script recognizable from the early Islamic era. There are inscriptions in an undotted, 17-letter Arabic script dating to the 6th century CE, found at four locations in Syria ( Zabad , Jebel Usays , Harran , Umm el-Jimal ). The oldest surviving papyrus in Arabic dates to 643 CE, and it uses dots to produce the modern 28-letter Arabic alphabet. The language of that papyrus and of
3420-812: The 8th century, knowledge of Classical Arabic had become an essential prerequisite for rising into the higher classes throughout the Islamic world, both for Muslims and non-Muslims. For example, Maimonides , the Andalusi Jewish philosopher, authored works in Judeo-Arabic —Arabic written in Hebrew script . Ibn Jinni of Mosul , a pioneer in phonology , wrote prolifically in the 10th century on Arabic morphology and phonology in works such as Kitāb Al-Munṣif , Kitāb Al-Muḥtasab , and Kitāb Al-Khaṣāʾiṣ [ ar ] . Ibn Mada' of Cordoba (1116–1196) realized
3510-523: The Haykal is through the four letters (H, Y, K, and L) that compose the word in Arabic . Baháʼu'lláh in the tablet explains the spiritual significance of each letter: H is for Huwiyyah (Essence of Divinity), Y is for Qadír (Almighty), K is for Karím (All Bountiful), and L is for Fadl (Grace). Regarding the five other messages to the rulers that form the pentacle of the Súriy-i-Haykal, Baháʼu'lláh tells them he
3600-495: The Lord thy God, would have cried: 'Mine heart is filled with peace, O Thou Lord of all that is in heaven and on earth! I testify that Thou hast unveiled before mine eyes all the glory of Thy power and the full majesty of Thy law!'... Had Moses Himself attained it, He, likewise, would have raised His voice saying: 'All praise be to Thee for having lifted upon me the light of Thy countenance and enrolled me among them that have been privileged to behold Thy face! Baháʼu'lláh also describes
3690-447: The Manifestation of God who spreads the Word of God in the form of a human temple, has members each of whom symbolize one of the signs and attributes of God. To the eyes of the Haykal he asks it to not look at the world of creation, but instead to focus on the beauty of God. To the Haykal's ears Baháʼu'lláh asks it to become deaf to the voices of the ungodly and to listen to the Word of God. To
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3780-412: The Middle East and North Africa have become a badge of sophistication and modernity and ... feigning, or asserting, weakness or lack of facility in Arabic is sometimes paraded as a sign of status, class, and perversely, even education through a mélange of code-switching practises." Arabic has been taught worldwide in many elementary and secondary schools, especially Muslim schools. Universities around
3870-672: The Qur'an is referred to by linguists as "Quranic Arabic", as distinct from its codification soon thereafter into " Classical Arabic ". In late pre-Islamic times, a transdialectal and transcommunal variety of Arabic emerged in the Hejaz , which continued living its parallel life after literary Arabic had been institutionally standardized in the 2nd and 3rd century of the Hijra , most strongly in Judeo-Christian texts, keeping alive ancient features eliminated from
3960-561: The Romance languages. Also, while it is comprehensible to people from the Maghreb , a linguistically innovative variety such as Moroccan Arabic is essentially incomprehensible to Arabs from the Mashriq , much as French is incomprehensible to Spanish or Italian speakers but relatively easily learned by them. This suggests that the spoken varieties may linguistically be considered separate languages. With
4050-403: The affairs of his empire to ministers whom he claims are not trustworthy. As for the ministers of the Sultan, Baháʼu'lláh criticizes them for actions which he claims are power-hungry. As for the clergy of Constantinople he denounces them for not investigating Baháʼu'lláh's message, and criticizes them as worshippers of "names" and lovers of leadership; he states that they are spiritually dead. To
4140-511: The burden on their citizens will be lessened, and he tells them to deal justly with everyone, especially the poor. Having counseled the rulers, Baháʼu'lláh warns that if they do not follow his counsels God will chastise them from all directions. While the tablet is addressed to all the rulers of the world, he writes to some specific groups as well. To the Christians he writes that he is the return of Jesus : O kings of Christendom ! Heard ye not
4230-567: The conversion of Semitic mimation to nunation in the singular. It is best reassessed as a separate language on the Central Semitic dialect continuum. It was also thought that Old Arabic coexisted alongside—and then gradually displaced— epigraphic Ancient North Arabian (ANA), which was theorized to have been the regional tongue for many centuries. ANA, despite its name, was considered a very distinct language, and mutually unintelligible, from "Arabic". Scholars named its variant dialects after
