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106-451: The StingRay is an IMSI-catcher with both passive (digital analyzer) and active (cell-site simulator) capabilities. When operating in active mode, the device mimics a wireless carrier cell tower in order to force all nearby mobile phones and other cellular data devices to connect to it. The StingRay family of devices can be mounted in vehicles, on airplanes, helicopters and unmanned aerial vehicles . Hand-carried versions are referred to under

212-460: A balloon carrier (the precursor to the aircraft carrier ) in the first offensive use of air power in naval aviation . Austrian forces besieging Venice attempted to launch some 200 incendiary balloons at the besieged city. The balloons were launched mainly from land; however, some were also launched from the Austrian ship SMS  Vulcano . At least one bomb fell in the city; however, due to

318-490: A "powered, aerial vehicle that does not carry a human operator, uses aerodynamic forces to provide vehicle lift, can fly autonomously or be piloted remotely, can be expendable or recoverable, and can carry a lethal or nonlethal payload". UAV is a term that is commonly applied to military use cases. Missiles with warheads are generally not considered UAVs because the vehicle itself is a munition, but certain types of propeller-based missile are often called " kamikaze drones " by

424-410: A GSM phone's encryption key can be obtained using $ 1,000 worth of computer hardware and 30 minutes of cryptanalysis performed on signals encrypted using A5/1. However, GSM also supports an export weakened variant of A5/1 called A5/2 . This weaker encryption cypher can be cracked in real-time. While A5/1 and A5/2 use different cypher strengths, they each use the same underlying encryption key stored on

530-441: A camera) that weigh considerably less than an adult human, and as a result, can be considerably smaller. Though they carry heavy payloads, weaponized military UAVs are lighter than their crewed counterparts with comparable armaments. Small civilian UAVs have no life-critical systems , and can thus be built out of lighter but less sturdy materials and shapes, and can use less robustly tested electronic control systems. For small UAVs,

636-405: A cell phone is not coming in clearly and will order the cell phone to boost transmit power. The user has no control over this boosting; it may occur for a split second or for the whole conversation. If the user is in a remote location, the power boost may be continuous. In addition to carrying voice or data, the cell phone also transmits data about itself automatically, and that is boosted or not as

742-500: A cell phone will not indicate the change due to the secret radio being programmed to hide from normal detection. The ordinary user can not know if their cell phone is captured via overpowering boosts or not. (There are other ways of secret capture that need not overpower, too.) Just as a person shouting drowns out someone whispering, the boost in RF watts of power into the cell telephone system can overtake and control that system—in total or only

848-448: A cellular device, and the date and time each access was made. Law enforcement will often obtain HCSLI from wireless carriers in order to determine where a particular cell phone was located in the past. Once this information is obtained, law enforcement will use a map of cell site locations to determine the past geographical locations of the cellular device. However, the signal coverage area of

954-574: A component of an unmanned aircraft system ( UAS ), which also includes a ground-based controller and a system of communications with the aircraft. The term UAS was adopted by the United States Department of Defense (DoD) and the United States Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in 2005 according to their Unmanned Aircraft System Roadmap 2005–2030. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and

1060-566: A feature that detects and permits the delivery of emergency calls to 9-1-1 , its officials admitted to my office that this feature has not been independently tested as part of the Federal Communications Commission’s certification process, nor were they able to confirm this feature is capable of detecting and passing-through 9-1-1 emergency communications made by people who are deaf, hard of hearing, or speech disabled using Real-Time Text technology." By way of software upgrades,

1166-444: A few, or even only one, conversation. This strategy requires only more RF power, and thus it is more simple than other types of secret control. Power boosting equipment can be installed anywhere there can be an antenna, including in a vehicle, perhaps even in a vehicle on the move. Once a secretly boosted system takes control, any manipulation is possible from simple recording of the voice or data to total blocking of all cell phones in

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1272-511: A given area, the StingRay operator needs to determine which device is the desired surveillance target. This is accomplished by downloading the IMSI, ESN, or other identifying data from each of the devices connected to the StingRay. In this context, the IMSI or equivalent identifier is not obtained from the cellular service provider or from any other third-party. The StingRay downloads this data directly from

1378-408: A given cell site may change according to the time of day, weather, and physical obstructions in relation to where a cellular device attempts to access service. The maps of cell site coverage areas used by law enforcement may also lack precision as a general matter. For these reasons, it is beneficial to use a StingRay and a test phone to map out the precise coverage areas of all cell sites appearing in

1484-410: A host of advanced technologies that allow them to carry out their missions without human intervention, such as cloud computing, computer vision, artificial intelligence, machine learning, deep learning, and thermal sensors. For recreational uses, an aerial photography drone is an aircraft that has first-person video, autonomous capabilities, or both. An unmanned aerial vehicle ( UAV ) is defined as

