185-581: The Protestant Reformation in Switzerland was promoted initially by Huldrych Zwingli , who gained the support of the magistrate, Mark Reust, and the population of Zürich in the 1520s. It led to significant changes in civil life and state matters in Zürich and spread to several other cantons of the Old Swiss Confederacy . Seven cantons remained Catholic , however, which led to intercantonal wars known as
370-670: A Catholic coup d'état in Mulhouse , an associate of the confederacy, prompted the military intervention of the Protestant cantons, which quickly restored the old Protestant order. Strasbourg , another Protestant city, wanted to join the confederacy in 1588, but like Geneva some twenty years earlier, it was rejected by the Catholic cantons. In the Valais , the Reformation had had some success especially in
555-472: A French, imperial, and papal triangle. Zwingli stayed in Einsiedeln for two years during which he withdrew completely from politics in favour of ecclesiastical activities and personal studies. His time as pastor of Glarus and Einsiedeln was characterized by inner growth and development. He perfected his Greek and he took up the study of Hebrew . His library contained over three hundred volumes from which he
740-465: A budding industrial sector. Fribourg and Solothurn also remained Catholic. The five alpine cantons perceived the Reformation as a threat early on; already in 1524 they formed the "League of the Five Cantons" ( Bund der fünf Orte ) to combat the spreading of the new faith. Both sides tried to strengthen their positions by concluding defensive alliances with third parties: the Protestant cantons formed
925-482: A center of intellectual freedom. Many of these immigrants were skilled craftsmen or businessmen and contributed greatly to the development of banking and the watch industry. The main sources used are Other sources: Huldrych Zwingli Huldrych or Ulrich Zwingli (1 January 1484 – 11 October 1531) was a Swiss Christian theologian , musician , and leader of the Reformation in Switzerland . Born during
1110-511: A city alliance, including the Protestant cities of Konstanz and Strasbourg ( Christliches Burgrecht ), translated variously as Cristian Civic Union, Christian Co-burghery, Christian Confederation and Christian Federation (in Latin Zwingli called it Civitas Christiana or Christian State); the Catholic ones entered a pact with Ferdinand of Austria . In the tense atmosphere, small incidents could easily escalate. Conflicts arose especially over
1295-693: A communion liturgy in the German language. This was published in Aktion oder Brauch des Nachtmahls (Act or Custom of the Supper). Shortly before Easter , Zwingli and his closest associates requested the council to cancel the Mass and to introduce the new public order of worship. On Maundy Thursday , 13 April 1525, Zwingli celebrated communion under his new liturgy. Wooden cups and plates were used to avoid any outward displays of formality. The congregation sat at set tables to emphasise
1480-466: A congregation of the faithful. Conrad Grebel , the leader of the radicals and the emerging Anabaptist movement, spoke disparagingly of Zwingli in private. On 15 August 1524 the council insisted on the obligation to baptise all newborn infants. Zwingli secretly conferred with Grebel's group and late in 1524, the council called for official discussions. When talks were broken off, Zwingli published Wer Ursache gebe zu Aufruhr (Whoever Causes Unrest) clarifying
1665-568: A daily maximum temperature of 24.3 °C (75.7 °F). The highest temperature recorded at Bern / Zollikofen is 37.0 °C (98.6 °F), recorded in August 2003 . On average, a temperature of 25 °C (77 °F) or above is recorded 40.7 days per year, and 6 days per year with a temperature of 30 °C (86 °F) or above at Zollikofen, and the warmest day reaches an average of 32.1 °C (89.8 °F). There are 103.7 days of air frost, and 22.3 ice days per year at Bern (Zollikofen) for
1850-433: A difficult position and he decided to retreat to Einsiedeln in the canton of Schwyz . By this time, he had become convinced that mercenary service was immoral and that Swiss unity was indispensable for any future achievements. Some of his earliest extant writings, such as The Ox (1510) and The Labyrinth (1516), attacked the mercenary system using allegory and satire. His countrymen were presented as virtuous people within
2035-413: A family, and a new class of daytalers ( Tauner ) grew disproportionally. In the cities, too, the number of poor rose. At the same time, rural subject territories became more and more (financially) dependent on the cities. The political power was concentrated in a few rich families, that over time came to consider their offices as hereditary and tried to limit them to their own exclusive circle. This solicited
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#17328485449492220-619: A formal recognition of the Swiss confederacy as an independent state in the peace of Westphalia . Although de facto independent since the end of the Swabian War in 1499, the confederacy was still officially a part of the Holy Roman Empire . With the support of Henri II d'Orléans , who was also prince of Neuchâtel and the head of the French delegation, he succeeded to get the formal exemption from
2405-528: A large crowd of approximately six hundred participants. The bishop sent a delegation led by his vicar general , Johannes Fabri . Zwingli summarised his position in the Schlussreden (Concluding Statements or the Sixty-seven Articles). Fabri, who had not envisaged an academic disputation in the manner Zwingli had prepared for, was forbidden to discuss high theology before laymen, and simply insisted on
2590-577: A major river of the Swiss Plateau . Although fortified settlements were established since antiquity, the medieval city proper was founded by the Zähringer ruling family, probably in 1191 by Berthold V, Duke of Zähringen . Bern was made a free imperial city in 1218 and, in 1353, it joined the Swiss Confederacy , becoming one of its eight early cantons. Since then, Bern became a large city-state and
2775-593: A member of the Municipal Council. Contrary to most other municipalities, the executive government in Bern is selected by means of a system of Proporz . The mayor is elected as such as well by public election while the heads of the other directorates are assigned by the collegiate. The executive body holds its meetings in the Erlacherhof , built by architect Albrecht Stürler after 1747. As of 2021 , Bern's Municipal Council
2960-781: A political coalition of all Protestant forces, invited the two parties to Marburg to discuss their differences. This event became known as the Marburg Colloquy . Zwingli accepted Philip's invitation fully believing that he would be able to convince Luther. In contrast, Luther did not expect anything to come out of the meeting and had to be urged by Philip to attend. Zwingli, accompanied by Oecolampadius, arrived on 28 September 1529, with Luther and Philipp Melanchthon arriving shortly thereafter. Other theologians also participated including Martin Bucer, Andreas Osiander , Johannes Brenz , and Justus Jonas . The debates were held from 1–4 October and
3145-524: A prominent actor of Swiss history by pursuing a policy of sovereign territorial expansion. Since the 15th century, the city was progressively rebuilt and acquired its current characteristics. Bern was made the Federal City in 1848. From about 5,000 inhabitants in the 15th century, the city passed the 100,000 mark in the 1920s. The etymology of the name "Bern" is uncertain. According to the local legend, based on folk etymology , Berthold V, Duke of Zähringen ,
3330-406: A question of faith; economic reasons also played a role. Besides on agriculture, their economy depended to a large degree on the mercenary services and the financial recompensations for the same. They could not afford to lose this source of income, which was a major target of reformatory criticism. In contrast, the cities' economies were more diversified, including strong crafts and guilds as well as
3515-516: A rich magistrate's town house. Famed baroque architect Francesco Borromini was born 1599 in the Ticino . Many Huguenots and other Protestant refugees from all over Europe fled to Basel, Geneva, and Neuchâtel. Geneva under Calvin and his successor Theodore Beza demanded their naturalisation and strict adherence to the Calvinist doctrine, whereas Basel, where the university had re-opened in 1532, became
3700-614: A sermon which was published on 16 April, under the title Von Erkiesen und Freiheit der Speisen (Regarding the Choice and Freedom of Foods). He noted that no general valid rule on food can be derived from the Bible and that to transgress such a rule is not a sin. The event, which came to be referred to as the Affair of the Sausages , is considered to be the start of the Reformation in Switzerland. Even before
3885-579: A settlement on the site of today's city centre prior to the 12th century has been found so far. In antiquity, a Celtic oppidum stood on the Engehalbinsel (peninsula) north of Bern, fortified since the second century BC (late La Tène period ), thought to be one of the 12 oppida of the Helvetii mentioned by Caesar . During the Roman era , a Gallo-Roman vicus was on the same site. The Bern zinc tablet has
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#17328485449494070-684: A split of the canton in 1597 into the Catholic Appenzell Innerrhoden and the Protestant Ausserrhoden , which both had one vote in the Tagsatzung . The Dukes of Savoy had tried already for centuries to gain sovereignty over the city of Geneva , surrounded by Savoyard territory, for the Vaud in the north of Lake Geneva belonged to the duchy. The Reformation prompted the conflicts to escalate once more. Geneva exiled its bishop, who
4255-521: A strong reaction from Zwingli; he drafted Ratschlag über den Krieg (Advice About the War) for the government. He outlined justifications for an attack on the Catholic states and other measures to be taken. Before Zürich could implement his plans, a delegation from Bern that included Niklaus Manuel arrived in Zürich. The delegation called on Zürich to settle the matter peacefully. Manuel added that an attack would expose Bern to further dangers as Catholic Valais and