4320-621: The earth! Which is preferable, this, or a temple which is built of clay? Set your faces towards it. Thus have ye been commanded by God, the Help in Peril, the Self-Subsisting. Shoghi Effendi , who described the tablet as one of Baháʼu'lláh's most challenging works, writes about the Súriy-i Haykal , "words which reveal the importance He attached to those Messages, and indicate their direct association with
4410-577: The emergence of Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include: There are several features which Classical Arabic, the modern Arabic varieties, as well as the Safaitic and Hismaic inscriptions share which are unattested in any other Central Semitic language variety, including the Dadanitic and Taymanitic languages of
4500-728: The eve of the conquests: Northern and Central (Al-Jallad 2009). The modern dialects emerged from a new contact situation produced following the conquests. Instead of the emergence of a single or multiple koines, the dialects contain several sedimentary layers of borrowed and areal features, which they absorbed at different points in their linguistic histories. According to Veersteegh and Bickerton, colloquial Arabic dialects arose from pidginized Arabic formed from contact between Arabs and conquered peoples. Pidginization and subsequent creolization among Arabs and arabized peoples could explain relative morphological and phonological simplicity of vernacular Arabic compared to Classical and MSA. In around
4590-593: The fact that they participate in the innovations common to all forms of Arabic. The earliest attestation of continuous Arabic text in an ancestor of the modern Arabic script are three lines of poetry by a man named Garm(')allāhe found in En Avdat, Israel , and dated to around 125 CE. This is followed by the Namara inscription , an epitaph of the Lakhmid king Imru' al-Qays bar 'Amro, dating to 328 CE, found at Namaraa, Syria. From
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#17328593323314680-453: The fourth most useful language for business, after English, Mandarin Chinese , and French. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet , an abjad script that is written from right to left . Arabic is usually classified as a Central Semitic language . Linguists still differ as to the best classification of Semitic language sub-groups. The Semitic languages changed between Proto-Semitic and
4770-432: The human or physical temple of the Manifestation of God (prophets of God). He states that the Manifestation of God is a pure mirror that reflects the sovereignty of God and manifests God's beauty and grandeur to mankind. In essence Baháʼu'lláh explains that the Manifestation of God is a "Living Temple" and every time that Baháʼu'lláh addresses the Haykal he shows a new facet of God's revelation. The Haykal, which represents
4860-579: The inclusion of new words into their published standard dictionaries. They also publish old and historical Arabic manuscripts. In 1997, a bureau of Arabization standardization was added to the Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Organization of the Arab League . These academies and organizations have worked toward the Arabization of the sciences, creating terms in Arabic to describe new concepts, toward
4950-506: The kings on the qualities which they must exhibit. These include not laying aside the Fear of God, and following the laws of religion. He states that countries should work towards reducing their differences. In this way, weapons can be reduced which would assure the safety of the world and save money for the governments which can be used for other purposes. He tells the monarchs to limit their extravagance, and instead to live in moderation, so that
5040-608: The language. Software and books with tapes are an important part of Arabic learning, as many of Arabic learners may live in places where there are no academic or Arabic language school classes available. Radio series of Arabic language classes are also provided from some radio stations. A number of websites on the Internet provide online classes for all levels as a means of distance education; most teach Modern Standard Arabic, but some teach regional varieties from numerous countries. The tradition of Arabic lexicography extended for about
5130-599: The late 6th century AD, a relatively uniform intertribal "poetic koine" distinct from the spoken vernaculars developed based on the Bedouin dialects of Najd , probably in connection with the court of al-Ḥīra . During the first Islamic century, the majority of Arabic poets and Arabic-writing persons spoke Arabic as their mother tongue. Their texts, although mainly preserved in far later manuscripts, contain traces of non-standardized Classical Arabic elements in morphology and syntax. Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali ( c. 603 –689)
5220-420: The latter is taught in formal education settings. However, there have been studies reporting some degree of comprehension of stories told in the standard variety among preschool-aged children. The relation between Modern Standard Arabic and these dialects is sometimes compared to that of Classical Latin and Vulgar Latin vernaculars (which became Romance languages ) in medieval and early modern Europe. MSA