1590-413: A human operator, as remotely piloted aircraft ( RPA ), or with various degrees of autonomy , such as autopilot assistance, up to fully autonomous aircraft that have no provision for human intervention. Based on the altitude, the following UAV classifications have been used at industry events such as ParcAberporth Unmanned Systems forum: An example of classification based on the composite criteria

1696-801: A human target in Libya , according to a report from the UN Security Council 's Panel of Experts on Libya, published in March 2021. This may have been the first time an autonomous killer-robot armed with lethal weaponry attacked human beings. Superior drone technology, specifically the Turkish Bayraktar TB2 , played a role in Azerbaijan's successes in the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war against Armenia. UAVs are also used in NASA missions. The Ingenuity helicopter

1802-626: A miscommunication. Privacy International and The Sunday Times reported on the usage of StingRays and IMSI-catchers in Ireland , against the Irish Garda Síochána Ombudsman Commission (GSOC), which is an oversight agency of the Irish police force Garda Síochána . On June 10, 2015, the BBC reported on an investigation by Sky News about possible false mobile phone towers being used by

1908-436: A parallel increase in the use of drones for consumer and general aviation activities. As of 2021, quadcopter drones exemplify the widespread popularity of hobby radio-controlled aircraft and toys, however the use of UAVs in commercial and general aviation is limited by a lack of autonomy and by new regulatory environments which require line-of-sight contact with the pilot. In 2020, a Kargu 2 drone hunted down and attacked

2014-526: A radio jamming device, which transmits signals that block communications between cellular devices and wireless carrier cell sites. By "passive mode", it is meant that the StingRay does not mimic a wireless carrier cell site or communicate directly with cellular devices. A StingRay and a test phone can be used to conduct base station surveys, which is the process of collecting information on cell sites, including identification numbers, signal strength, and signal coverage areas. When conducting base station surveys,

2120-446: A single module. Radio frequency#Measurement Radio frequency ( RF ) is the oscillation rate of an alternating electric current or voltage or of a magnetic , electric or electromagnetic field or mechanical system in the frequency range from around 20  kHz to around 300  GHz . This is roughly between the upper limit of audio frequencies and the lower limit of infrared frequencies, and also encompasses

2226-415: A variable payload are more likely to feature a distinct fuselage with a tail for stability, control and trim, although the wing configurations in use vary widely. For uses that require vertical flight or hovering, the tailless quadcopter requires a relatively simple control system and is common for smaller UAVs. Multirotor designs with 6 or more rotors is more common with larger UAVs, where redundancy

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2332-538: A warrant. Police in Vancouver , British Columbia, Canada, admitted after much speculation across the country that they had made use of a Stingray device provided by the RCMP . They also stated that they intended to make use of such devices in the future. Two days later, a statement by Edmonton 's police force had been taken as confirming their use of the devices, but they said later that they did not mean to create what they called

2438-512: Is U.S. Military's unmanned aerial systems (UAS) classification of UAVs based on weight, maximum altitude and speed of the UAV component. UAVs can be classified based on their power or energy source, which significantly impacts their flight duration, range, and environmental impact. The main categories include: The earliest recorded use of an unmanned aerial vehicle for warfighting occurred in July 1849, with

2544-547: Is also less of a critical requirement for unmanned aircraft, allowing the designer greater freedom to experiment. Instead, UAVs are typically designed around their onboard payloads and their ground equipment. These factors have led to a great variety of airframe and motor configurations in UAVs. For conventional flight the flying wing and blended wing body offer light weight combined with low drag and stealth , and are popular configurations for many use cases. Larger types which carry

2650-468: Is an autonomous UAV that operated on Mars from 2021 to 2024. Current the Dragonfly spacecraft is being developed, and is aiming to reach and examine Saturn 's moon Titan . Its primary goal is to roam around the surface, expanding the amount of area to be researched previously seen by landers . As a UAV, Dragonfly allows examination of potentially diverse types of soil. The drone is set to launch in 2027, and

2756-458: Is estimated to take seven more years to reach the Saturnian system. Miniaturization is also supporting the development of small UAVs which can be used as individual system or in a fleet offering the possibility to survey large areas, in a relatively small amount of time. According to data from GlobalData , the global military uncrewed aerial systems (UAS) market, which forms a significant part of

2862-481: Is prioritized. Traditional internal combustion and jet engines remain in use for drones requiring long range. However, for shorter-range missions electric power has almost entirely taken over. The distance record for a UAV (built from balsa wood and mylar skin) across the North Atlantic Ocean is held by a gasoline model airplane or UAV. Manard Hill "in 2003 when one of his creations flew 1,882 miles across

2968-600: Is repeated identically in virtually all of the NDAs between the Harris Corporation and major police departments that have been disclosed since 2015. In recent years, legal scholars, public interest advocates, legislators and several members of the judiciary have strongly criticized the use of this technology by law enforcement agencies. Critics have called the use of the devices by government agencies warrantless cell phone tracking, as they have frequently been used without informing