4440-636: A theocracy. The Reformation spread to other parts of the Swiss Confederation , but several cantons resisted, preferring to remain Catholic . Zwingli formed an alliance of Reformed cantons which divided the Confederation along religious lines. In 1529, a war was averted at the last moment between the two sides. Meanwhile, Zwingli's ideas came to the attention of Martin Luther and other reformers. They met at
4625-628: A time of emerging Swiss patriotism and increasing criticism of the Swiss mercenary system , he attended the University of Vienna and the University of Basel , a scholarly center of Renaissance humanism . He continued his studies while he served as a pastor in Glarus and later in Einsiedeln , where he was influenced by the writings of Erasmus . In 1519, Zwingli became the Leutpriester (people's priest) of
4810-403: Is State Chronicler ( Staatsschreiber ) since 2008. He has been elected by the collegiate. The Stadtrat of Bern for the mandate period of 2021–2024: The City Council (de: Stadtrat , fr: Conseil de ville ) holds legislative power . It is made up of 80 members, with elections held every four years. The City Council decrees regulations and by-laws that are executed by the Municipal Council and
4995-567: Is also the capital of the canton of Bern , the second-most populous of Switzerland's cantons . The official language is German , but the main spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect, Bernese German . In 1983, the historic old town (in German : Altstadt ) in the centre of Bern became a UNESCO World Heritage Site . It is notably surrounded by the Aare ,
5180-406: Is devoted to transport infrastructure. Power and water infrastructure, as well as other special developed areas, made up 1.2% of the city, while another 6.5% consists of parks, green belts, and sports fields. Of Bern's total land area, 32.8% is heavily forested. Of the agricultural land, 13.3% is used for growing crops and 4.4% is designated to be used as pasture. Local rivers and streams provide all
5365-510: Is largely medieval and has been recognised by UNESCO as a Cultural World Heritage Site . Perhaps its most famous sight is the Zytglogge (Bernese German for "Time Bell"), an elaborate medieval clock tower with moving puppets. It also has an impressive 15th century Gothic cathedral, the Münster , and a 15th-century town hall. Thanks to 6 kilometres (4 miles) of arcades, the old town boasts one of
5550-451: Is made up of two representatives of the SP ( Social Democratic Party ), and one each of CVP ( Christian Democratic Party ), GFL ( Grüne Freie Liste a.k.a. Green Free List, who is the newly elected mayor since 2017), and GB ( Green Alliance of Bern ), giving the left parties a very strong majority of four out of five seats. The last regular election was held on 29 November 2020. Dr. Jürg Wichtermann
5735-573: Is possible that he was received as a novice. However, his father and uncle disapproved of such a course and he left Bern without completing his Latin studies. He enrolled in the University of Vienna in the winter semester of 1498 but was expelled, according to the university's records. However, it is not certain that Zwingli was indeed expelled, and he re-enrolled in the summer semester of 1500; his activities in 1499 are unknown. Zwingli continued his studies in Vienna until 1502, after which he transferred to
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5920-424: Is that Zwingli was not a complete follower of Erasmus, but had diverged from him as early as 1516 and that he independently developed his theology. Zwingli's theological stance was gradually revealed through his sermons. He attacked moral corruption and in the process he named individuals who were the targets of his denunciations. Monks were accused of indolence and high living. In 1519, Zwingli specifically rejected
6105-408: Is the de facto capital of Switzerland , referred to as the " federal city ". With a population of about 133,000 (as of 2022 ), Bern is the fifth-most populous city in Switzerland, behind Zürich , Geneva , Basel and Lausanne . The Bern agglomeration, which includes 36 municipalities, had a population of 406,900 in 2014. The metropolitan area had a population of 660,000 in 2000. Bern
6290-536: Is today the canton of Bern and the canton of Vaud . The city grew out towards the west of the boundaries of the peninsula formed by the river Aare . The Zytglogge tower marked the western boundary of the city from 1191 until 1256, when the Käfigturm took over this role until 1345. It was succeeded by the Christoffelturm (formerly located closer to the site of the modern-day railway station) until 1622. During
6475-467: Is used for agricultural purposes, while 17.21 km (6.64 sq mi) or 33.3% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 23.76 km (9.17 sq mi) or 46.0% is settled (buildings or roads), 1.08 km (0.42 sq mi) or 2.1% is either rivers or lakes, and 0.14 km (0.054 sq mi) or 0.3% is unproductive land. Of the developed area of Bern, 3.1% consists of industrial buildings, 22.3% housing and other buildings, and 12.9%
6660-693: The Confessio Helvetica posterior of 1566, which finally included all Protestant cantons and associates of the confederacy. The Confessio was also accepted in other European Protestant regions in Bohemia , Hungary, Poland , the Netherlands , and Scotland , and together with the Heidelberg Catechism of 1563, where Bullinger also played an important role, and the Canons of Dordrecht of 1619 it would become
6845-589: The Cuius regio, eius religio -principle that would also be adopted in the peace of Augsburg in the Holy Roman Empire in 1555. Politically, this gave the Catholic cantons a majority in the Tagsatzung , the federal diet of the confederacy. When their Protestant city alliance was dissolved, Zürich and the southern German cities joined the Schmalkaldic League , but in the German religious wars of 1546/47, Zürich and
7030-714: The 2015 federal election for the Swiss National Council the most popular party was the PS which received 34.3% of the vote. The next five most popular parties were the Green Party (17.4%), the UDC (12.4%), and the FDP/PLR (9.9%), glp/pvl (9.4%), and the BDP/PBD (7.0%). In the federal election, a total of 48,556 voters were cast, and the voter turnout was 56.0%. The Municipal Council of
7215-404: The 2019 federal election for the Swiss National Council the most popular party was the PS which received 28.7% (-5.6) of the vote. The next five most popular parties were the Green Party (25.2%, +7.9), the pvl (13.5%, +4.1), the UDC (9.5%, -2.9), PLR (4.2%, -2.8), and the BDP/PBD (7.0%). In the federal election a total of 49,030 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 56%. In
7400-450: The Affair of the Sausages are now considered to be the start of the Reformation in Switzerland. His own studies, in the renaissance humanist tradition, had led him to preach against injustices and hierarchies in the Church already in 1516 while he was still a priest in Einsiedeln . When he was called to Zürich , he expanded his criticism also onto political topics and in particular condemned
7585-503: The Bern zinc tablet in the 1980s, it is now more common to assume that the city was named after a pre-existing toponym of Celtic origin, possibly *berna "cleft". The bear was the heraldic animal of the seal and coat of arms of Bern from at least the 1220s. The earliest reference to the keeping of live bears in the Bärengraben dates to the 1440s. No archaeological evidence that indicates
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7770-577: The Catholic Church . Of the rest of the population, there were 1,874 members of an Orthodox church (or about 1.46% of the population), there were 229 persons (or about 0.18% of the population) who belonged to the Christ Catholic Church , and there were 5,531 persons (or about 4.30% of the population) who belonged to another Christian religion. There were 324 persons (or about 0.25% of the population) who were Jewish , and 4,907 (or about 3.81% of
7955-517: The Duchy of Milan , the Duchy of Savoy , and the Papal States competed and fought against each other, there were far-reaching political, economic, and social consequences for the Confederation. During this time the mercenary pension system became a subject of disagreement. The religious factions of Zwingli's time debated vociferously the merits of sending young Swiss men to fight in foreign wars mainly for
8140-871: The Gospel of Matthew , giving his interpretation during the sermon, known as the method of lectio continua . He continued to read and interpret the book on subsequent Sundays until he reached the end and then proceeded in the same manner with the Acts of the Apostles , the New Testament epistles , and finally the Old Testament . His motives for doing this are not clear, but in his sermons he used exhortation to achieve moral and ecclesiastical improvement which were goals comparable with Erasmian reform. Sometime after 1520, Zwingli's theological model began to evolve into an idiosyncratic form that
8325-507: The Grisons in the Musso war as a pretext, but on 11 October 1531, the Catholic cantons decisively defeated the forces of Zürich in the battle of Kappel am Albis . Zwingli was killed on the battlefield. The Protestant cantons had to agree to a peace treaty, the so-called Zweiter Kappeler Landfriede , which forced the dissolution of the Protestant alliance ( Christliches Burgrecht ). It gave Catholicism
8510-560: The Grisons were not yet a member of the Confederacy but were involved in the war from 1620 onward, which led to their loss of the Valtellina from 1623 to 1639. After the violent conflicts of the late 15th century, the Swiss cantons had had a generation of relative political stability. As part of their struggle for independence, they had already in the 15th century sought to limit the influence of
8695-561: The Grossmünster in Zürich where he began to preach ideas on reform of the Catholic Church. In his first public controversy in 1522, he attacked the custom of fasting during Lent . In his publications, he noted corruption in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, promoted clerical marriage , and attacked the use of images in places of worship. Among his most notable contributions to the Reformation