5310-883: The many national or regional varieties which constitute the everyday spoken language. Colloquial Arabic has many regional variants; geographically distant varieties usually differ enough to be mutually unintelligible , and some linguists consider them distinct languages. However, research indicates a high degree of mutual intelligibility between closely related Arabic variants for native speakers listening to words, sentences, and texts; and between more distantly related dialects in interactional situations. The varieties are typically unwritten. They are often used in informal spoken media, such as soap operas and talk shows , as well as occasionally in certain forms of written media such as poetry and printed advertising. Hassaniya Arabic , Maltese , and Cypriot Arabic are only varieties of modern Arabic to have acquired official recognition. Hassaniya
5400-455: The nature of the soul . He explains that if the soul acquires spiritual qualities in this world it will move towards God. After physical death it will separate from the body and live in the worlds of God, but if the soul does not acquire spiritual attributes it will be far from God. Concerning the significance of the Súriy-i Ra'ís , Baháʼu'lláh, in a later tablet, wrote that from the moment it
5490-768: The need for a lexical injection in Arabic, to suit concepts of the industrial and post-industrial age (such as sayyārah سَيَّارَة 'automobile' or bākhirah باخِرة 'steamship'). In response, a number of Arabic academies modeled after the Académie française were established with the aim of developing standardized additions to the Arabic lexicon to suit these transformations, first in Damascus (1919), then in Cairo (1932), Baghdad (1948), Rabat (1960), Amman (1977), Khartum [ ar ] (1993), and Tunis (1993). They review language development, monitor new words and approve
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#17328593323315580-424: The one whose sound is heard but whose person remains unseen. Now the term al-hatif is used for a telephone. Therefore, the process of tawleed can express the needs of modern civilization in a manner that would appear to be originally Arabic. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their school-taught Standard Arabic as well as their native dialects, which depending on
5670-549: The overhaul of Arabic grammar first proposed by Al-Jahiz 200 years prior. The Maghrebi lexicographer Ibn Manzur compiled Lisān al-ʿArab ( لسان العرب , "Tongue of Arabs"), a major reference dictionary of Arabic, in 1290. Charles Ferguson 's koine theory claims that the modern Arabic dialects collectively descend from a single military koine that sprang up during the Islamic conquests; this view has been challenged in recent times. Ahmad al-Jallad proposes that there were at least two considerably distinct types of Arabic on
5760-573: The philosophers of the world, Baháʼu'lláh warns them not to become proud of their knowledge, and he states that true wisdom and knowledge is to recognize the Manifestations of God and to follow his precepts. In a message to the French ambassador of Constantinople, Baháʼu'lláh criticizes him for collaborating with the Qajar Ambassador to act against him, and claims that the ambassador was not following
5850-415: The prison city of Acre. In the tablet, Baháʼu'lláh rebukes Fuad Pasha and states that God had taken his life as a punishment for inflicting suffering on Baháʼu'lláh. Baháʼu'lláh states that Fuad Pasha's soul will face the wrath of God in the afterlife . Baháʼu'lláh in the tablet also foreshadows the downfall and the overthrow of both Sultan Abdülaziz and the Grand Vizir Âli Pasha. Soon thereafter, Âli Pasha
5940-429: The promised one. The Summons of the Lord of Hosts is the printing of five distinct tablets of this material. The Súriy-i-Haykal ( Persian : سورةى هيكل ) or Tablet of the Temple , is a composite work which consists of a tablet followed by five messages addressed to Pope Pius IX , Napoleon III , Tsar Alexander II of Russia , Queen Victoria , and Naser al-Din Shah Qajar . The messages were written while Baháʼu'lláh
6030-405: The prophecies of the Old Testament ", referring to the prophecy where Zechariah had promised the rebuilding of the Temple in the End of Times . In the Book of Zechariah it is recorded: And speak unto him, saying, Thus speaketh the LORD of hosts, saying, Behold the man whose name is The BRANCH; and he shall grow up out of his place, and he shall build the temple of the LORD: Even he shall build
6120-410: The region may be mutually unintelligible. Some of these dialects can be considered to constitute separate languages which may have "sub-dialects" of their own. When educated Arabs of different dialects engage in conversation (for example, a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), many speakers code-switch back and forth between the dialectal and standard varieties of the language, sometimes even within
