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133-641: The Old University of Leuven (or of Louvain ) is the name historians give to the university , or studium generale , founded in Leuven , Brabant (then part of the Burgundian Netherlands , now part of Belgium ), in 1425. The university was closed in 1797, a week after the cession to the French Republic of the Austrian Netherlands and the principality of Liège (jointly the future Belgium) by

266-532: A Defensio sancti Augusti ('Defence of Saint Augustine') in 1643. These first years were not favourable to the Jansenists. The Archbishop of Paris , Jean-François de Gondi , forbade the treatment of grace in publications and formally proscribed Augustinus , but it nevertheless continued to circulate. On 1 August 1642, the Holy Office issued a decree condemning Augustinus and forbidding its reading. The decree

399-453: A broader view, the estimation of Marie-José Michel is that the Jansenists occupied an empty space between the ultramontane project of Rome and the construction of Bourbon absolutism. French Jansenism is a creation of Ancien Régime society [...]. Developed from an Augustinian background very firmly anchored in France, it unfolds in parallel with the two great projects of French absolutism and

532-448: A declaration condemning the doctrine of Jansen. He recommended the signing of a similar declaration by all the clergy, but the bishops are quite reluctant, so Mazarin's demand remained unfulfilled in the majority of dioceses. The first consequence of this attempt was the scandal involving the Duke of Liancourt ( Roger du Plessis-Liancourt  [ fr ] , Duke of La Roche-Guyon, known as

665-577: A distinction as to how far the Church could bind the mind of a Roman Catholic. He argued that there is a distinction between matters de jure and de facto : that a Roman Catholic was obliged to accept the Roman Catholic Church's opinion as to a matter of law (i.e., as to a matter of doctrine), but not as to a matter of fact. Arnauld argued that, while he agreed with the doctrine propounded in Cum occasione , he

798-536: A dozen professors of the old University taught. This was followed by a private Catholic university, the Catholic University of Leuven , established in Leuven in 1835 (initially the Catholic University of Mechlin , 1834–1835). This institution was founded with the intention of restoring the confessionally Catholic pre-Revolutionary traditions of learning in Leuven. In 1968 this split to form the two current institutions:

931-524: A duke and peer', addressed to the Duke of Luyne). He denounced the arbitrariness of the vicar's action and condemned the Jesuits, who were, according to him, adherents to a 'lax morality', in plotting against Augustine's doctrine of grace. Arnauld declared that he assented to the papal condemnation in Cum occasione , but remained silent on whether the condemned propositions could be attributed to Jansen. He openly disputed

1064-450: A fixed theological doctrine defended by easily identifiable supporters claiming a system of thought, but rather, it represented the variable and diverse developments of part of French and European Roman Catholicism in the early modern period . The heresy of 'Jansenism', as stated by subsequent Roman Catholic doctrine , lies in the denial of the role of free will in the acceptance and use of grace . Jansenism asserts that God's role in

1197-506: A high degree of perfection, including purification from attachment to venial sin , was necessary before approaching the sacrament. Arnaud presented Jansen's ideas in a more accessible way to the public (e.g., the work was written in the vernacular, whereas Augustinus was written in Latin ). The work was approved by fifteen bishops and archbishops, as well as twenty-one theologians of the Sorbonne and

1330-570: A letter of refutation to Rome . In this letter, the prelates denounced the five propositions as "composed in ambiguous terms, which could only produce heated arguments", and requested the pope to be careful not to condemn Augustinianism too hastily, which they considered to be the official doctrine of the Church on the question of grace. Among these bishops were Henri Arnauld , bishop of Angers and brother of Antoine Arnaud, and Nicolas Choart de Buzenval  [ fr ] , bishop of Beauvais , who would later show fervent support for Port-Royal. At

1463-403: A means to holiness for sinners, and stating that the only requirement for receiving Communion (apart from baptism ) was that the communicant be free of mortal sin at the time of reception. Antoine Arnauld responded to them in 1643 with De la fréquente communion ('Of frequent communion'), representing the deeply pessimistic theology of Jansenism, and discouraged frequent Communion, arguing that

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1596-466: A minimal definition of the movement, removing the particularities to attribute a few common traits to all Jansenists: the subjection of one's whole life to a demanding form of Christianity , which gave a particular view of dogmatic theology , religious history and the Christian world. They harshly criticised developments in the church, but at the same time maintained an unshakeable loyalty to it. Taking

1729-405: A provincial by one of his friends, on the subject of the present disputes at the Sorbonne"), was published secretively and anonymously. Seventeen other Provinciales followed, and on 24 March 1657, Pascal made a contribution to a work entitled Écrits des curés de Paris ("Writings of Parisian priests"), in which the moral laxity of the Jesuits was condemned. In his Provinciales , Pascal denies

1862-523: A reference, but also representing radical views. For some Augustinians, it was only necessary to affirm the omnipotence of God against human freedom, as was over-exalted in Pelagianism , whereas Luther and Calvin saw grace (freely granted or withheld by God) as causing man to be saved. Man's free will was therefore totally denied. To counter the Reformation, the Roman Catholic Church in 1547 reaffirmed in

1995-503: A riot left a number of students dead. The university went on strike and they did not return for two years. Most universities in Europe were recognized by the Holy See as studia generalia , testified by a papal bull . Members of these institutions were encouraged to disseminate their knowledge across Europe, often lecturing at a different studium generale . Indeed, one of the privileges

2128-500: A special focus on the thought of Augustine, until they both left Bayonne in 1617. The question of grace was not central to their works at that time. Jansen returned to the University of Leuven, where he completed his doctorate in 1619 and was named professor of exegesis . Jansen and Vergier continued to correspond about Augustine, especially concerning his teachings on grace . Upon the recommendation of King Philip IV of Spain , Jansen

2261-471: A teacher in Toulouse had the right to teach everywhere without further examinations ( ius ubique docendi ), in time, transformed this privilege into the single most important defining characteristic of the university and made it the symbol of its institutional autonomy .... By the year 1292, even the two oldest universities, Bologna and Paris, felt the need to seek similar bulls from Pope Nicholas IV ." By