8880-491: The Lindenhof , and triptychs remained covered and closed after Lent . Opposition to the changes came from Konrad Hofmann and his followers, but the council decided in favour of keeping the government mandates. When Hofmann left the city, opposition from pastors hostile to the Reformation broke down. The bishop of Constance tried to intervene in defending the Mass and the veneration of images. Zwingli wrote an official response for
9065-553: The Marburg Colloquy and agreed on many points of doctrine, but they could not reach an accord on the doctrine of the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist . In 1531, Zwingli's alliance applied an unsuccessful food blockade on the Catholic cantons. The cantons responded with an attack at a moment when Zürich was ill-prepared, and Zwingli died on the battlefield . His legacy lives on in the confessions , liturgy, and church orders of
9250-419: The Peace of Vervins and the Edict of Nantes in 1598, which ended the wars in France proper. In the night from 11 to 12 December 1602, the duke's troops unsuccessfully tried to storm the city, which definitely maintained its independence from Savoy in the peace of Saint Julien , concluded in the following summer. The rebuttal of this attack, L'Escalade , is still commemorated in Geneva today. Also in 1586,
9435-422: The Reformed churches of today. The Swiss Confederation in Huldrych Zwingli's time consisted of thirteen states ( cantons ) as well as affiliated areas and common lordships. Unlike the modern state of Switzerland , which operates under a federal government, each of the thirteen cantons was nearly independent, conducting its own domestic and foreign affairs. Each canton formed its own alliances within and without
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#17328485449499620-408: The Rhine . After Zwingli's death, Heinrich Bullinger took over his post in Zürich. Reformers in Switzerland continued for the next decades to reform the Church and to improve its acceptance by the common people. Bullinger in particular also tried bridging the differences between Zwinglianism and Calvinism . He was instrumental in establishing the Consensus Tigurinus of 1549 with John Calvin and
9805-1002: The Stadthaus (Town Hall). The last regular election of the City Council was held on 29 November 2020 for the mandate period ( German : Legislatur , French : la législature ) from 2021 to 2024. The City Council consist of 23 (-1) members of the Social Democratic Party (SP/PS) including two seats by the junior party JUSO , 11 (+3) Green Liberal Party (glp/pvl) including two member of its junior party jglp , 10 (+1) Green Alliance of Bern (GB) , 8 (-1) The Liberals (FDP/PLR) including one seat by its junior partner JF / DL , 7 (-2) Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC) , 7 (-1) Grüne Freie Liste (GFL) (Green Free List), 3 (+1) Junge Alternative (JA!) (or Young Alternatives), 3 (+1) Alternative Linke Bern (AL) , 2 (-1) Conservative Democratic Party (BDP/PBD) , 2 (-) Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP/PDC) , 2 (-) Evangelical People's Party (EVP/PEV) , 1 (-) Swiss Party of Labour (PdA) , and 1 Grüne alternative Partei (GaP) (or Green alternative Party). In
9990-425: The Tagsatzung . The Bishop of Basel , Jakob Christoph Blarer von Wartensee , moved his seat to Porrentruy in the Jura mountains in 1529, when Basel became Protestant. In 1581, the bishopric regained the Birs valley lying southwest of Basel. In Appenzell , where both confessions coexisted more or less peacefully, the counter-reformatory activities beginning with the arrival of the Capuchin friars resulted in
10175-423: The Thirty Years' War , two new fortifications – the so-called big and small Schanze (entrenchments) – were built to protect the whole area of the peninsula. After a major blaze in 1405, the city's original wooden buildings were gradually replaced by half-timbered houses, and subsequently the sandstone buildings which came to be characteristic for the Old Town. Despite waves of pestilence that hit Europe in
10360-451: The University of Basel where he received the Master of Arts degree ( Magister ) in 1506. In Basel, one of Zwingli's teachers was Thomas Wyttenbach from Biel , with whom he later corresponded on the doctrine of transubstantiation . Zwingli was ordained in Constance , the seat of the local diocese, and he celebrated his first Mass in his hometown, Wildhaus, on 29 September 1506. As a young priest he had studied little theology, but this
10545-441: The University of Basel . Hans Holbein the Younger worked until 1526 in Basel; his high renaissance style had a profound influence on Swiss painters. Conrad Gessner in Zürich did studies in systematic botany , and the geographic maps and city views produced e.g. by Matthäus Merian show the beginning of a scientific cartography . In 1601, an early version of the theodolite was invented in Zürich and promptly used to triangulate
10730-416: The Wars of Kappel . After the victory of the Catholic cantons in 1531, they proceeded to institute Counter-Reformation policies in some regions. The schism and distrust between the Catholic and the Protestant cantons defined their interior politics and paralysed any common foreign policy until well into the 18th century. Despite their religious differences and an exclusively Catholic defence alliance of
10915-413: The absolutist tendencies kept slowly transforming the democrat cantons into oligarchies . By 1650, the absolutist order was firmly established and would prevail for another 150 years as the Ancien Régime . The generally widespread intolerance of the time, as witnessed by the Inquisition , amplified by the conflicts between Protestants and Catholics, left no place for dissenters. Anabaptists , who took
11100-424: The executive government of the City of Bern and operates as a collegiate authority . It is composed of five councillors ( German : Gemeinderat/-rätin , French : conseiller/conseillère municipal(e) ), each presiding over a directorate (de: Direktion , fr: direction ) comprising several departments and bureaus. The president of the executive department acts as mayor (de: Stadtpräsident , fr: Le Maire ). In
11285-423: The mercenary business. His ideas were received favorably, especially by entrepreneurs, businessmen, and the guilds . The first disputation of Zürich of 1523 was the breakthrough: the city council decided to implement his reformatory plans and to convert to Protestantism. In the following two years, profound changes took place in Zürich. The Church was thoroughly secularised. Priests were relieved from celibacy and
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#173284854494911470-450: The socialist First and Second Internationals were held in Bern, particularly during World War I when Switzerland was neutral; see Bern International . The city's population rose from about 5,000 in the 15th century to about 12,000 by 1800 and to above 60,000 by 1900, passing the 100,000 mark during the 1920s. Population peaked during the 1960s at 165,000 and has since decreased slightly, to below 130,000 by 2000. As of September 2017,
11655-410: The veneration of saints and called for the need to distinguish between their true and fictional accounts. He cast doubts on hellfire, asserted that unbaptised children were not damned, and questioned the power of excommunication . His attack on the claim that tithing was a divine institution, however, had the greatest theological and social impact. This contradicted the immediate economic interests of
11840-401: The "prince of humanism"), had taken root in the Confederation. Within this environment, defined by the confluence of Swiss patriotism and humanism, Zwingli was born in 1484. Huldrych Zwingli was born on 1 January 1484 in Wildhaus , in the Toggenburg valley of Switzerland , to a family of farmers, the third child of eleven. His father, Ulrich, played a leading role in the administration of
12025-429: The 14th century, the city continued to grow, mainly due to immigration from the surrounding countryside. During the 18th century, the city of Bern was at one point the largest shareholder in the South Sea Company , a British joint-stock company which was involved in the Atlantic slave trade . From 1689 to 3 March 1798 in the town was printed, in French , the biweekly newspaper Gazette de Berne , which reflected
12210-444: The 15th and 16th centuries was also volatile. For centuries the relationship with the Confederation's powerful neighbour, France, determined the foreign policies of the Swiss. Nominally, the Confederation formed a part of the Holy Roman Empire . However, through a succession of wars culminating in the Swabian War in 1499, the Confederation had become de facto independent. As the two continental powers and minor regional states such as
12395-416: The 16th century from about 800,000 to roughly 1.1 million, i.e. by more than 35%. This population growth caused significant changes in a pre-industrial society that could no longer significantly expand its territory. The dependence of the confederation on imports increased, and prices soared. In the countryside, settlements of estates increasingly led to smaller and smaller properties insufficient to sustain
12580-426: The Catholic cantons with Savoy encouraged duke Emmanuel Philibert to raise claims on the territories his father Charles III had lost in 1536. After the treaty of Lausanne of 1564, Bern had to return the Chablais south of Lake Geneva and the Pays de Gex (between Geneva and Nyon ) to Savoy in 1567, and the Valais returned the territories west of Saint Gingolph two years later in the treaty of Thonon . Geneva
12765-414: The Church on their political sovereignty. Many monasteries had already come under secular supervision, and the administration of schools was in the hands of the cantons, although the teachers generally still were priests. Nevertheless, many of the problems of the Church also existed in the Swiss Confederacy. Many a cleric, as well as the Church as a whole, enjoyed a luxurious lifestyle in stark contrast to
