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53-547: Pešturina cave on the mountain is the location of the first discovery of Neanderthal remains in Serbia, recorded in April 2019. The mountain stretches in the northwest-southeast direction. It divides two valleys, Sićevo (on the northeast) and Zaplanje (on the west). Its ridge is 45 kilometres (28 mi) long, and up to 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) wide. Its northern slope starts 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) south of Niška Banja , while in

106-406: A cloud of smoke billowed from the pit. After several days of burning, when the uppermost stone in the fire pit began to glow a fiery red, it signaled that the burning process of the lime was finished, and that the process of carbon dioxide emissions from the limestone has been completed, and that the lime was now ready for marketing as lime or powder. After being allowed to cool, the burnt limestone

159-425: A half metres deep. After the hole was dug, the chalk and fuel for a fire would be brought to it. Stones of chalk (limestone) would be arranged in a circular dome in the pit. The burning process would last three to six days, without letup. After the burning was finished, the kiln would be left to cool for four to six days. The lime would then be taken out. The large lime blocks along the edge of the pit were considered of

212-510: Is a fragment of radial diaphysis (Pes-2), discovered between the layers 3 and 4, and tentatively assigned to Neanderthals, based on morphology. Second is a partial atlas vertebra (C1), discovered i the lower portion of Layer 2, exhibiting modern human morphology. The atlas is probably originating from a Pleistocene and is associated with the Gravettian assemblage of Layer 2. There is no evidence of Holocene intrusion. That way, Pešturina became

265-427: Is also an important component in the production of Nabulsi soap , in dyeing fabrics, and in use as a depilatory . Many limepits were sunken in the ground at a depth of between 2.5 and 5 meters and 3 to 4.5 meters in diameter, in a circular fashion, and some were built with a retaining wall along the inside for support, usually constructed of uncut field-stones. Simpler limepits were made without supportive walls. In

318-482: Is also used but the most common are tools made of quartz . Reddish and loose in structure, the layer consists of larger crumbs. In the back section large fragments of rock were discovered and the sediment is dark brown. Because of that, the layer is divided into Layer 4-a (reddish) and Layer 4-b (dark brown), which hasn't been fully explored yet. The assemblage is dated to the Middle Paleolithic and as part of

371-511: Is the first discovery of Neanderthal remains in Serbia. With remains of the modern hominids discovered soon after, Pešturina became the only site in the Central Balkans which preserved both modern human and Neanderthal remains, with associated lithic industries, highlighting the importance of Pešturina in the current discourse on hominin dispersals and migrations. Coming from the archaic Serbian name for cave, peštera ( cf. Pešter ) means

424-649: The Balkans . In the wider Pešturina region, evidence of the Neanderthal presence was discovered in the localities of Meča Dupka, Golema Dupka, and Kremenac, all in the Niš and Leskovac depressions, and on the slopes of the Radan mountain . All Paleolithic sites in the Central Balkans, including Pešturina, have the noticeable absence of the Aurignacian layers. That points to the theory that

477-643: The Bela Palanka side of the mountain). At the Rakoš spring, there is a small lake, which serves as the watering hole for the mountain's feral horses. The mountain is known for its vegetation diversity. By 2015, 1,261 various plant species have been recorded on Suva Planina, or one third of flora represented on territory of Serbia. Large number of plans is endemic or relict . Endemic species include Serbian rose ( Rosa serbica ) and Pančić's columbine ( Aquilegia pancicii ). Deciduous forests are made of oak and beech , while

530-512: The Gravettian and early Epi-Gravettian periods. The layer is disturbed by the rodent activities. Later, the inhabitants leveled and dug the terrain. As a result, some Middle Paleolithic artifacts can be found but they do not originate in this layer. Fauna remains are very fragmented. Most abundant remains of the carnivorous animals belong to the grey wolf while the prey animals include aurochs , horse and Alpine ibex . Remains were also found of

583-585: The Lachish area, several lime kilns were excavated by a team on behalf of the IAA , and which kilns were partially hewn in the bedrock and partially built of fieldstones, and last used at some point between the mid-15th century and the mid-17th century CE . In Bedouin-Arab culture in Palestine , the limepit was dug to a depth of about 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) and about 3 metres (9.8 ft) in diameter. By all appearances,