2394-452: A time, treated as invalid because of an alleged ambiguity about the date of its publication. Jansenists attempted to prevent the reception of In eminenti , both in Flanders and in France. They alleged that it could not be genuine, since the document attested to be promulgated at Rome on 6 March 1641, whereas the copy sent to Brussels by the nuncio at Cologne was dated in 1642. In reality,

2527-468: Is difficult to define, as its proponents usually identified as Roman Catholics. They did, however, possess some characteristic traits, such as using Augustine of Hippo's conception of divine grace. In their interpretation, divine grace not only was necessary for salvation , but also negated human free will. As they interpreted it, humans post- Fall were only capable of evil. The Jansenists were also distinguished by their moral rigorism and hostility towards

2660-464: Is necessarily long and, once the state of conversion has been reached, the penitent must make the graces he has received bear fruit, preferably by leading a life of retreat. This notion of an -inner conversion is related to the doctrine of contrition in the remission of sins, that is, it was considered necessary to express love for God in order receive the sacraments. In opposition to Vergier, Richelieu in his book Instruction du chrétien ('Instruction of

2793-580: The Lettres provinciales ('Provincial letters', fictional letters defending the Jansenist cause) by Blaise Pascal , which greatly affected French opinion on the matter. At the same time, the Port-Royal-des-Champs Abbey became a theological centre for the movement and a haven for writers including Vergier, Arnauld, Pascal, Pierre Nicole and Jean Racine . Jansenism developed and gained popularity. In

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2926-845: The Catholic Church in France completely subservient to the State , were also largely Jansenists. However, Jansenism receded and disappeared in the 19th century, with the First Vatican Council declaring a definitive end to most of the debates which caused its initial appearance, mainly by declaring the dogma of papal infallibility , which resolved ambiguities regarding the infallibility of papal bulls, and therefore whether they could be accepted or rejected by Roman Catholic clergy and laypeople. "A historical enigma" according to certain historians, "an adaptation to changing circumstances" according to others, Jansenism had an evolution parallel to that of

3059-505: The Cloth hall , previously the seat of the cloth weavers' guild, and was enlarged in 1725 in a baroque style. This library, with its various additions, was transferred in 1797 by Charles Antoine de La Serna Santander to the Central School, the official continuation of the old university. Wauthier, head of office of the department of Dyle and the ex-Jesuit De la Serna Santander, librarian of

3192-476: The Holy See for a university. Pope Martin V issued a papal bull dated 9 December 1425 founding the University in Leuven as a Studium Generale . This university was institutionally independent of the local ecclesiastical hierarchy. From the founding of the university to its abolition in 1797, Latin was the sole language of instruction. In its early years, this university was modelled on those of Paris , Cologne and Vienna . The university flourished in

3325-561: The Holy See wishes any change, I am an obedient son, and I submit to that Church in which I have lived to my dying hour. This is my last wish." Jansen affirmed in Augustinus that since the Fall of man , the human will is capable only of evil without divine help. Only efficacious grace can make him live according to the Spirit rather than the flesh, that is to say, according to the will of God rather than

3458-607: The Jesuits and ultramontanism . From the end of the 17th century, this theological movement gained a political aspect, with the opponents of royal absolutism being largely identified with Jansenism. Jansenism began in the midst of the Counter-Reformation , and owes its name to the Dutch bishop of Ypres , Cornelius Jansen , the author of its foundational text, Augustinus , which was published posthumously in Leuven in 1640. The work

3591-619: The National Library of France . The library of the Central School of Brussels came to number about 80,000 volumes, which later became part of the Library of Brussels, and then the Royal Library of Belgium . When invading German forces burned the library of the Catholic University of Leuven at the beginning of the First World War , but this library did not contain the books and archives of

3724-576: The Pelagian / Semipelagian position (as taught by the Molinists ), and the third listed the correct Augustinian position (according to the Jansenists). Nevertheless, in 1653, Innocent X sided with the majority and condemned the propositions, promulgating in the form of a papal bull the apostolic constitution Cum occasione . The first four propositions were declared heretical and the fifth false. The bull

3857-576: The Renaissance due to the scholastic and Aristotelian emphasis of its curriculum being less popular than the cultural studies of Renaissance humanism , Toby Huff has noted the continued importance of the European universities, with their focus on Aristotle and other scientific and philosophical texts into the early modern period, arguing that they played a crucial role in the Scientific Revolution of

3990-486: The Solitaires (notably the famous conversation with Louis-Isaac Lemaistre de Sacy on Epictetus and Michel de Montaigne ). Pascal was invited by Arnauld to bring the matter before public opinion. On 23 January 1656, nine days before the first official condemnation of Arnauld, a fictional letter entitled Lettre écrite à un provincial par un de ses amis, sur le sujet des disputes présentes à la Sorbonne ("Letter written to

4123-690: The Treaty of Campo Formio . The name was in medieval Latin Studium generale Lovaniense or Universitas Studii Lovaniensis , in humanistical Latin Academia Lovaniensis , and most usually, Universitas Lovaniensis , in Dutch Universiteyt Loven and also Hooge School van Loven . It is commonly referred to as the University of Leuven or University of Louvain , sometimes with

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4256-519: The University of St Andrews (1413) begun as private corporations of teachers and their pupils. In many cases universities petitioned secular power for privileges and this became a model. Emperor Frederick I in Authentica Habita (1158) gave the first privileges to students in Bologna. Another step was Pope Alexander III in 1179 "forbidding masters of the church schools to take fees for granting

4389-445: The apostolic constitution Cum occasione . Certain defenders of Jansen responded by distinguishing between matters de jure and de facto , arguing that the propositions were indeed heretical ( de jure ), but could not be found in Augustinus ( de facto ), and thus that the pope could not bind the conscience of a Roman Catholic regarding matters de facto . The Jansenists attacked Jesuit casuistry as moral laxity, in such works as

4522-416: The campus of a modern university. Classes were taught wherever space was available, such as churches and homes. A university was not a physical space but a collection of individuals banded together as a universitas . Soon, however, universities began to rent, buy or construct buildings specifically for the purposes of teaching. Universities were generally structured along three types, depending on who paid