12950-401: The Confederation such as Martin Bucer and Wolfgang Capito from Strasbourg , Ambrosius Blarer from Constance , and Andreas Althamer from Nuremberg . Eck and Fabri refused to attend and the Catholic cantons did not send representatives. The meeting started on 6 January 1528 and lasted nearly three weeks. Zwingli assumed the main burden of defending the Reformation and he preached twice in
13135-403: The Confederation. This relative independence served as the basis for conflict during the time of the Reformation when the various cantons divided between different confessional camps. Military ambitions gained an additional impetus with the competition to acquire new territory and resources, as seen for example in the Old Zürich War of 1440–1446. The wider political environment in Europe during
13320-472: The Duchy of Savoy bordered its southern flank. He then noted, "You cannot really bring faith by means of spears and halberds." Zürich, however, decided that it would act alone, knowing that Bern would be obliged to acquiesce. War was declared on 8 June 1529. Zürich was able to raise an army of 30,000 men. The Five States were abandoned by Austria and could raise only 9,000 men. The two forces met near Kappel , but war
13505-488: The Grossmünster. Grebel, Manz, and Blaurock defended their cause before Zwingli, Jud, and other reformers. There was no serious exchange of views as each side would not move from their positions and the debates degenerated into an uproar, each side shouting abuse at the other. The Zürich council decided that no compromise was possible. On 7 March 1526 it released the notorious mandate that no one shall rebaptise another under
13690-618: The Leagues . For the Habsburgs, the Grisons was a strategically important connection between Milan and Austria . The Valtellina became Spanish, and other parts in the north-east of the Grisons were occupied and re-Catholicised by Austria. France intervened a first time in 1624, but succeeded to drive the Spanish out of the Grisons only in 1636. However, Henri de Rohan's French army had to withdraw following
13875-501: The Mass). He did not urge an immediate, general abolition. The council decided on the orderly removal of images within Zürich, but rural congregations were granted the right to remove them based on majority vote. The decision on the Mass was postponed. Evidence of the effect of the Reformation was seen in early 1524. Candlemas was not celebrated, processions of robed clergy ceased, worshippers did not go with palms or relics on Palm Sunday to
14060-713: The Münster. On 7 February 1528 the council decreed that the Reformation be established in Bern. Even before the Bern Disputation , Zwingli was canvassing for an alliance of reformed cities. Once Bern officially accepted the Reformation, a new alliance, das Christliche Burgrecht (the Christian Civic Union) was created. The first meetings were held in Bern between representatives of Bern, Constance, and Zürich on 5–6 January 1528. Other cities, including Basel, Biel , Mülhausen , Schaffhausen, and St Gallen, eventually joined
14245-697: The Pope and the Catholic Duchy of Savoy , and had the support of Aegidius Tschudi , the Landammann (chief magistrate) of Glarus. But due to lack of money, they could not intervene in Glarus by force. In 1564, they settled for a treaty which prescribed the separation of religions in Glarus. There were henceforth two legislative assemblies ( Landsgemeinde ) in the canton, a Catholic and a Protestant one, and Glarus would send one Catholic and one Protestant representative each to
14430-452: The Prophecy school. Scholars have not yet attempted to clarify Zwingli's share of the work based on external and stylistic evidence. Shortly after the second Zürich disputation, many in the radical wing of the Reformation became convinced that Zwingli was making too many concessions to the Zürich council. They rejected the role of civil government and demanded the immediate establishment of
14615-523: The Reformation, feuds between leading clans (e.g. between the von Planta and the von Salis ) were common. When such a feud spilled over into the Valtellina in 1619, a subject territory of the Three Leagues, the population there responded in kind, killing the Protestant rulers in 1620 and calling Habsburg Spain for help. For the next twenty years, the Grisons was ravaged by a war known as the Confusion of
14800-493: The Supper was a sign. For Luther, however, that which the bread signified, namely the body of Christ, was present "in, with, and under" the sign itself. For Zwingli, though, sign and thing signified were separated by a distance—the width between heaven and earth." "Luther claimed that the body of Christ was not eaten in a gross, material way but rather in some mysterious way, which is beyond human understanding. Yet, Zwingli replied, if
14985-701: The Supper, where it was purely symbolic. By spring 1527, Luther reacted strongly to Zwingli's views in the treatise Dass Diese Worte Christi "Das ist mein Leib etc." noch fest stehen wider die Schwarmgeister (That These Words of Christ "This is My Body etc." Still Stand Firm Against the Fanatics). The controversy continued until 1528 when efforts to build bridges between the Lutheran and the Zwinglian views began. Martin Bucer tried to mediate while Philip of Hesse , who wanted to form
15170-646: The Swedish King Gustav Adolph was rejected. The sole exception was the permission for the French army of Henri de Rohan to march through the Protestant cantons to the Grisons. A common defence was mounted only in 1647 when the Swedish armies reached Lake Constance again. The Grisons had no such luck. The Three Leagues were a loose federation of 48 individual communes that were largely independent; their common assembly held no real powers. While this had helped avoid major religious wars during and following
15355-480: The administration. The delegates are selected by means of a system of proportional representation . The sessions of the City Council are public. Unlike members of the Municipal Council, members of the City Council are not politicians by profession, and they are paid a fee based on their attendance. Any resident of Bern allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the City Council. The parliament holds its meetings in
15540-673: The alliance. The Five (Catholic) States felt encircled and isolated, so they searched for outside allies. After two months of negotiations, the Five States formed die Christliche Vereinigung (the Christian Alliance) with Ferdinand of Austria on 22 April 1529. Soon after the Austrian treaty was signed, a reformed preacher, Jacob Kaiser, was captured in Uznach and executed in Schwyz. This triggered
15725-588: The approval of Oecolampadius and Zwingli. Luther rejected Karlstadt's arguments and considered Zwingli primarily to be a partisan of Karlstadt. Zwingli began to express his thoughts on the eucharist in several publications including de Eucharistia (On the Eucharist). Understanding that Christ had ascended to heaven and was sitting at the Father's right hand, Zwingli criticized the idea that Christ's humanity could be in two places at once. Unlike his divinity, Christ's human body
15910-530: The authority of scripture and the rejection of religious practices not supported by the Bible. His preaching and teachings helped spread Reformation ideas beyond Switzerland and influenced the development of Protestantism throughout Europe. In December 1523, the council set a deadline of Pentecost in 1524 for a solution to the elimination of the Mass and images. Zwingli gave a formal opinion in Vorschlag wegen der Bilder und der Messe (Proposal Concerning Images and
16095-465: The bishop on 2 July to abolish the requirement of celibacy on the clergy. Two weeks later the petition was reprinted for the public in German as Eine freundliche Bitte und Ermahnung an die Eidgenossen (A Friendly Petition and Admonition to the Confederates). The issue was not just an abstract problem for Zwingli, as he had secretly married a widow, Anna Reinhart , earlier in the year. Their cohabitation
16280-503: The bread and wine in the Lord's Supper became truly the flesh and blood of Christ, whereas Zwingli considered the bread and wine only symbols. This schism and the defeat of Zürich in the Second War of Kappel in 1531, where Zwingli was killed on the battlefield, were a serious setback, ultimately limiting Zwinglianism to parts of the Swiss confederacy and preventing its adoption in areas north of
16465-533: The building of St Peter's in Rome. When Sanson arrived at the gates of Zürich at the end of January 1519, parishioners prompted Zwingli with questions. He responded with displeasure that the people were not being properly informed about the conditions of the indulgence and were being induced to part with their money on false pretences. This was over a year after Martin Luther published his Ninety-five theses (31 October 1517). The council of Zürich refused Sanson entry into
16650-400: The case of Bern, Berchtold Haller , the priest at St Vincent Münster , and Niklaus Manuel , the poet, painter, and politician, had campaigned for the reformed cause. But it was only after another disputation that Bern counted itself as a canton of the Reformation. Three hundred and fifty persons participated, including pastors from Bern and other cantons as well as theologians from outside
16835-528: The city of Geneva convert to Protestantism. The same year, Bern conquered the hitherto Savoyard Vaud and also instituted Protestantism there. Despite their conversion to Protestantism, the citizens of Geneva were not ready to adopt Calvin's new strict Church order and banned him and Farel from the city in 1538. Three years later, following the election of a new city council, Calvin was called back. Step by step he implemented his strict program. A counter-revolt in 1555 failed, and many established families left
17020-548: The city of Bern decided against having twinned cities except for a temporary (during the UEFA Euro 2008 ) cooperation with the Austrian city Salzburg . Bern has a population (as of December 2020 ) of 134,794. About 34% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the 10 years between 2000 and 2010, the population changed at a rate of 0.6%. Migration accounted for 1.3%, while births and deaths accounted for −2.1%. Most of