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636-531: The Middle and Upper Paleolithic periods have been discovered. The artifacts belong to the Neanderthal Mousterian culture, and are dated from 102,000 BP +  5,000 to 39,000 BP  +  3,000, making Pešturina one of the longest surviving Neanderthal habitations. In April 2019 it was announced that Neanderthal remains were discovered, which marks the first discovery of such in Serbia. Traces of

689-513: The calcination of limestone ( calcium carbonate , CaCO 3 ) and by which quicklime ( calcium oxide , CaO) is produced, an essential component in waterproofing and in wall plastering (plaster skim). The production of lime in the Land of Israel has been dated as far back as the Canaanite period , and has continued in successive generations ever since. The man-made limepit was usually dug in ground near

742-543: The "great cave". It is also known as the Jelašnica Cave ( Serbian : Јелашничка пећина , Jelašnička pećina ). The cave is located on the hillock on the northern slopes of the Suva Planina mountain at an altitude of 330 m (1,080 ft). The entrance is oriented to the west; it is 15 m (49 ft) wide and 3.5 m (11 ft) high. The cave itself is 22 m (72 ft) long. Stones are accumulated at

795-513: The Charentian Mousterian period, with Quina Mousterian elements. There are many fauna remnants and they are well preserved. Predominant are the bones of horse and aurochs with red deer and Alpine ibex to the lesser extent. Bones of rhinoceros and woolly mammoth have also been found. Remains of the cave hyena, fragmentation of the bones, marks of the hyena teeth on the bones and huge amount of coprolites , points to hyenas being on top of

848-474: The Roman military road Via Militaris , connecting Singidunum (now Belgrade) and Constantinople (now Istanbul) are still visible from the mountain. The traditional way of cattle breeding developed in time, so as a fruit growing and wine producing. There are also numerous characteristic ethno-architecture objects from the end of the 19th century, which represent a valuable, and recognizable, cultural heritage of

901-541: The West, quicklime was formerly a major component in common mortar , besides its predominant use in plastering. In some Middle-Eastern countries where rain-fall was scarce in the dry season, lime production for use in plastering home-made cisterns (in making them impermeable by adding thereto a pozzolanic agent) was especially important. This enabled them to collect the winter run-off of rain water and to have it stored for later use, whether for personal or agricultural needs. Lime

954-401: The animals on the mountain include northern crested newt , Hermann's tortoise , horned viper , golden eagle , European snow vole , wolf , roe deer , wild boar , etc. The Divna Gorica range is known for feral horses. They also roam to the other, higher parts of the mountain, above 1,600 m (5,200 ft). Foe centuries, the horses were kept by the local population in stables during

1007-458: The archaeological excavations began in 2006. The remains, identified as the Mousterian culture, were dated from 111,000 BP +  5,000 to 39,000 BP  +  3,000, which makes Pešturina one of the latest surviving Neanderthal habitats. The cave has been nicknamed the "Serbian Atapuerca ". In April 2019 it was announced that the remains of the Neanderthal men have been discovered. It

1060-561: The area. Pešturina has been excavated on three occasions. By 2020, a total of 24 m (260 sq ft) was surveyed, reaching depth of 3 m (9.8 ft). Stratigraphically , the site has been divided in four layers. Humus layer - It contains objects from later prehistory. Made of light-brown compact sediment. Artifacts from the Upper Paleolithic were discovered: bladelets , unretouched blades , straight backed points and combined tools. They were characteristic for

1113-410: The area. The stone for building houses was also dug on the mountain. By the 2020s, however, most of the economic activity stopped due to the massive depopulation, with the limepit in the village of Mali Krčimir being one of the exceptions. The mountain remains known for the extensive husbandry, where hundreds of cattle and horses are left to freely roam over the mountain during the warm season, up to