4655-553: The heresy of Crypto-Calvinism . Jansenists were also considered enemies of the monarchy, as they were very quickly targeted by royal power, with Louis XIV and his successors intensely persecuting them. The popes likewise demonstrated increasing severity towards them, notably with Clement XI abolishing the abbey of Port-Royal in 1708 and promulgating the bull Unigenitus in 1713, which further condemned Jansenist teachings. This controversy did not end until Louis Antoine de Noailles , cardinal and archbishop of Paris, who had opposed

4788-729: The papal bull Exsurge Domine by several months). After the French Revolutionary Wars , by the Treaty of Campo Formio signed on 17 October 1797, the Austrian Netherlands were ceded in perpetuity to the French Republic by the Holy Roman Emperor Francis II , in exchange for the Republic of Venice . Once formally integrated into the French Republic, a law dating to 1793 mandating that all universities in France be closed came into effect. The University of Leuven

4921-489: The 13th century, almost half of the highest offices in the Church were occupied by degree masters ( abbots , archbishops , cardinals ), and over one-third of the second-highest offices were occupied by masters. In addition, some of the greatest theologians of the High Middle Ages , Thomas Aquinas and Robert Grosseteste , were products of the medieval university. The development of the medieval university coincided with

5054-487: The 16th and 17th centuries. As he puts it " Copernicus , Galileo , Tycho Brahe , Kepler , and Newton were all extraordinary products of the apparently Procrustean and allegedly Scholastic universities of Europe... Sociological and historical accounts of the role of the university as an institutional locus for science and as an incubator of scientific thought and arguments have been vastly understated." Initially medieval universities did not have physical facilities such as

5187-553: The 16th century due to the presence of famous scholars and professors, such as Adriaan Florenszoon Boeyens ( Pope Adrian VI ), Desiderius Erasmus , Johannes Molanus , Joan Lluís Vives , Andreas Vesalius and Gerardus Mercator . In 1519, the Faculty of Theology of Leuven, jointly with that of the University of Cologne , became the first institution to condemn a number of statements drawn from Martin Luther 's Ninety-five Theses (preceding

5320-712: The Augustinians, which resulted in the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith banning any publications on the problem of grace in 1611. The controversy was then concentrated in Leuven, where the Augustinian (Old) University of Leuven opposed the Jesuits. In 1628, Cornelius Jansen, then a professor at the university, undertook the creation of a theological work aimed at resolving the problem of grace by synthesising Augustine's thought on

5453-498: The Bologna university the students ran everything—a fact that often put teachers under great pressure and disadvantage. In Paris, teachers ran the school; thus Paris became the premiere spot for teachers from all over Europe. Also, in Paris the main subject matter was theology, so control of the qualifications awarded was in the hands of an external authority – the chancellor of the diocese. In Bologna, where students chose more secular studies,

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5586-725: The Catholic reformation [the Counter-Reformation]. Its development by part of the French religious and secular elites gives it an immediate audience never reached by the other two systems. It is thus rooted in French mentalities, and it truly survived as long as its two enemies, that is to say until the French Revolution for one, and until the First Vatican Council for the other. Therefore Jansenism cannot be wholly encapsulated as

5719-463: The Central School of Brussels, were responsible for the application of this measure. On October 26, 1797, they went with Michel-Marcel Robyns, receiver of national domains, to the municipal administration of Louvain, to notify it, while its most precious works and manuscripts were deposited in Paris among the national treasures of the National Library. It is also very likely that on the occasion of

5852-471: The Christian', 1619), along with the Jesuits, supported the thesis of attrition ( imperfect contrition ) that is, for them, the "regret for sins based solely on the fear of hell" is sufficient for one to receive the sacraments. The idea that the Eucharist should be received very infrequently, and that reception required much more than freedom from mortal sin, remained influential until it was finally condemned in

5985-526: The Council of Trent) that disinclined him to Vergier, making him, at least on this point, an ally of the Jesuits. Vergier in his writings insisted on the necessity of a true 'inner conversion' ( perfect contrition ) for the salvation of a Christian; the only way, according to him, to be able to receive the sacraments of penance and the Eucharist . This process of inner conversion, called the practice of 'renewals',

6118-557: The Duke of Liancourt). In January 1655, this ally of the Jansenists (his only granddaughter was a boarder at Port-Royal,) was refused absolution by a vicar of the Saint-Sulpice parish in Paris because of his Jansenist connections. Antoine Arnauld responded to this by publishing two pamphlets, Lettre à une personne de condition ('Letter to a person of status', addressed to Liancourt) and Seconde lettre à un duc et pair ('Second letter to

6251-404: The Dutch language Katholieke Universiteit Leuven and the French language Université catholique de Louvain . From the founding of the university in 1425 up until 1636, there was no official library of the university. Very likely the students had access to manuscripts and printed books preserved in the homes of their professors or colleges. In 1636, however, a university library was founded in

6384-491: The Jesuits') by François Pinthereau, under the pseudonym of "abbé de Boisic", also in 1644. Pinthereau also wrote a critical history of Jansenism, La Naissance du Jansénisme découverte à Monsieur le Chancelier ('The Birth of Jansenism Revealed to the Chancellor') in 1654. During the 1640s, Vergier's nephew, Martin de Barcos , who was once a theology student under Jansen, wrote several works defending his uncle. Augustinus

6517-432: The Jesuits'). The Jesuits then designated Nicolas Caussin (former confessor of Louis XIII ) to write Réponse au libelle intitulé La Théologie morale des Jésuites ('Response to the libel titled Moral Theology of the Jesuits') in 1644. Another Jesuit response was Les Impostures et les ignorances du libelle intitulé: La Théologie Morale des Jésuites ('The impostures and ignorance of the libel titled Moral Theology of

6650-656: The National Archives of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and ultimately to the National Archives of Belgium . Although the archives of the old University of Leuven have been recognized as world heritage by UNESCO, until today there is no complete history of the old University of Leuven. Chronological list of colleges by foundation, the oldest 4 (Castle/Pork/Lely and Faulcon) were considered as Grand College. in