17205-533: The city. Zwingli, who had studied in Basel at the same time as Erasmus , had arrived at a more radical renewal than Luther and his ideas differed from the latter in several points. A reconciliation attempt at the Marburg Colloquy in 1529 failed. Although the two charismatic leaders found a consensus on fourteen points, they kept differing on the last one on the Eucharist : Luther maintained that through sacramental union
17390-455: The city. As the authorities in Rome were anxious to contain the fire started by Luther, the Bishop of Constance denied any support of Sanson and he was recalled. In August 1519, Zürich was struck by an outbreak of the plague during which at least one in four persons died. All of those who could afford it left the city, but Zwingli remained and continued his pastoral duties. In September, he caught
17575-446: The city. Basel and Geneva became important printing centres, with an output equal to that of e.g. Strasbourg or Lyon. Their printing reformatory tracts greatly furthered the dissemination of these ideas. First newspapers appeared towards the end of the 16th century, but disappeared soon again due to the censorship of the absolutist authorities. In architecture, there was a strong Italian and especially florentine influence, visible in many
17760-552: The community ( Amtmann or chief local magistrate). Zwingli's primary schooling was provided by his uncle, Bartholomew, a cleric in Weesen , where he probably met Katharina von Zimmern . At ten years old, Zwingli was sent to Basel to obtain his secondary education where he learned Latin under Magistrate Gregory Bünzli. After three years in Basel, he stayed a short time in Bern with the humanist Henry Wölfflin. The Dominicans in Bern tried to persuade Zwingli to join their order and it
17945-442: The conditions of the large majority of the population; this luxury was financed by high church taxes and abundant sale of indulgences . Many priests were poorly educated, and spiritual Church doctrines were often disregarded. Many priests did not live in celibacy but in concubinage . The new reformatory ideas thus fell on fertile ground. The main proponent of the Reformation in Switzerland was Huldrych Zwingli , whose actions during
18130-467: The confederation to remain neutral. Politically, the neighbouring powers all tried to take influence, by way of mercenary commanders such as Jörg Jenatsch or Johann Rudolf Wettstein . Despite the cantons' religious differences, the Tagsatzung developed a strong consensus against any direct military involvement. The confederacy did not allow any foreign army to cross its territory: the alpine passes remained closed for Spain, just as an alliance offer of
18315-413: The construction rate of new housing units was 1.2 new units per 1000 residents. As of 2003 the average price to rent an average apartment in Bern was 1108.92 Swiss francs (CHF) per month (US$ 890, £500, €710 approx. exchange rate from 2003). The average rate for a one-room apartment was 619.82 CHF (US$ 500, £280, €400), a two-room apartment was about 879.36 CHF (US$ 700, £400, €560), a three-room apartment
18500-424: The council and the result was the severance of all ties between the city and the diocese. Although the council had hesitated in abolishing the Mass, the decrease in the exercise of traditional piety allowed pastors to be unofficially released from the requirement of celebrating Mass. As individual pastors altered their practices as each saw fit, Zwingli was prompted to address this disorganised situation by designing
18685-435: The council repeated the requirement on the baptism of all babies and some who failed to comply were arrested and fined, Manz and Blaurock among them. Zwingli and Jud interviewed them and more debates were held before the Zürich council. Meanwhile, the new teachings continued to spread to other parts of the Confederation as well as a number of Swabian towns. On 6–8 November, the last debate on the subject of baptism took place in
18870-612: The creation of a new bishopric in central Switzerland. However, they did participate in the education program of Trent. In 1574, the first Jesuit school was founded in Lucerne . Others soon followed, and in 1579, a Catholic university for Swiss priests, the Collegio helvetico , was founded in Milan . In 1586, a nunciature was opened in Lucerne. The Capuchins were also called to help; a Capuchin cloister
19055-399: The disease and nearly died. He described his preparation for death in a poem, Zwingli's Pestlied , consisting of three parts: the onset of the illness, the closeness to death, and the joy of recovery. The final verses of the first part read: In the years following his recovery, Zwingli's opponents remained in the minority. When a vacancy occurred among the canons of the Grossmünster, Zwingli
19240-459: The ecclesiastical government had the authority to decide on these issues. At this point, Konrad Schmid, a priest from Aargau and follower of Zwingli, made a pragmatic suggestion. As images were not yet considered to be valueless by everyone, he suggested that pastors preach on this subject under threat of punishment. He believed the opinions of the people would gradually change and the voluntary removal of images would follow. Hence, Schmid rejected
19425-572: The ecclesiastical hierarchy any right to judge on matters of church order because of its corrupted state. The events of 1522 brought no clarification on the issues. Not only did the unrest between Zürich and the bishop continue, tensions were growing among Zürich's Confederation partners in the Swiss Diet . On 22 December, the Diet recommended that its members prohibit the new teachings, a strong indictment directed at Zürich. The city council felt obliged to take
19610-511: The economic powerhouse of Zürich, while Catholic and conservative Lucerne had been part of the Sonderbund during the war a year before. In addition, Bern had a more central location and was supported by the French-speaking cantons due to proximity to them. However, the constitution doesn't define Bern as official capital of Switzerland, but as the seat of government. A number of congresses of
19795-413: The empire for all cantons and associates of the confederacy. Historians count 13 ( Geneva ) or 14 ( St Gallen ) plague surges in Switzerland between 1500 and 1640, accounting for 31 plague years, and since 1580, smallpox outbreaks with an especially high mortality rate (80–90 % ) amongst children under the age of five occurred every four to five years. Nevertheless, the population in Switzerland grew in
19980-409: The enrichment of the cantonal authorities. These internal and external factors contributed to the rise of a Confederation national consciousness, in which the term fatherland ( Latin : patria ) began to take on meaning beyond a reference to an individual canton. At the same time, Renaissance humanism , with its universal values and emphasis on scholarship (as exemplified by Erasmus (1466–1536),
20165-543: The faith of their rulers. Dissenters who didn't want to convert typically had to (but also were allowed to) emigrate elsewhere, into a region where their faith was the state religion. The Bullinger family, for instance, had to move from Bremgarten in the Freiamt , which was re-Catholicised after the second war of Kappel, to the Protestant city of Zürich. The 16th century also saw the height of witch-hunts in Europe, and Switzerland
20350-590: The forced drowning of Felix Manz in the Limmat in Zürich in 1527, many Anabaptists emigrated to Moravia . Antitrinitarians fared no better; Miguel Servet was burned at the stake in Geneva on 27 October 1553. There was no individual freedom of religion in Switzerland—or indeed all of Europe—at that time anyway. The maxim of cuius regio, eius religio ("whose region, his religion") meant that subjects had to adopt
20535-476: The foundation. One of the elderly canons who had supported Zwingli's election, Konrad Hofmann, complained about his sermons in a letter. Some canons supported Hofmann, but the opposition never grew very large. Zwingli insisted that he was not an innovator and that the sole basis of his teachings was Scripture . Within the diocese of Constance , Bernhardin Sanson was offering a special indulgence for contributors to
20720-522: The founder of the city of Bern, vowed to name the city after the first animal he met on the hunt, and this turned out to be a bear. It has long been considered likely that the city was named after the Italian city of Verona , which at the time was known as Bern in Middle High German . The city was sometimes referred to as Bern im Üechtland to distinguish it from Verona. As a result of the finding of
20905-414: The free citizens, who saw their rights restricted in the cities, too. Contrary to the development in the Holy Roman Empire , where the hostilities escalated and the rebellion was put down by force, there were only isolated armed conflicts in the confederation. The authorities, already involved in reformatory or counter-reformatory activities, managed to subdue these uprisings only by granting concessions. Yet
21090-442: The idea of deriving new societal rules from the direct study of Biblical sources even further than the Protestant reformers only into conflict not only with the established Churches over the question of baptism but also with the civil authorities because, not having found any Biblical justification, they refused to pay taxes or to accept any authority. Both Catholic and Protestant cantons persecuted them with all their might. Following
21275-545: The independent study of biblical sources). Overall, these measures were successful: not only did they prevent the spreading of the Reformation into the Catholic cantons but also they made the Church dependent on the state and generally strengthened the power of the civil authorities. The Catholic cantons also maintained their domination of the Catholic Church after the Council of Trent (1545 to 1563), although they had accepted its positions. They opposed Cardinal Borromeo 's plans for
21460-460: The initiative and find its own solution. On 3 January 1523, the Zürich city council invited the clergy of the city and outlying region to a meeting to allow the factions to present their opinions. The bishop was invited to attend or to send a representative. The council would render a decision on who would be allowed to continue to proclaim their views. This meeting, the first Zürich disputation, took place on 29 January 1523. The meeting attracted