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1166-465: The areas of Valožje, the peak Golemo Stražište, and the isolated area of Rubovac-Cerje (or Rebrine). Lowest protection covers the remaining 93,5% of the reserve. Pe%C5%A1turina Pešturina ( Serbian : Пештурина ) is a cave in the municipality of Niška Banja in southeast Serbia . It is located southwest of Jelašnica and 20 km (12 mi) southeast of Niš . Artifacts from the Middle and Upper Paleolithic periods were discovered since

1219-433: The beginning of the last Ice Age, when the climate in the area was still relatively mild. In 2022, remains were re-dated to 111,000 BP. The tooth had calculus preserved on it. Bacterial DNA, part of person's oral microbiome , was preserved and extracted. Remains of the bacteria discovered showed that both meat and plants were used in Neanderthal diet. Further two hominid remains were discovered and assessed by 2020. One

1272-530: The cave. Though majority of the remains were brought into the cave by hyenas, remains of large animals like rhinoceros and mammoths, so as the artifacts, show that some remains were human kills. A major roof collapse near the entrance, or the possible bedrock which separated two caves, is later labeled the Layer 4-c. It still remains unexplored. Neanderthals were thriving during the last Interglacial period, 130,000-70,000 BP , and in this period, they lived all over

1325-416: The coniferous forest belt ends with the zone of mugo pine . Within the forested zones, there are numerous communities of meadows, pastures, rocks, screes and rocky glades. Diverse fauna inhabits numerous ecosystems. Animal species include 259 species of insects (80 species of prime butterflies), 14 species of amphibians and reptiles, 13 species of fish, 139 species of birds, and 25 species of mammals. Some of

1378-601: The discovery of the Neanderthal remains was announced by the Serbian-Canadian team and published in the Journal of Human Evolution . It was an exceptionally preserved permanent right molar (named Pes-3), found among numerous Mousterian artifacts and animal remains, typical for the Pleistocene fauna (horse, European bison , mammoth, rhinoceros), including a bone with parallel carvings. The remarkable preservation and minimal wear of

1431-655: The early November. In the season of 2021 there were over 800 cattle and 200 horses on the mountain, when the only water spring on the mountain, Rakoš, completely dried out in August due to the hot summer and prolonged drought. There have been dry seasons before, so the local administration already hired military to bring water to the animals, but the contract expired and military withdrew. Herdsmen also hired private contractors to bring water, but were left without funds, plus they could provide small amount of water needed - daily needs are 50 tons, and only 6 tons could be provided. By September

1484-541: The entrance; while the parent rock protrudes above the ground in the back part of the cave. Pešturina is the karst cave, set in the Upper Jurassic dolomites/reef limestones . Pešturina is one of three caves in a row, the other two being Mala Balanica and Velika Balanica . All three contain hominid remains, the latter two much older: 300,000 and 500,000 years old, respectively. The caves are completely inaccessible by roads or paths and can be reached only via ropes from

1537-489: The expansion of the early modern humans into Europe occurred via the Danube corridor, which allowed for the small Neanderthal communities to survive beyond 40,000 BP in some isolated pockets. Based on the dating of the animal remains, and comparing it to the corresponding tools, Pešturina is the first site in the region with the quasi-continuous habitation from 102,000 BP +  5,000 to 39,000 BP +  3,000. In April 2019

1590-467: The following account, Abu-Rabiʻa describes the practice of Bedouins in the Negev , during the late 19th and early 20th-century: Lime is derived from chalk [ sic ] by burning. The Bedouins used it in plastering their cisterns. Burning chalk stone was performed in simple kilns in close proximity to where the chalk was found. Lime kilns were made by digging a round hole, three metres wide, two and

1643-407: The food chain in this period. Other animal remnants include Eurasian beaver , hare, cave bear, leopard , Mustelidae and chamois . Over 100 artifacts were discovered, which mostly made of quartz, while the flint and chalcedony were also found. Though artifacts from all three phases of the flint- knapping were discovered (blades, tools, pressure flaking), the cores were not discovered which means that

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1696-533: The hares, cave hyena , Mustelidae and red deer . Over 100 artifacts were found. They were mostly made of chalcedony and the beige and brown flint stone and their structure point to the short term habitation. It consists of brown sediment. Artifacts generally belong to the Denticulate Mousterian culture, from the Middle Paleolithic period. It is quite disturbed in the later periods, with rodent holes. Fauna remains are numerous, mostly corresponding to