6783-626: The North African bishop Augustine of Hippo opposed the British monk Pelagius who maintained that man has, within himself, the strength to will the good and to practice virtue , and thus to carry out salvation; a position that reduces the importance of divine grace. Augustine rejected this and declared that God alone decides to whom he grants or withholds grace, which causes man to be saved. The good or evil actions of man (and thus, his will and his virtue) do not affect this process, since man's free will

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6916-425: The Roman Catholic Church until the 19th century, without any incontestable unity to be found in it. The term 'Jansenism' was rejected by those called 'Jansenists', who throughout history consistently proclaimed their unity with the Roman Catholic Church. Abbot Victor Carrière, precursor of contemporary studies of Jansenism, says the following. There is perhaps no question more complicated than that of Jansenism. From

7049-432: The University of Leuven was until its closure a great centre of Jansenism in Europe. To shake off this reputation, the faculty of theology thrice declared its adherence to the papal condemnation of Jansenist beliefs in the papal bull Unigenitus (1713) but without effect. The University of Louvain, with Baïus and Jansenius , the cradle of Jansenism and remained, during the 17th and 18th centuries until its closure,

7182-651: The University of Leuven, the Baianist Jean du Vergier de Hauranne , later the abbot of Saint-Cyran-en-Brenne . Vergier was Jansen's patron for several years, and got Jansen a position as a tutor in Paris in 1606, after they completed their theological studies. Two years later, he got Jansen a position teaching at the bishop's college in Vergier's hometown of Bayonne . The two studied the Church Fathers together in Bayonne, with

7315-440: The absolutist France of the 17th and 18th centuries, the fear of a transition from religious opposition to a general opposition justified monarchical repression of Jansenism, and consequently, transformed the movement by giving it a political aspect marked by resistance to power and a defence of the parlements . In the 18th century, a diversity of 'Jansenisms' became more evident. In France, the participation of secular society in

7448-551: The bastion and the hub of Augustinian theology known as Jansenism , in Europe, with professors like Jansenius , Petrus Stockmans , Johannes van Neercassel , Josse Le Plat and especially the famous Van Espen and his disciple Febronius , and as Henri Francotte says: "Jansenism reigned supreme at the University of Louvain”. This fidelity to the spirit of Van Espen remained alive in the University of Louvain until its abolition in 1797, as evidenced by what Charles Lambrechts wrote in 1818, former rector magnificus and successor to

7581-468: The beginning, many of those who were rightly considered to be its legitimate representatives asserted that it does not exist [...]. Moreover, in order to escape the condemnations of the Church, to disarm certain attackers and win new adherents, it has, depending on the circumstances, attenuated or even modified its fundamental theses. Thus, despite the countless works devoted to it, the history of Jansenism in its entirety still remains to be written today, since

7714-685: The bull, signed it in 1728. In this context, Jansenism merged with the Enlightenment in the struggle against the Jesuits, royal absolutism, and ultramontanism during the 18th century. Jansenist courtiers were instrumental in persuading Louis XV to launch the Suppression of the Jesuits . The clerics supporting the First French Republic and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy , which declared

7847-489: The bureaucratic needs of monarchs—and were, according to Rashdall, their artificial creations. The University of Paris was formally recognized when Pope Gregory IX issued the bull Parens scientiarum (1231). This was a revolutionary step: studium generale (university) and universitas (corporation of students or teachers) existed even before, but after the issuing of the bull, they attained autonomy . "[T]he papal bull of 1233, which stipulated that anyone admitted as

7980-411: The chair of canon law of Van Espen  : "The encroachments of the Catholic clergy and their claims were so vexatious that, at a time when their religion was dominant, no other remedy had been found for their abuse of power except the appeals in question. This is what prompted the famous Van Espen to write, at the age of eighty, his treatise De recursu ad principem , in order to put a barrier against

8113-669: The chief proponent of Jansenism. By allying with the Protestant princes against the Roman Catholic princes in the Thirty Years' War , Richelieu aroused the suspicion of the devout Jansenists, leading Vergier to openly condemn his foreign policy. For this reason he was imprisoned in the Bastille in May 1638. The debate on the role of contrition and attrition in salvation was also one of the motives of

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8246-399: The city if they were enrolled at a university. University studies took six years for a Master of Arts degree (a Bachelor of Arts degree was awarded after completing the third or fourth year). Studies for this were organized by the faculty of arts , where the seven liberal arts were taught: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, and rhetoric. All instruction

8379-418: The concept of 'sufficient grace' defended by the Molinists. The clarity of Arnauld's explication ironically prompted his adversaries to ask the College of Sorbonne to examine his last letter. The professors who were responsible for examining the letter were all openly hostile to Augustinianism. They extracted two propositions from the letter which were then condemned. On 31 January 1656, shockingly, Arnauld

8512-460: The demanding spiritual practices he learned from Vergier. He was thus the first of the Solitaires of Port-Royal , and his example would be followed by other pious men wishing to live in isolation. The two convents became major strongholds of Jansenism. Under Angélique Arnauld, later with Vergier's support, Port-Royal-des-Champs developed a series of elementary schools, known as the Petites écoles de Port-Royal ('Little Schools of Port-Royal');

8645-435: The difference was between the Old Style and New Style dates which were both still in use. Thanks to the agitation of the Jansenists in the Parlement , its publication in France was delayed until January 1643. The faculty of the Sorbonne formally accepted the bull in 1644. The opponents of Jansenism wanted Augustinus to be more thoroughly condemned, since the Jesuits especially considered Jansenism to be heretical in

8778-492: The early 18th century there were 18 colleges. Chronological list of chancellors. He returned to President of the Irish Pastoral College 1695. Medieval university The word universitas originally applied only to the scholastic guilds —that is, the corporation of students and masters—within the studium , and it was always modified, as universitas magistrorum , universitas scholarium , or universitas magistrorum et scholarium . Eventually, probably in