21645-507: The largest canton of the Confederacy as it stood during the Restoration and until the secession of the canton of Jura in 1979. On 28 November 1848, a majority of the new Swiss Federal Assembly deputies chose Bern as the Federal City (seat of the government) of the newly created Swiss federal state , ahead of Zürich and Lucerne . Bern was chosen as not to concentrate all the power in
21830-557: The lay people of Zürich, the dioceses of Chur and Basel, the University of Basel, and the twelve members of the Confederation were also invited. About nine hundred persons attended this meeting, but neither the bishop nor the Confederation sent representatives. The disputation started on 26 October 1523 and lasted two days. Zwingli again took the lead in the disputation. His opponent was the aforementioned canon, Konrad Hofmann, who had initially supported Zwingli's election. Also taking part
22015-580: The longest covered shopping promenades in Europe. Since the 16th century, the city has had a bear pit, the Bärengraben , at the far end of the Nydeggbrücke to house its heraldic animals. The four bears are now kept in an open-air enclosure nearby, and two other young bears, a present by the Russian president, are kept in Dählhölzli zoo. The Federal Palace ( Bundeshaus ), built from 1857 to 1902, which houses
22200-586: The lower part of the Rhône valley. However, in 1603 the Catholic cantons intervened, and with their support re-Catholicisation succeeded and the Protestant families had to emigrate. During the Thirty Years' War , Switzerland was a relative "oasis of peace and prosperity" ( Grimmelshausen ) in war-torn Europe. The cantons had concluded numerous mercenary contracts and defence alliances with partners on all sides. Some of these contracts neutralized each other, which allowed
22385-415: The mandate period 2021–2024 ( Legislatur ) the Municipal Council is presided by Stadtpräsident Alec von Graffenried . Departmental tasks, coordination measures and implementation of laws decreed by the City Council are carried by the Municipal Council. The regular election of the Municipal Council by any inhabitant valid to vote is held every four years. Any resident of Bern allowed to vote can be elected as
22570-401: The matter of images in a second disputation. The essence of the mass and its sacrificial character was also included as a subject of discussion. Supporters of the mass claimed that the eucharist was a true sacrifice, while Zwingli claimed that it was a commemorative meal. As in the first disputation, an invitation was sent out to the Zürich clergy and the bishop of Constance. This time, however,
22755-416: The meal aspect of the sacrament. The sermon was the focal point of the service and there was no organ music or singing. The importance of the sermon in the worship service was underlined by Zwingli's proposal to limit the celebration of communion to four times a year. For some time Zwingli had accused mendicant orders of hypocrisy and demanded their abolition in order to support the truly poor. He suggested
22940-438: The monasteries be changed into hospitals and welfare institutions and incorporate their wealth into a welfare fund. This was done by reorganising the foundations of the Grossmünster and Fraumünster and pensioning off remaining nuns and monks. The council secularised the church properties (Fraumünster handed over to the city of Zurich by Zwingli's acquaintance Katharina von Zimmern in 1524) and established new welfare programs for
23125-461: The most recent ice age . The two mountains closest to Bern are Gurten with a height of 864 m (2,835 ft) and Bantiger with a height of 947 m (3,107 ft). The site of the old observatory in Bern is the point of origin of the CH1903 coordinate system at 46°57′08.66″N 7°26′22.50″E / 46.9524056°N 7.4395833°E / 46.9524056; 7.4395833 . The city
23310-545: The municipality. There were 49,873 married individuals, 9,345 widows or widowers and 9,468 individuals who are divorced. As of 2000 , there were 67,115 private households in the municipality, and an average of 1.8 persons per household. There were 34,981 households that consist of only one person and 1,592 households with five or more people. In 2000 , a total of 65,538 apartments (90.6% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 5,352 apartments (7.4%) were seasonally occupied and 1,444 apartments (2.0%) were empty. As of 2009 ,
23495-658: The name Brenodor ("dwelling of Breno"). In the Early Middle Ages, a settlement in Bümpliz , now a city district of Bern, was some 4 km (2 mi) from the medieval city. The medieval city is a foundation of the Zähringer ruling family, which rose to power in Upper Burgundy in the 12th century. According to 14th-century historiography ( Cronica de Berno , 1309), Bern was founded in 1191 by Berthold V, Duke of Zähringen . In 1218, after Berthold died without an heir, Bern
23680-482: The necessity of the ecclesiastical authority. The decision of the council was that Zwingli would be allowed to continue his preaching and that all other preachers should teach only in accordance with Scripture. In September 1523, Leo Jud , Zwingli's closest friend and colleague and pastor of St Peterskirche , publicly called for the removal of statues of saints and other icons. This led to demonstrations and iconoclastic activities. The city council decided to work out
23865-491: The negotiations. Bern was not prepared to insist on the unhindered preaching or the prohibition of the pension system. Zürich and Bern could not agree and the Five (Catholic) States pledged only to dissolve their alliance with Austria. This was a bitter disappointment for Zwingli and it marked his decline in political influence. The first Land Peace of Kappel, der erste Landfriede , ended the war on 24 June. While Zwingli carried on
24050-411: The new movement at bay. They assumed judicial and financial powers over the clergy, laid down firm rules of conduct for the priests, outlawed concubinage , and reserved the right to nominate priests in the first place, who previously had been assigned by the bishoprics . They also banned printing, distributing, and possessing Reformist tracts; and banned the study of Hebrew and Greek (to put an end to
24235-434: The next year. Over the next few years, the cities of St. Gallen , Schaffhausen , Basel , Bienne , Mulhouse, and Bern all followed the example set by Zürich. Bern was the first to follow Zürich, in 1528, when the aftermath of the Bern Disputation officially pronounced Bern as the second Protestant Swiss canton. Their subject territories were converted to Protestantism by decree. In Basel, reformer Johannes Oecolampadius
24420-628: The opinions of Bern, usually hostile to the politics of Pre-revolutionary France . Bern was occupied by French troops in 1798 during the French Revolutionary Wars , when it was stripped of parts of its territories. It regained control of the Bernese Oberland in 1802, and following the Congress of Vienna of 1814, it newly acquired the Bernese Jura . At this time, it once again became
24605-627: The opponents of Martin Luther including John Eck , who had debated Luther in the Leipzig Disputation of 1519. Eck offered to dispute Zwingli and he accepted. However, they could not agree on the selection of the judging authority, the location of the debate, and the use of the Swiss Diet as a court. Because of the disagreements, Zwingli decided to boycott the disputation. On 19 May 1526, all the cantons sent delegates to Baden . Although Zürich's representatives were present, they did not participate in
24790-451: The opposing points of view. On 17 January 1525 a public debate was held and the council decided in favour of Zwingli. Anyone refusing to have their children baptised was required to leave Zürich. The radicals ignored these measures and on 21 January, they met at the house of the mother of another radical leader, Felix Manz . Grebel and a third leader, George Blaurock , performed the first recorded Anabaptist adult baptisms . On 2 February,
24975-520: The opulent decorations in the churches were thrown out. The state assumed the administration of Church properties, financing the social works (which up to then were managed entirely by the Church), and also paid the priests. The last abbess of the Fraumünster , Katharina von Zimmern , turned over the convent including all of its rights and possessions to the city authorities on 30 November 1524. She even married
25160-626: The other Swiss Protestant cantons remained strictly neutral. With the victory of Charles V the previously close relations to the Swabian Protestant cities in the Holy Roman Empire were severed: many cities, like Konstanz, were re-Catholicised and many were placed under a strictly aristocratic rule. While the official Church remained passive during the beginnings of the Reformation, the Swiss Catholic cantons took measures early on to keep
25345-524: The other cantons, open war (known as the First War of Kappel ) was barely avoided, but the peace agreement ( Erster Landfriede ) was not exactly favourable for the Catholic party, who had to dissolve its alliance with the Austrian Habsburgs . The tensions remained essentially unresolved. Two years later, the second war of Kappel broke out. Zürich was taking the refusal of the Catholic cantons to help
25530-749: The penalty of death. Although Zwingli, technically, had nothing to do with the mandate, there is no indication that he disapproved. Felix Manz, who had sworn to leave Zürich and not to baptise any more, had deliberately returned and continued the practice. After he was arrested and tried, he was executed on 5 January 1527 by being drowned in the Limmat . He was the first Anabaptist martyr; three more were to follow, after which all others either fled or were expelled from Zürich. On 8 April 1524, five cantons, Lucerne , Uri , Schwyz , Unterwalden , and Zug , formed an alliance, die fünf Orte (the Five States) to defend themselves from Zwingli's Reformation. They contacted