1749-556: The highest quality, while the small pieces towards the center of the pit were considered grade B. One camel load, or cantur ( qentar / quntar = 100 ratels , or 250–300 kilograms), of lime would fetch 40 grush on the Jerusalem market in the early 1880s. In Palestine , the principal fuel used to keep the lime-kiln burning was the dried brushwood of prickly burnet ( Sarcopoterium spinosum ) and savory ( Satureja thymbra ), where often camel loads of this dried wood would be hauled to

1802-453: The late Hellenistic period were excavated at Ramat Rachel , the latter of which being circular in shape (3.6 metres in diameter) and built into the ruins of a large pool, using earlier walls. A rounded kiln (2.5–2.8 metres in diameter) was found northeast of Jerusalem dating back to the Iron Age (seventh–sixth century BCE), and was built of stones and had a rectangular unit adjacent to it. In

1855-471: The lime to create a chemical reaction, whereby the burnt lime, or what is known also as calcium oxide , is changed into calcium hydroxide ), and mixed with an aggregate to form an adhesive paste (plaster) used in construction and for daubing buildings. When properly burnt, limestone loses its carbonic acid ( H 2 CO 3 ) and becomes converted into caustic or quicklime ( CaO ). One-hundred parts of raw limestone yields about 56 parts of quicklime. In

1908-639: The lime-kiln. Monolithic stone structures were already in use for burning limestone ( nāri ) during the Ottoman period , throughout the Levant. Modern kilns for burning lime first appeared in Palestine during the British Mandate . The lime stones selected were those that had the least amount of impurities within them. Limepits were almost always built near the supply of limestone, and a sufficient pile of wood kindling

1961-511: The limepit as it burns. In this way, there was no need for the use of bellows to reach a high temperature, but only to stoke the fire with wood continuously for several days for it to reach a temperature of 900° Celsius (1650° F ). Its mode of operation was similar to that of a shaft kiln . After cooling, wood ashes that had accumulated were then separated from the burnt blocks of limestone. The limestone blocks were then crushed, afterwards slaked (the process of adding water and constantly turning

2014-497: The mountain becoming a national news. Activists and donors organized, but couldn't provide nearly enough water. In the end, the Ministry of agriculture stepped in, promising to pay for the water transport, and the army resumed the water transport. However, since the 1970s, the population is dwindling, and once large herds of cattle, and especially sheep, are no more. Some family members from the households would spend entire warm season on

2067-453: The mountain with animals, producing cheese and wool. By the 2020s, husbandry and agriculture were exercised only for the meeds of local households. The slopes of this mountain are popular with skiing. Every final weekend in February there is a mountaineering event, Zimski uspon na Trem ("Winter climb on Trem"), which gathers over 600 mountaineers from all parts of the Balkans . It is also

2120-405: The one discovered in Layer 4. Most plentiful are those of horses and aurochs while the main predators found are the cave hyena. Other remains include hares, red fox , cave bear , Eurasian lynx , Mustelidae, roe deer and Alpine ibex. The structure of artifacts found in the layer for the most part also corresponds to Layer 4. Apart from chalcedony and the beige and brown flint, the grey-green flint

2173-406: The only site in the Central Balkans with both modern human and Neanderthal remains preserved, highlighting the importance of the cave regarding hominid dispersal and migrations. Limepit A limepit is either a place where limestone is quarried, or a man-made pit used to burn lime stones in the same way that modern-day kilns and furnaces constructed of brick are now used above ground for

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2226-440: The pit was made after the same basic principle used in a " Dakota fire pit ," which is made with an air inlet at the base, allowing for air-ventilation, but on a larger scale. Air intake was achieved by digging an adjacent channel which ran from a short distance into the limepit, or else an underground shaft (shafts) at floor level of limepit leading from an open area, allowing for a steady, free-flowing draught of air to be drawn into