8911-409: The early 20th century by Pope Pius X , who endorsed frequent communion, as long as the communicant was free of mortal sin. In 1602, Marie Angélique Arnauld , member of the Arnaulds , a large family of the Parisian nobility , became abbess of Port-Royal-des-Champs , a Cistercian convent in Magny-les-Hameaux . There, she reformed discipline after a conversion experience in 1608. In 1625, most of

9044-408: The ever-recurring abuses of clerical jurisdictions; but this virtuous ecclesiastic, who distributed to the poor all the revenues of the chair of canon law which he occupied at the University of Louvain, was soon obliged to have recourse to appeal as an abuse for himself; still, this remedy could not save him entirely from the persecution of intolerant priests. Loaded with years, glory and infirmities, he

9177-456: The higher faculties, law , medicine , or theology , the last one being the most prestigious. Originally, only few universities had a faculty of theology, because the popes wanted to control the theological studies. Until the mid-14th century, theology could be studied only at universities in Paris, Oxford, Cambridge and Rome. First the establishment of the University of Prague (1347) ended their monopoly and afterwards also other universities got

9310-410: The idea that the pope had in fact condemned Augustinian doctrine, and that the five propositions were indeed contained in Augustinus . Antoine Arnaud immediately responded, analysing the propositions and trying to show that they were inaccurate summaries of Jansen's views. Cardinal Mazarin , in order to put an end to the hostilities, convoked the bishops in 1654 and then in 1655, demanding them to sign

9443-462: The imprisonment. Vergier was not released until after Richelieu's death in 1642, and he died shortly thereafter, in 1643. From 1640, the Jesuits condemned Vergier's practice of renewals, which, according to them, risked discouraging the faithful and therefore distancing them from the sacraments. The Jesuits encouraged the faithful, whether or not they were struggling with sin, to receive the Eucharist frequently, arguing that Christ instituted it as

9576-471: The infusion of grace cannot be resisted and does not require human assent. The Catechism of the Catholic Church states the Roman Catholic position that "God's free initiative demands man's free response", that is, humans are said to freely assent or refuse God's gift of grace. Jansenism originated from a theological school of thought within the framework of the Counter-Reformation , and appeared in

9709-512: The kingdom between 1595 and 1603, so the Augustinian doctrine had no real opponents. At the beginning of the 17th century, the principal religious movement was the French school of spirituality , mainly represented by the Oratory of Jesus founded in 1611 by Cardinal Pierre de Bérulle , a close friend of Vergier. The movement sought to put into practice a certain form of Augustinianism without focusing on

9842-472: The late 14th century, the term began to appear by itself to exclusively mean a self-regulating community of teachers and scholars recognized and sanctioned by civil or ecclesiastical authority. From the Early Modern period onward, this Western -style organizational form gradually spread from the medieval Latin west across the globe, eventually replacing all other higher-learning institutions and becoming

9975-457: The late 17th century, Jansenists enjoyed a measure of peace under Pope Clement IX (a period known as the 'Clementine Peace'). Nevertheless, Jansenism was opposed by many within the Roman Catholic hierarchy , especially the Jesuits. Although the Jansenists identified themselves merely as rigorous followers of Augustine's teachings, Jesuits coined the term Jansenism to identify their ideas as

10108-426: The law. Students were also known to engage in drunkenness. Sometimes citizens were forbidden to interact with students because they made accusations against the university. This led to uneasy tensions with secular authorities—the demarcation between town and gown . Masters and students would sometimes "strike" by leaving a city and not returning for years. This happened at the University of Paris strike of 1229 after

10241-401: The license to teach ( licentia docendi ), and obliging them to give license to properly qualified teachers". Rashdall considered that the integrity of a university was only preserved in such an internally regulated corporation, which protected the scholars from external intervention. This independently evolving organization was absent in the universities of southern Italy and Spain, which served

10374-601: The madrasahs in Islamic Spain and the Emirate of Sicily . George Makdisi, Toby Huff and Norman Daniel, however, have questioned this, citing the lack of evidence for an actual transmission from the Islamic world to Christian Europe and highlighting the differences in the structure, methodologies, procedures, curricula and legal status of the "Islamic college" ( madrasa ) versus the European university. Hastings Rashdall set out

10507-457: The main subject was law. It was also characteristic of teachers and scholars to move around. Universities often competed to secure the best and most popular teachers, leading to the marketisation of teaching. Universities published their list of scholars to entice students to study at their institution. Students of Peter Abelard followed him to Melun, Corbeil, and Paris, showing that popular teachers brought students with them. Students attended

10640-453: The matter. This work, a manuscript of nearly 1,300 pages entitled Augustinus , was almost completed when Jansen died suddenly in an epidemic in 1638. On his deathbed, he committed a manuscript to his chaplain , ordering him to consult with Libert Froidmont , a theology professor at Leuven, and Henricus Calenus , canon at the metropolitan church, and to publish the manuscript if they agreed it should be published, adding , "If, however,

10773-620: The medieval university at different ages—from 14 if they were attending Oxford or Paris to study the arts, to their 30s if they were studying law in Bologna. During this period of study, students often lived far from home and unsupervised, and as such developed a reputation, both among contemporary commentators and modern historians, for drunken debauchery. Students are frequently criticized in the Middle Ages for neglecting their studies for drinking, gambling and sleeping with prostitutes. In Bologna, some of their laws permitted students to be citizens of

10906-1086: The modern understanding of the medieval origins of the universities, noting that the earliest universities emerged spontaneously as "a scholastic Guild, whether of Masters or Students... without any express authorization of King, Pope, Prince or Prelate." Among the earliest universities of this type were the University of Bologna (1088), University of Paris (c. 1150), University of Oxford (1167), University of Modena (1175), University of Palencia (1208), University of Cambridge (1209), University of Salamanca (1218), University of Montpellier (1220), University of Padua (1222), University of Naples (1224), University of Toulouse (1229), University of Orleans (1235), University of Siena (1240), University of Valladolid (1241) University of Northampton (1261), University of Coimbra (1288), University of Macerata (1290), University of Pisa (1343), Charles University in Prague (1348), Jagiellonian University (1364), University of Vienna (1365), Heidelberg University (1386) and