25715-404: The period of 1981–2010, as well as 14.1 days of snowfall, 36.7 days of snow cover per year and the average amount of snow measured per year is 52.6 centimetres (20.7 in). On average, January is the coldest month, with a daily mean temperature of −0.4 °C (31.3 °F), and a daily minimum temperature of −3.6 °C (25.5 °F). The lowest temperature ever recorded at Bern (Zollikofen)
25900-496: The political intrigues of Jürg Jenatsch , who managed to play the French off against the Spaniards. Until 1639, the Three Leagues had re-acquired their whole territory, buying back the parts occupied by Austria. They even were restituted their subject territories in the south (Valtellina, Bormio , and Chiavenna ), yet these had to remain Catholic under the protection of Milan. The mayor of Basel, Johann Rudolf Wettstein , lobbied for
26085-557: The political work of the Swiss Reformation, he developed his theological views with his colleagues. The famous disagreement between Luther and Zwingli on the interpretation of the eucharist originated when Andreas Karlstadt , Luther's former colleague from Wittenberg , published three pamphlets on the Lord's Supper in which Karlstadt rejected the idea of a real presence in the elements. These pamphlets, published in Basel in 1524, received
26270-472: The poor. Zwingli requested permission to establish a Latin school, the Prophezei (Prophecy) or Carolinum , at the Grossmünster. The council agreed and it was officially opened on 19 June 1525 with Zwingli and Jud as teachers. It served to retrain and re-educate the clergy. The Zürich Bible translation, traditionally attributed to Zwingli and printed by Christoph Froschauer , bears the mark of teamwork from
26455-468: The population (as of 2000 ) speaks German (104,465 or 81.2%) as their first language, Italian is the second most common (5,062 or 3.9%) and French is the third (4,671 or 3.6%). There are 171 people who speak Romansh . As of 2008 , the population was 47.5% male and 52.5% female. The population was made up of 44,032 Swiss men (35.4% of the population) and 15,092 (12.1%) non-Swiss men. There were 51,531 Swiss women (41.4%) and 13,726 (11.0%) non-Swiss women. Of
26640-535: The population in the municipality, 39,008 or about 30.3% were born in Bern and lived there in 2000. There were 27,573 or 21.4% who were born in the same canton, while 25,818 or 20.1% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 27,812 or 21.6% were born outside of Switzerland. As of 2000 , children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 15.1% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 65% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 19.9%. As of 2000 , there were 59,948 people who were single and never married in
26825-485: The population) who were Muslim . There were 629 persons who were Buddhist , 1,430 persons who were Hindu and 177 persons who belonged to another religion. 16,363 (or about 12.72% of the population) belonged to no religion, are agnostic or atheist , and 7,855 persons (or about 6.11% of the population) did not answer the question. On 14 December 2014 the Haus der Religionen was inaugurated. The structure of Bern's city centre
27010-460: The post of the Leutpriestertum (people's priest) of the Grossmünster at Zürich became vacant. The canons of the foundation that administered the Grossmünster recognised Zwingli's reputation as a fine preacher and writer. His connection with humanists was a decisive factor as several canons were sympathetic to Erasmian reform. In addition, his opposition to the French and to mercenary service
27195-580: The priority in the common territories, but allowed communes that had already converted to remain Protestant. Only strategically important places such as the Freiamt or those along the route from Schwyz to the Rhine valley at Sargans (and thus to the Alpine passes in the Grisons) were forcibly re-Catholicised. In their own territories, the cantons remained free to implement one or the other religion. The peace thus prescribed
27380-456: The publication of this treatise, the diocese of Constance reacted by sending a delegation to Zürich. The city council condemned the fasting violation, but assumed responsibility over ecclesiastical matters and requested the religious authorities clarify the issue. The bishop responded on 24 May by admonishing the Grossmünster and city council and repeating the traditional position. Following this event, Zwingli and other humanist friends petitioned
27565-493: The radicals and their iconoclasm, but supported Zwingli's position. In November the council passed ordinances in support of Schmid's motion. Zwingli wrote a booklet on the evangelical duties of a minister, Kurze, christliche Einleitung (Short Christian Introduction), and the council sent it out to the clergy and the members of the Confederation. Huldrych Zwingli was a major figure in the Swiss Reformation , advocating for
27750-467: The resident population stood at 142,349, of which 100,000 were Swiss citizens and 42,349 (31%) resident foreigners. A further estimated 350,000 people live in the immediate urban agglomeration . Bern lies on the Swiss plateau in the canton of Bern, slightly west of the centre of Switzerland and 20 km (12 mi) north of the Bernese Alps . The countryside around Bern was formed by glaciers during
27935-463: The response of both peasants and free citizens, who resented such curtailing of their democratic rights, and around 1523/25, also fuelled by the reformatory spirit, revolts broke out in many cantons, both rural and urban. The main objective of the insurgents was the restitution of common rights of old, not the institution of a new order. Although commonly called the Peasants' War , the movement also included
28120-406: The results were published in the fifteen Marburg Articles . The participants were able to agree on fourteen of the articles, but the fifteenth article established the differences in their views on the presence of Christ in the eucharist. Professor George summarized the incompatible views, "On this issue, they parted without having reached an agreement. Both Luther and Zwingli agreed that the bread in
28305-469: The sessions. Eck led the Catholic party while the reformers were represented by Johannes Oecolampadius of Basel, a theologian from Württemberg who had carried on an extensive and friendly correspondence with Zwingli. While the debate proceeded, Zwingli was kept informed of the proceedings and printed pamphlets giving his opinions. It was of little use as the Diet decided against Zwingli. He was to be banned and his writings were no longer to be distributed. Of
28490-504: The seven cantons ( Goldener Bund ), no other major armed conflicts directly between the cantons occurred. Soldiers from both sides fought in the French Wars of Religion . During the Thirty Years' War , the thirteen cantons managed to maintain their neutrality, partly because all major powers in Europe depended on Swiss mercenaries and would not let Switzerland fall into the hands of one of their rivals. The Three Leagues ( Drei Bünde ) of
28675-415: The side of the Roman See . In return, Pope Julius II honoured Zwingli by providing him with an annual pension. He took the role of chaplain in several campaigns in Italy, including the Battle of Novara in 1513. However, the decisive defeat of the Swiss in the Battle of Marignano caused a shift in mood in Glarus in favour of the French rather than the pope. Zwingli, the papal partisan, found himself in
28860-432: The sides of the Huguenots , supporting Henry of Navarre , while the Catholic troops fought for king Henry III of France . In 1586, the seven Catholic cantons (the five alpine cantons, plus Fribourg and Solothurn) formed an exclusively Catholic alliance called the "Golden League" ( Goldener Bund , named after the golden initials on the document) and sided with the Guises , who were also supported by Spain. In 1589, Henry III
29045-420: The situation in the common territories, where the administration changed bi-annually among cantons and thus switched between Catholic and Protestant rules. Several mediation attempts failed such as the disputation of Baden in 1526. After numerous minor incidents and provocations from both sides, a Protestant pastor was burned on the stake in Schwyz in 1529, and in retaliation Zürich declared war. By mediation of
29230-405: The theological foundation of Protestantism of the Calvinist strain. The success of the Reformation in Zürich and its rapid territorial expansion definitely made this religious renewal a political issue and a major source of conflict between the thirteen cantons. The alpine cantons of Uri , Schwyz , Unterwalden , Lucerne , and Zug remained staunchly Catholic. Their opposition was not uniquely
29415-404: The thirteen Confederation members, Glarus , Solothurn , Fribourg , and Appenzell as well as the Five States voted against Zwingli. Bern , Basel , Schaffhausen , and Zürich supported him. The Baden disputation exposed a deep rift in the Confederation on matters of religion. The Reformation was now emerging in other states. The city of St Gallen , an affiliated state to the Confederation,
29600-429: The water in the municipality. According to the Köppen Climate Classification , Bern has an oceanic climate ( Cfb ) closely bordering on a humid continental climate ( Dfb ). The closest weather station near Bern is located in the municipality of Zollikofen , about 5 kilometres (3 mi) north of the city centre. The warmest month for Bern is July, with a daily mean temperature of 18.3 °C (64.9 °F), and
29785-469: The words were taken in their literal sense, the body had to be eaten in the most grossly material way. "For this is the meaning they carry: this bread is that body of mine which is given for you. It was given for us in grossly material form, subject to wounds, blows and death. As such, therefore, it must be the material of the supper." Indeed, to press the literal meaning of the text even farther, it follows that Christ would have again to suffer pain, as his body
29970-413: Was a group of young men demanding a much faster pace of reformation, who among other things pleaded for replacing infant baptism with adult baptism . This group was led by Conrad Grebel , one of the initiators of the Anabaptist movement. During the first three days of dispute, although the controversy of images and the mass were discussed, the arguments led to the question of whether the city council or