6210-446: The responsibility of kings to accept his message, some general counsel for kings and rulers, and the consequences of not accepting his message. Baháʼu'lláh discloses the character of his mission to the monarchs and tells them to accept his message. He states that he is the Manifestation of God for this age, and that his mission is to unite the human race. He also warns of the consequences of not following his advice. The tablet serves as
6300-458: The same sentence. The issue of whether Arabic is one language or many languages is politically charged, in the same way it is for the varieties of Chinese , Hindi and Urdu , Serbian and Croatian , Scots and English, etc. In contrast to speakers of Hindi and Urdu who claim they cannot understand each other even when they can, speakers of the varieties of Arabic will claim they can all understand each other even when they cannot. While there
6390-403: The saying of Jesus, the Spirit of God, 'I go away, and come again unto you'? Wherefore, then, did ye fail, when He did come again unto you in the clouds of heaven, to draw nigh unto Him, that ye might behold His face, and be of them that attained His Presence? In another passage He saith: 'When He, the Spirit of Truth, is come, He will guide you into all truth.' And yet,behold how, when He did bring
6480-406: The second tablet, to Âli Pasha, Baháʼu'lláh further rebukes Âli Pasha for acts which Baháʼu'lláh claims are cruel, and compares him to those who had opposed the prophets of the past. Baháʼu'lláh states that Âli Pasha's true motives are self, passion and power, and blames him for visiting a number of cruelties on innocent people including sending women and young children to prison. He also writes about
6570-458: The sole example of Medieval linguist Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati – who, while a scholar of the Arabic language, was not ethnically Arab – Medieval scholars of the Arabic language made no efforts at studying comparative linguistics, considering all other languages inferior. In modern times, the educated upper classes in the Arab world have taken a nearly opposite view. Yasir Suleiman wrote in 2011 that "studying and knowing English or French in most of
6660-556: The standardization of these new terms throughout the Arabic-speaking world, and toward the development of Arabic as a world language . This gave rise to what Western scholars call Modern Standard Arabic. From the 1950s, Arabization became a postcolonial nationalist policy in countries such as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Sudan. Arabic usually refers to Standard Arabic, which Western linguists divide into Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic. It could also refer to any of
6750-546: The tablet include the spiritual consequences of the abuse of power as well as covenant-breaking . The Súriy-i Mulúk ( Persian : سورةى ملوك ), or the Tablet of Kings is a tablet written by Baháʼu'lláh that was addressed collectively to the monarchs of the East and the West . The tablet was likely written in early 1868 in Arabic while he was in Adrianople. The tablet has three main themes:
6840-570: The tablet is that Baháʼu'lláh glorifies his own revelation, and prophesies that it will encompass the entire earth. Regarding his revelation, he wrote: Had Muhammad, the Apostle of God, attained this Day, He would have exclaimed: 'I have truly recognized Thee, O Thou the Desire of the Divine Messengers!' Had Abraham attained it, He too, falling prostrate upon the ground, and in the utmost lowliness before
6930-545: The teachings of Jesus Christ. As for the Qajar ambassador, Mirza Husayn Khan, Baháʼu'lláh blames him for actions which Baháʼu'lláh claims have caused injustice to himself. Tablet (religious) A tablet , in a religious context, is a term used for certain religious texts . Judaism and Christianity maintain that Moses brought the Ten Commandments down from Mount Sinai in the form of two tablets of stone. According to
7020-570: The temple of the LORD; and he shall bear the glory, and shall sit and rule upon his throne; and he shall be a priest upon his throne: and the counsel of peace shall be between them both. Shoghi Effendi, in The Promised Day is Come (pp. 47–8), refers to this rebuilding of the temple as fulfilled in the return of the Manifestation of God in a human temple. Throughout the tablet, Baháʼu'lláh address
7110-488: The tongue of the Haykal Baháʼu'lláh states that it has been created to mention the name of God. To the hands of the Haykal Baháʼu'lláh asks them to stretch out upon all humankind and hold within their grasp the reins of God. Finally, Baháʼu'lláh states that from the heart of the Haykal knowledge will emerge and raise scientists who will bring about technological achievements. Another symbol used by Baháʼu'lláh in describing