11039-511: The most famous product of these schools was the playwright Jean Racine . Through Angélique Arnauld, Vergier had met her brother, Antoine Arnauld , became his protector and brought him to accept Jansen's position in Augustinus . Following Vergier's death in 1643, Antoine Arnauld, then a brilliant lawyer, priest and theologian at the Sorbonne (theological college of the University of Paris ), became

11172-572: The movement revealed a popular and miraculous component involving figurism and the phenomenon of the convulsionnaires . In northern Italy, the influence of the Austrian Enlightenment brought Jansenism closer to modernity . However in the 19th century, Jansenism was primarily a defence of the past and a struggle against modern developments in the Roman Catholic Church. Augustin Gazier, historian of Jansenism and convinced Port-Royalist, attempts

11305-527: The nuns moved to Paris , forming the convent of Port-Royal de Paris . In 1634, after coming into contact with the Arnaulds, Vergier became the spiritual advisor of Port-Royal-des-Champs, putting into practice his Augustinian vision of salvation, and also became a good friend of Angélique Arnauld; convincing her of the rightness of Jansen's opinions. In 1637, Antoine Le Maistre , nephew of Angélique Arnaud, retreated to Port-Royal in order to fully immerse himself in

11438-519: The old university, or of the State University , but only those of the 19th-century founded Catholic University of Leuven . The rich archives of the old University of Leuven, after its suppression by the law of the French Republic, so as all the other Universities of the French Republic, were transferred to a "Commission in charge of the management of the goods of the abolished university in Leuven", set up in 1797 and active until 1813. They passed to

11571-532: The order of his bishop who had forbidden the issue to be discussed. The ensuing controversy involved many Jansenists, in particular Henri Arnauld , bishop of Angers . After the promulgation of the bull, the Jesuits exploited what was for them a victory, and restarted hostilities. In 1654, the Jesuit François Annat published the Chicanes des jansénistes ('Deceits of the Jansenists'), in which he expressed

11704-633: The papal bull confirmed was the right to confer the ius ubique docendi , an entitlement to teach everywhere. Jansenism Jansenism was a 17th- and 18th-century theological movement within Roman Catholicism , primarily active in France , which arose as an attempt to reconcile the theological concepts of free will and divine grace in response to certain developments in the Catholic Church , but later developing political and philosophical aspects in opposition to royal absolutism . Jansenism

11837-477: The pope's ability to bind the mind of believers in matters of doctrine ( de jure ) but not in matters of fact ( de facto ). They asked Pope Alexander VII to condemn Arnauld's proposition as heretical. Alexander VII responded, in the apostolic constitution Ad sanctam beati Petri sedem promulgated in 1656, that "We declare and define that the five propositions have been drawn from the book of Jansenius entitled Augustinus , and that they have been condemned in

11970-558: The pre-eminent model for higher education everywhere. The university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. For hundreds of years prior to the establishment of universities, European higher education took place in Christian cathedral schools and monastic schools ( scholae monasticae ), where monks and nuns taught classes. Evidence of these immediate forerunners of

12103-495: The qualification "old" to distinguish it from the Catholic University of Leuven (established 1835 in Leuven). This might also refer to a short-lived but historically important State University of Leuven , 1817–1835. In the 15th century the civil administration of the town of Leuven , with the support of John IV, Duke of Brabant , a prince of the House of Valois , made a formal request to

12236-525: The quesiton of grace as the Jansenists would later do. Its emphasis was to bring souls to a state of humility before God through the adoration of Christ as Saviour. Although Bérulle interfered little in the debates on grace, the Oratory and the Jesuits still came into conflict, with Vergier taking part by publishing writings against the 'Molinists'. Moreover, Bérulle, after having been the ally of Cardinal Richelieu , became his enemy when he realised Richelieu

12369-525: The rejection of Protestantism . In the wake of Renaissance humanism , certain Roman Catholics had a less pessimistic vision of man and sought to establish his place in the process of salvation by relying on Thomistic theology , which appeared to be a reasonable compromise between grace and free will. It is in this context that Aquinas was proclaimed a Doctor of the Church in 1567. Nevertheless, theological conflict increased from 1567, and in Leuven ,

12502-470: The right to establish theological faculties. A popular textbook for theological study was called the Sentences ( Quattuor libri sententiarum ) of Peter Lombard ; theology students as well as masters were required to lecture or to write extensive commentaries on this text as part of their curriculum. Studies in the higher faculties could take up to twelve years for a master's degree or doctorate (initially

12635-500: The same time, Antoine Arnaud openly doubted the presence of the five propositions in the work of Jansen, introducing the suspicion of manipulation on the part of the opponents of the Jansenists. The prelates also asked Innocent X to appoint a commission similar to the Congregatio de Auxiliis to resolve the situation. Innocent X agreed to the majority's request, (that is, the request of the ninety bishops) but in an attempt to accommodate

12768-411: The same year, mentioning five of the initial seven propositions. In his letter, he does not directly mention Jansen, but describes the trouble caused in France by the publication of his work. The five propositions were not formally attributed to Jansen. The letter provoked controversy; more than ninety French bishops signed it, but it was immediately countered by thirteen Augustinian prelates , who wrote

12901-499: The sense of the same Jansenius and we once more condemn them as such." When the censure of the Second letter to a duke and peer and the condemnation of Antoine Arnauld were certain, Blaise Pascal entered the controversy on the side of the Jansenists. He decided to devote himself to religion a little over a year before. His sister Jacqueline Pascal was one of the major figures at Port-Royal, and he himself had numerous dialogues with

13034-483: The sixth session of the Council of Trent the place of free will, without pronouncing on its relationship with grace. Afterwards, the Roman Catholic position was not entirely unified, with the Jesuit priest Diego Laynez defending a position that his detractors described as Pelagian. Indeed, the Jesuits restarted the debate, fearing that excessive Augustinianism would weaken the role of the Church in salvation and compromise

13167-519: The spirit of polemic has prevailed for two centuries. Jansenism was first of all a defence of Augustinian theology in a debate initiated by the Protestant Reformation and the Council of Trent , then a concrete implementation of this Augustinianism. The struggle against ultramontanism and papal authority gave it a Gallican character, which became an essential component of the movement. In