2279-801: The place where limestone could be quarried. Remnants of old limepits have been unearthed in archaeological digs all throughout the Levant . In a country where hundreds of such limepits or limekilns for burning limestone were found, the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) describes dozens of them ( Hebrew : בור סיד / כבשן סיד ), one discovered in Kiryat Ye'arim , another in Har Giora - East (2 km. north of Bar-Giora ), as well as in Neve Yaakov , among other places. Two lime kilns, stratigraphically dated to

2332-449: The regions's biggest mountain winter event. It started in 1997 and is currently under the organization of mountaineering club Železničar , based in Niš . The mountain is considered an exquisite nature reserve, and oasis of, in some parts, pristine and undisturbed nature. Since 2010, Suva Planina went a process of declaration of as a special nature preserve . Special Nature Reserve Suva Planina

2385-417: The situation turned dire, as there was no point to herd livestock back into the villages, as all water sources dried out there, too, and the tap water was heavily restricted. Out of six major droughts recorded since 1990, this one was the most severe, as the mountain is getting drier. Local authorities called the situation a catastrophe, and the nationwide action was taken to help the animals with situation on

2438-478: The snow. The highest peak is Trem ("porch") at 1,810 metres (5,940 ft), the second highest being Golemo Stražište at 1,714 metres (5,623 ft), as well as Litica ("cliff") at 1,683 metres (5,522 ft) on the southeast side of the mountain. The name stems from the fact that there are only a few springs in the whole mountain. The two biggest are Bojanine Vode (near to Sokolov Kamen at 860 metres (2,820 ft)), and Rakoš Česma (on

2491-505: The south it ends in the Lužnica basin . Geographer Jovan Cvijić upon surveying the mountain, called it the Alps of Serbian South. The massif has remarkable forms and phenomena karst relief, and the mountain is a treasury of sediments of different ages rich in fossil flora and fauna. The relief allows that even during the harsh winters, when winds form snowdrifts , some pastures remain uncovered by

2544-411: The tools were most likely made somewhere else and then brought into the cave. Mammals belonged to the different biomes (forest, mountain, steppe), with the steppe animals being more numerous in the upper layers. It suggests that savanna (with the grazing horse and aurochs herds); temperate forest (red deer, roe deer) and rocky cliffs (Alpine ibex, chamois) were all located within walking distance from

2597-426: The tooth enabled a detailed examination which confirmed the Neanderthal morphology. It belonged to a person in late childhood. The specimen was recovered from strati-graphic Layer 4-b, the oldest examined layer. The finding confirmed the presence of Neanderthals in the territory of Serbia and the Central Balkans at the end of Marine Isotope Stage 5-C. Estimated age of the specimen is 102,400 BP +  3,200, or

2650-497: The village of Sićevo 's southern exit. The ropes descend below the village's football field. The caves are locked and are opened only when excavations are conducted. The importance of the caves became apparent at the turn of the 21st century, when the area was engulfed in localized gold rush . Gold prospectors slept in caves, using them as bivouac shelters . They were discovering more and more abundant quantity of artifacts and various remains, which prompted paleoarchaeologists to survey

2703-400: The winter, while with the spring, they would let the horses to roam the mountain. As number of population plummeted, horses were left outside the entire year, occasionally cared for by the some remaining denizens. The Pešturina cave, nicknamed the "Serbian Atapuerca ", is located on the northern slopes of the mountain. Since 2006 the cave has been archaeologically surveyed and artifacts from

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2756-467: Was declared in 2015. Protected area covers 181 square kilometres (70 sq mi). Highest level of protection is reserved for the areas unaffected, or slightly altered by human dwelling: it extends from the Mosor peak, further across the peaks Sokolov Kamen, Trem, Točila and Smrdan, to Ržanca and Divna Gorica. It includes cliffs below these peaks on the north side of the mountain. Second degree regime includes

2809-399: Was heaped in great store before the actual burning process began, a supply that was to last between 3 and 7 days of continual burning, both, by night and day. In the southern Mediterranean regions, one of the favorite wood sources was thorny burnet ( Sarcopoterium spinosum ). The fire was attended by men with long staves and pitchforks who pushed the burning material into the pit. Initially,

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