7200-501: The towns where the inscriptions were discovered (Dadanitic, Taymanitic, Hismaic, Safaitic). However, most arguments for a single ANA language or language family were based on the shape of the definite article, a prefixed h-. It has been argued that the h- is an archaism and not a shared innovation, and thus unsuitable for language classification, rendering the hypothesis of an ANA language family untenable. Safaitic and Hismaic, previously considered ANA, should be considered Old Arabic due to
7290-531: The treatment that the Baháʼís were given when incarcerated in Acre, which he states was inhumane, including receiving no food and water, causing two deaths. Baháʼu'lláh also informs Âli Pasha that if he would change course and accept Baháʼu'lláh's message, he would become transformed, but if he continues his ways God will chastise him from all directions. In this tablet Baháʼu'lláh also states that while at Gallipoli he sent
7380-596: The truth, ye refused to turn your faces towards Him, and persisted in disporting yourselves with your pastimes and fancies. Ye welcomed Him not, neither did ye seek His Presence, that ye might hear the verses of God from His own mouth, and partake of the manifold wisdom of the Almighty, the All-Glorious, the All-Wise. Baháʼu'lláh also addresses Sultan Abdülaziz, the only monarch addressed individually, and reproves him for entrusting
7470-531: The voice of God, and that no power on earth can prevent him from proclaiming God's message and from achieving his purpose. Baháʼu'lláh further accuses Âli Pasha of conspiring with the Qajar Empire 's ambassador to harm him, and forecasts that because of this injustice he will find himself with a "manifest loss." Furthermore, Baháʼu'lláh compares Âli Pasha with those who rose up against previous prophets, such as Nimrod against Abraham , Pharaoh against Moses , and
7560-634: The world at large through its kings and rulers. In the tablet, Baháʼu'lláh first rebukes the kings for their failure to follow the message of the Báb , and then rebukes them further for not having accepted his own message: My face hath come forth from the veils, and shed its radiance upon all that is in heaven and on earth; and yet, ye turned not towards Him, notwithstanding that ye were created for Him, O concourse of kings! Follow, therefore, that which I speak unto you, and hearken unto it with your hearts, and be not of such as have turned aside. Baháʼu'lláh also counsels
7650-451: The world have classes that teach Arabic as part of their foreign languages , Middle Eastern studies , and religious studies courses. Arabic language schools exist to assist students to learn Arabic outside the academic world. There are many Arabic language schools in the Arab world and other Muslim countries. Because the Quran is written in Arabic and all Islamic terms are in Arabic, millions of Muslims (both Arab and non-Arab) study
7740-511: Was addressed to S͟hayk͟h Kázim-i-Samandar , a native of Qazvin, and one of the Apostles of Baháʼu'lláh . The tablet was written in Arabic shortly after the death of Fu'ád Páshá, the foreign minister of Ottoman Empire , who was dismissed from his post in 1869 and died shortly thereafter in Nice , France . Mehmed Fuad Pasha was a close collaborator of Grand Vizir Âli Pasha, who had exiled Baháʼu'lláh to
7830-525: Was dismissed from his post, and died in 1871. At this time, opposition to the Sultan started which led to his losing power in 1876, and being killed a few days later. Fulfillment of the prophecies in the Lawh-i Fu'ád regarding the downfall of the Sultan and the Grand Vizer played an important role in the conversion of Mírzá Abu'l-Faḍl , one of the Baháʼí Faith 's foremost scholars. Other topics discussed in
7920-607: Was in Adrianople, and shortly after its completion, Baháʼu'lláh instructed the Surih and the tablets to the kings be written in the form of a Haykal ( temple ), a five-pointed star, and added to it the conclusion: Thus have We built the Temple with the hands of power and might, could ye but know it. This is the Temple promised unto you in the Book. Draw ye nigh unto it. This is that which profiteth you, could ye but comprehend it. Be fair, O peoples of
8010-511: Was written in August 1868, when Baháʼu'lláh and the other Baháʼís were being exiled from Adrianople to Gallipoli to their final destination of the prison city of Acre . The Súriy-i Ra'ís , written in Arabic, was revealed in honour of Muhammad Ismaʻil Kashani, a faithful believer of Baháʼu'lláh. In the tablet, Baháʼu'lláh writes about Âli Pasha's claimed abuse of civil power. In the tablet, Baháʼu'lláh tells Âli Pasha, whom he calls chief, to listen to
8100-488: Was written, the world has been in constant tribulation and that an immense cataclysmic process has been set in motion, and he warns that only remedy is that people accept his message. The Lawh-i Ra'ís ( Persian : لوحى رئيس ) or "Tablet of the Chief", is also addressed to Âli Pasha. Baháʼu'lláh wrote this tablet in Persian shortly after his incarceration in Acre (August 1868) soon after the death of three of his followers. In
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