13300-409: The study of rhetoric. Studied books on logic included Porphyry 's introduction to Aristotelian logic , Gilbert de la Porrée 's De sex principiis and Summulae Logicales by Petrus Hispanus (later Pope John XXI ). The standard work of astronomy was Tractatus de sphaera . Once a Master of Arts degree had been conferred, the student could leave the university or pursue further studies in one of

13433-497: The subject of grace. Thomas Aquinas , however, attempted to organise a system of thought around Augustinianism in order to reconcile grace and human freedom. He both affirmed the action of the divine in each action of man, but also the freedom of man. The Scholastics of the 14th and 15th centuries moved away from Augustinianism towards a more optimistic view of human nature. The Reformation broke with Scholasticism, with Martin Luther and John Calvin both taking Augustine as

13566-461: The subject, as opposed to the Jesuit view, which was said to give too great a role to free will in salvation. Augustinus provoked lively debates, particularly in France, where five propositions, including the doctrines of limited atonement and irresistible grace , were extracted from the work and declared heretical by theologians hostile to Jansen. These were condemned in 1653 by Pope Innocent X in

13699-664: The teachers. The first type was in Bologna , where students hired and paid for the teachers. The second type was in Paris , where teachers were paid by the church. Oxford and Cambridge were predominantly supported by the crown and the state, which helped them survive the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1538 and the subsequent removal of all principal Catholic institutions in England. These structural differences created other characteristics. At

13832-466: The theologian Michel de Bay (Baius) was condemned by Pope Pius V for his denial of the reality of free will. In response to Baius, the Spanish Jesuit Luis de Molina , then teaching at the University of Évora , defended the existence of 'sufficient' grace, which provides man with the means of salvation, but only enters into him by the assent of his free will. This thesis was violently opposed by

13965-444: The three Aristotelian philosophies: physics , metaphysics and moral philosophy . Much of medieval thought in philosophy and theology can be found in scholastic textual commentary because scholasticism was such a popular method of teaching. Aelius Donatus ' Ars grammatica was the standard textbook for grammar; also studied were the works of Priscian and Graecismus by Eberhard of Béthune . Cicero's works were used for

14098-467: The troubles of the wars of this time, many precious works and documents surreptitiously followed an unofficial route, sometimes with the high aim of saving them from disaster, sometimes with the sordid goal of profiting from it. In 1797, much of what remained of this library was sent to the Central School of Brussels, established as the official replacement of the abolished university, although its most precious books and manuscripts were deposited in Paris at

14231-508: The two were synonymous), though again a bachelor's and a licentiate 's degree could be awarded along the way. Courses were offered according to books, not by subject or theme. For example, a course might be on a book by Aristotle , or a book from the Bible . Courses were not elective: the course offerings were set, and everyone had to take the same courses. There were, however, occasional choices as to which teacher to use. Students often entered

14364-673: The university at fourteen to fifteen years of age, though many were older. Classes usually started at 5:00 or 6:00 a.m. As students had the legal status of clerics, Canon Law prohibited women from being admitted into universities. Students were afforded the legal protection of the clergy, as well. In this way, no one was allowed to physically harm them; they could only be tried for crimes in an ecclesiastical court , and were thus immune from any corporal punishment . This gave students free rein in urban environments to break secular laws with impunity, which led to many abuses: theft, rape, and murder. Students did not face serious consequences from

14497-645: The university at many places dates back to the 6th century AD. With the increasing growth and urbanization of European society during the 12th and 13th centuries, a demand grew for professional clergy . Following the Gregorian Reform 's emphasis on canon law and the study of the sacraments , bishops formed cathedral schools to train the clergy in canon law, and also in the more secular aspects of religious administration, including logic and disputation for use in preaching and theological discussion, and accounting to control finances more effectively. Pope Gregory VII

14630-460: The vein of Calvinism . Isaac Habert  [ fr ] , ally of the late Richelieu, who became Bishop of Vabres , published in December 1646 a list of eight propositions taken from the Augustinus that he considered heretical. A few years later, in 1649, the syndic of the Sorbonne, Nicolas Cornet , frustrated by the continued circulation of Augustinus , drew up a list of five propositions from

14763-465: The view of the minority, appointed an advisory committee consisting of five cardinals and thirteen consultors to report on the situation. Over the next two years, this commission held 36 meetings including 10 presided by Innocent X. The supporters of Jansenism on the commission drew up a table with three heads: the first listed the Calvinist position (which was condemned as heretical), the second listed

14896-411: The widespread reintroduction of Aristotle from Byzantine and Arab scholars . In fact, the European university put Aristotelian and other natural science texts at the center of its curriculum, with the result that the "medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendent." Although it has been assumed that the universities went into decline during

15029-418: The will of man. This grace is irresistible and not granted to all men. Here Jansen agreed with Calvin's theory of predestination . The manuscript was published in 1640, expounding Augustine's system and forming the basis for the subsequent Jansenist controversy. The book consisted of three volumes: In the first decade of the 17th century, Jansen established a fruitful collaboration with one of his classmates at

15162-430: The work and two from De la fréquente communion , then asked the Sorbonne faculty to condemn the propositions. Jansen's name was not explicitly mentioned, but it was obvious to all that he was being condemned. The cunning cyndic was careful not to give precise statements, as loyalty made it a duty; he did not attribute these propositions to anyone, and if anyone were to pronounce the name of Jansen, he would even say that it

15295-506: The work, along with a large number of theologians at the Sorbonne , ten of which approved the French editions. But the Jesuits immediately opposed it, who were supported by Cardinal Richelieu , and after his death in 1642, by Isaac Habert  [ fr ] who attacked Jansen in his sermons at the Notre-Dame de Paris , and by the Feuillant theologian Pierre de Saint-Joseph who published

15428-401: The years following the Council of Trent , but drew from debates older than the council. Although Jansenism takes its name from Cornelius Jansen , it is attached to a long tradition of Augustinian thought . Most of the debates contributing to Jansenism concern the relationship between divine grace (which God grants to man) and human freedom in the process of salvation . In the 5th century,