30155-406: Was able to draw upon classical , patristic , and scholastic works. He exchanged scholarly letters with a circle of Swiss humanists and began to study the writings of Erasmus. Zwingli took the opportunity to meet him while Erasmus was in Basel between August 1514 and May 1516. Zwingli's turn to relative pacifism and his focus on preaching can be traced to the influence of Erasmus. In late 1518,
30340-457: Was about 1040.54 CHF (US$ 830, £470, €670) and a six or more room apartment cost an average of 2094.80 CHF (US$ 1680, £940, €1340). The average apartment price in Bern was 99.4% of the national average of 1116 CHF. The vacancy rate for the municipality, in 2010 , was 0.45%. The historical population is given in the following chart: From the 2000 census , 60,455 or 47.0% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church , while 31,510 or 24.5% were members of
30525-441: Was active, in St. Gallen, the Reformation was adopted by the mayor Joachim Vadian . In Glarus , Appenzell , and in the Grisons , which all three had a more republican structure, individual communes decided for or against the Reformation. In the French-speaking parts, reformers like William Farel had been preaching the new faith under Bernese protection since the 1520s, but only in 1536, just before John Calvin arrived there, did
30710-409: Was assassinated and Henry of Navarre succeeded him as Henry IV of France , and thus the Protestant mercenaries now fought for the king. Since 1586, the duke of Savoy, Charles Emmanuel I , had placed Geneva under an embargo. With the new situation of 1589, the city now got support not only from Bern but also from the French king, and it went to war. The war between Geneva and Savoy continued even after
30895-413: Was averted due to the intervention of Hans Aebli, a relative of Zwingli, who pleaded for an armistice. Zwingli was obliged to state the terms of the armistice. He demanded the dissolution of the Christian Alliance; unhindered preaching by reformers in the Catholic states; prohibition of the pension system; payment of war reparations; and compensation to the children of Jacob Kaiser. Manuel was involved in
31080-410: Was backed by Savoy, in 1533 to Annecy . Bern and the Valais took advantage of the duke's involvement in northern Italy and his opposition to France. When Francesco II Sforza died in Milan in 1534, the duke's troops were bound by the French engagement there, and Bern promptly conquered the Vaud and, together with the Valais, also territories south of Lake Geneva in 1536. The alliance of 1560 of
31265-405: Was broken again—this time by the teeth of communicants. Even more absurdly, Christ's body would have to be swallowed, digested, even eliminated through the bowels! Such thoughts were repulsive to Zwingli. They smacked of cannibalism on the one hand and of the pagan mystery religions on the other. The main issue for Zwingli, however, was not the irrationality or exegetical fallacy of Luther's views. It
31450-549: Was elected to fulfill that vacancy on 29 April 1521. In becoming a canon, he became a full citizen of Zürich. He also retained his post as the people's priest of the Grossmünster. The first public controversy regarding Zwingli's preaching broke out during the season of Lent in 1522. On the first fasting Sunday, 9 March, Zwingli and about a dozen other participants consciously transgressed the fasting rule by cutting and distributing two smoked sausages (the Wurstessen in Christoph Froschauer 's workshop). Zwingli defended this act in
31635-415: Was founded in 1581 in Altdorf . Parallel to these efforts to reform the Catholic Church, the Catholic cantons also proceeded to re-Catholicize regions that had converted to Protestantism. Besides reconversions in the common territories, the Catholic cantons in 1560 first tried to undo the Reformation in Glarus , where the Catholics were a minority. The five Catholic cantons formed a military alliance with
31820-421: Was his expository preaching , starting in 1519, through the Gospel of Matthew , before eventually using Biblical exegesis to go through the entire New Testament, a radical departure from the Catholic mass . In 1525, he introduced a new communion liturgy to replace the Mass . He also clashed with the Anabaptists , which resulted in their persecution. Historians have debated whether or not he turned Zürich into
32005-421: Was led by a reformed mayor, Joachim Vadian , and the city abolished the mass in 1527, just two years after Zürich. In Basel, although Zwingli had a close relationship with Oecolampadius, the government did not officially sanction any reformatory changes until 1 April 1529 when the mass was prohibited. Schaffhausen, which had closely followed Zürich's example, formally adopted the Reformation in September 1529. In
32190-430: Was made a free imperial city by the Goldene Handfeste of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II . In 1353, Bern joined the Swiss Confederacy , becoming the eighth canton of the formative period of 1353 to 1481. Bern invaded and conquered Aargau in 1415 and Vaud in 1536, as well as other smaller territories, thereby becoming the largest city-state north of the Alps . By the 18th century, it comprised most of what
32375-401: Was neither Erasmian nor Lutheran . Scholars do not agree on the process of how he developed his own unique model. One view is that Zwingli was trained as an Erasmian humanist and Luther played a decisive role in changing his theology. Another view is that Zwingli did not pay much attention to Luther's theology and in fact he considered it as part of the humanist reform movement. A third view
32560-423: Was no exception. Beginning about 1530, culminating around 1600, and then slowly diminishing, numerous witch trials were held in both Protestant and Catholic cantons. These often ended with death sentences (usually burning) for the accused, who typically were elderly women, crippled persons, or other social outcasts. Humanism and the Renaissance led to new advances in science and the arts. Paracelsus taught at
32745-417: Was not considered unusual at the time. His first ecclesiastical post was the pastorate of the town of Glarus , where he stayed for ten years. It was in Glarus, whose soldiers were used as mercenaries in Europe, that Zwingli became involved in politics. The Swiss Confederation was embroiled in various campaigns with its neighbours: the French, the Habsburgs, and the Papal States. Zwingli placed himself solidly on
32930-416: Was not omnipresent and so could not be in heaven and at the same time be present in the elements. Timothy George , evangelical author, editor of Christianity Today and professor of Historical Theology at Beeson Divinity School at Samford University, has refuted a long-standing misreading of Zwingli that erroneously claimed the Reformer denied all notions of real presence and believed in a memorial view of
33115-547: Was originally built on a hilly peninsula surrounded by the river Aare , but outgrew natural boundaries by the 19th century. A number of bridges have been built to allow the city to expand beyond the Aare. Bern is built on very uneven ground. An elevation difference of up to 60 metres exists between the inner city districts on the Aare ( Matte , Marzili ) and the higher ones (Kirchenfeld, Länggasse). Bern has an area, as of 2013 , of 51.62 km (19.93 sq mi). Of this area, 9.42 km (3.64 sq mi) or 18.2%
33300-443: Was rather that Luther put "the chief point of salvation in physically eating the body of Christ," for he connected it with the forgiveness of sins. The same motive that had moved Zwingli so strongly to oppose images, the invocation of saints, and baptismal regeneration was present also in the struggle over the Supper: the fear of idolatry. Salvation was by Christ alone, through faith alone, not through faith and bread. The object of faith
33485-458: Was that which is not seen (Heb 11:1) and which therefore cannot be eaten except, again, in a nonliteral, figurative sense. "Credere est edere," said Zwingli: "To believe is to eat." To eat the body and to drink the blood of Christ in the Supper, then, simply meant to have the body and blood of Christ present in the mind." Bern Bern ( Swiss Standard German: [bɛrn] ), or Berne ( French: [bɛʁn] ),
33670-456: Was thus a Protestant enclave within the Catholic territories of Savoy again and as a result intensified its relations with the Swiss confederacy and Bern and Zürich in particular. Its plea for full acceptance into the confederation—the city was an associate state only—was rejected by the Catholic majority of cantons. Mercenaries of the Swiss cantons participated in the French wars of religion on all sides. Those from Protestant cantons fought on
33855-407: Was welcomed by Zürich politicians. On 11 December 1518, the canons elected Zwingli to become the stipendiary priest and on 27 December he moved permanently to Zürich. On 1 January 1519, Zwingli gave his first sermon in Zürich. Deviating from the prevalent practice of basing a sermon on the Gospel lesson of a particular Sunday, Zwingli, using Erasmus ' New Testament as a guide, began to read through
34040-601: Was well-known and their public wedding took place on 2 April 1524, three months before the birth of their first child. They would have four children: Regula, William, Huldrych, and Anna. As the petition was addressed to the secular authorities, the bishop responded at the same level by notifying the Zürich government to maintain the ecclesiastical order. Other Swiss clergymen joined in Zwingli's cause which encouraged him to make his first major statement of faith, Apologeticus Archeteles (The First and Last Word). He defended himself against charges of inciting unrest and heresy. He denied
34225-415: Was −23.0 °C (−9.4 °F), recorded in February 1929, and typically the coldest temperature of the year reaches an average of −12.8 °C (9.0 °F) for the period of 1981–2010. The municipality is administratively subdivided into six districts ( Stadtteile ), each of which consists of several quarters ( Quartiere ). The Municipal Council (de: Gemeinderat , fr: conseil municipal ) constitutes
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