15561-574: Was abolished by decree of the Département of the Dyle on 25 October 1797. What remained of the university's movables and books were requisitioned for the École centrale  [ fr ] in Brussels. This was the immediate official and legal successor and inheritor of the old University, under the laws in force at the time. It was in turn closed down in 1802. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,

15694-618: Was barred from the Sorbonne, despite sixty professors having come to his defence. This event pushed Arnauld to retreat to Port-Royal, where he devoted himself to writing with a promising young theologian, Pierre Nicole . At the same time, Blaise Pascal undertook to defend him before public opinion, initiating the campaign of the Provinciales . Later that year, the French Assembly of the Bishops voted to condemn Arnauld's distinction regarding

15827-510: Was compelled to seek shelter in Holland from their vexations; he soon died in Amsterdam in feelings of piety and resignation, after having employed his life in defending the discipline and customs of the primitive church, of which he was the most zealous supporter". The first attempt to found a successor university in the nineteenth-century was the secular State University of Leuven , 1817–1835, where

15960-431: Was consecrated as Bishop of Ypres in 1636. It was only after the publication of Augustinus in 1638 that Vergier became the chief proponent of Jansen's theses, initially more out of loyalty to his late friend than out of personal conviction. Until then, grace was not frequently debated among French Roman Catholics; the topic was overshadowed by the devastating French Wars of Religion . The Jesuits were also banished from

16093-410: Was critical in promoting and regulating the concept of modern university, as his 1079 Papal Decree ordered the regulated establishment of cathedral schools that transformed themselves into the first European universities. Learning became essential to advancing in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, and teachers also gained prestige. Demand quickly outstripped the capacity of cathedral schools, each of which

16226-401: Was essentially run by one schoolmaster . In addition, tensions rose between the students of cathedral schools and burghers in smaller towns. As a result, cathedral schools migrated to large cities, like Bologna , Rome and Paris . S. F. Alatas has noted some parallels between madrasahs and early European colleges and has inferred that the first universities in Europe were influenced by

16359-435: Was first popularised by Jansen's friend Abbot Jean du Vergier de Hauranne of Saint-Cyran-en-Brenne Abbey , and after Vergier's death in 1643, the movement was led by Antoine Arnauld . Augustinus was the culmination of controversies regarding grace dating back several decades, and coincided with growing hostility of part of the Roman Catholic clergy towards the Jesuits. Jansen claimed to establish Augustine's true position on

16492-513: Was first printed in France in 1641, then a second time in 1643, and was read widely in theological circles, including in Spanish Flanders and the Dutch Republic . The debate regarding Augustinianism in France was mainly introduced by the publication of Augustinus , in which emphasis is placed on the Augustinian theory of grace and predestination. The Oratorians and Dominicans welcomed

16625-407: Was given in Latin and students were expected to converse in that language. The trivium comprised the three subjects that were taught first: grammar, logic, and rhetoric. The quadrivium consisted of arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. The quadrivium was taught after the preparatory work of the trivium and would lead to the degree of Master of Arts. The curriculum came also to include

16758-407: Was lost as a result of the original sin of Adam . God acts upon man through efficacious grace , in such a way that he infallibly regenerates him, without destroying his will. Man thus receives an irresistible and dominant desire for the good, which is infused into him by the action of efficacious grace. Medieval theology , dominated by Augustinian thought, left little room for human freedom on

16891-481: Was not a question of him, Non agitur de Jansenio , [It is not about Jansen], whereas inwardly, it was Jansen and him alone who was in question. Before the faculty could condemn the propositions, the parlement of Paris intervened and forbade the faculty to consider the propositions. The faculty then submitted the propositions to the Assembly of the French clergy in 1650. Consequently, Habert wrote to Pope Innocent X

17024-464: Was not bound to accept the pope's determination of fact as to what doctrines were contained in Jansen's work. The Jansenists were therefore content with the notion that Jansen himself was not openly condemned, and further that Augustine's doctrine was still considered orthodox. This displeased the Jesuits and their supporters, who wanted a thoroughgoing condemnation of Jansenism. While the theological problem

17157-416: Was not so much seeking the victory of Roman Catholicism in Europe, but rather seeking "to construct a political synthesis which would ensure the universal supremacy of the French monarchy"; placing himself in alignment with the royal jurists. When Bérulle died in 1629, Richelieu transferred his hostility towards Vergier, mainly due to a theological debate regarding contrition (which had not been settled by

17290-624: Was powerless in France since the tribunal was unrecognised by the law. On 6 March 1642, Pope Urban VIII followed up with a papal bull entitled In eminenti , which condemned Augustinus because it was published in violation of the order that no works concerning grace should be published without the prior permission of the Holy See . He also renewed the censures by Pope Pius V , in Ex omnibus afflictionibus in 1567, and by Pope Gregory XIII , of several propositions of Baianism , arguing that they were repeated in Augustinus . In eminenti was, for

17423-407: Was received favourably in France. Some Jansenists including Antoine Arnaud admitted that the propositions are heretical, but argued that they could not be found in Augustinus . They maintained that Jansen and his Augustinus were orthodox, as they espoused only what Augustine himself taught, and they believed it was impossible that the pope could have condemned Augustine's opinion. Arnauld articulated

17556-571: Was technically resolved by Rome, hostility between the Jansenists and the Jesuits became increasingly pronounced. Even before the promulgation of Cum occasione , tensions between Jansenists and Jesuits defending Luis de Molina 's thesis, the Molinists , had begun. In August 1649, Antoine Singlin , a priest near Port-Royal, preached on the occasion of the Feast of St. Augustine in Port-Royal. In his sermon , he emphasised efficacious grace , thus violating

17689-403: Was widely distributed except in Jesuit circles. In 1644, Antoine Arnauld published an Apologie pour Jansenius ('Apology for Jansenius'), then a Seconde apologie ('Second apology') in the following year, and finally an Apologie pour M. de Saint-Cyran ('Apology for Saint-Cyran [Vergier]'). Arnauld also replied to Jesuit criticism with Théologie morale des Jésuites ('Moral Theology of

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