3074-555: Is unknown in the remaining states. However, many agencies do not disclose their use of StingRay technology, so these statistics are still potentially an under-representation of the actual number of agencies. According to the most recent information published by the American Civil Liberties Union, 72 law enforcement agencies in 24 states own StingRay technology in 2017. Since 2014, these numbers have increased from 42 agencies in 17 states. The following are federal agencies in

3180-521: The 1991 Gulf War . UAVs demonstrated the possibility of cheaper, more capable fighting-machines, deployable without risk to aircrews. Initial generations primarily involved surveillance aircraft , but some carried armaments , such as the General Atomics MQ-1 Predator , that launched AGM-114 Hellfire air-to-ground missiles . CAPECON , a European Union project to develop UAVs, ran from 1 May 2002 to 31 December 2005. As of 2012 ,

3286-852: The Argus As 292 and the V-1 flying bomb with a jet engine . Fascist Italy developed a specialised drone version of the Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 flown by remote control, although the Armistice with Italy was enacted prior to any operational deployment. After World War II development continued in vehicles such as the American JB-4 (using television/radio-command guidance), the Australian GAF Jindivik and Teledyne Ryan Firebee I of 1951, while companies like Beechcraft offered their Model 1001 for

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3392-705: The British Civil Aviation Authority adopted this term, also used in the European Union's Single European Sky (SES) Air Traffic Management (ATM) Research (SESAR Joint Undertaking) roadmap for 2020. This term emphasizes the importance of elements other than the aircraft. It includes elements such as ground control stations, data links and other support equipment. Similar terms are unmanned aircraft vehicle system ( UAVS ) and remotely piloted aircraft system ( RPAS ). Many similar terms are in use. Under new regulations which came into effect 1 June 2019,

3498-728: The Department of Homeland Security . The Los Angeles Police Department used a Department of Homeland Security grant in 2006 to buy a StingRay for "regional terrorism investigations". However, according to the Electronic Frontier Foundation , the "LAPD has been using it for just about any investigation imaginable." In addition to federal law enforcement, military and intelligence agencies, StingRays have in recent years been purchased by local and state law enforcement agencies. In 2006, Harris Corporation employees directly conducted wireless surveillance using StingRay units on behalf of

3604-402: The Department of Justice has confirmed spending "more than $ 71 million on cell-site simulation technology," while the Department of Homeland Security confirmed spending "more than $ 24 million on cell-site simulation technology." Several court decisions have been issued on the legality of using a Stingray without a warrant, with some courts ruling a warrant is required and others not requiring

3710-588: The London Metropolitan Police . Commissioner Bernard Hogan-Howe refused comment. Between February 2015 and April 2016, over 12 companies in the United Kingdom were authorized to export IMSI-catcher devices to states including Saudi Arabia , UAE , and Turkey . Critics have expressed concern about the export of surveillance technology to countries with poor human rights records and histories of abusing surveillance technology . The increasing use of

3816-930: The Palm Bay Police Department—where Harris has a campus —in response to a bomb threat against a middle school. The search was conducted without a warrant or Judicial oversight. The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) confirmed that local police have cell site simulators in Washington, Nevada, Arizona, Alaska, Missouri, New Mexico, Georgia, and Massachusetts. State police have cell site simulators in Oklahoma, Louisiana, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Local and state police have cell site simulators in California, Texas, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Tennessee, North Carolina, Virginia, Florida, Maryland, and New York. The police use of cell site simulators

3922-552: The U.S. Navy in 1955. Nevertheless, they were little more than remote-controlled airplanes until the Vietnam War . In 1959, the U.S. Air Force , concerned about losing pilots over hostile territory, began planning for the use of uncrewed aircraft. Planning intensified after the Soviet Union shot down a U-2 in 1960. Within days, a highly classified UAV program started under the code name of "Red Wagon". The August 1964 clash in

4028-575: The United States Air Force (USAF) employed 7,494 UAVs – almost one in three USAF aircraft. The Central Intelligence Agency also operated UAVs . By 2013 at least 50 countries used UAVs. China, Iran, Israel, Pakistan, Turkey, and others designed and built their own varieties. The use of drones has continued to increase. Due to their wide proliferation, no comprehensive list of UAV systems exists. The development of smart technologies and improved electrical-power systems led to

4134-503: The United States Department of Defense , UAVs are classified into five categories below: Other classifications of UAVs include: There are usually five categories when UAVs are classified by range and endurance: There are usually four categories when UAVs are classified by size, with at least one of the dimensions (length or wingspan) meet the following respective limits: Based on their weight, drones can be classified into 5 categories— . Drones could also be classified based on

4240-456: The hydrogen fuel cell . The energy density of modern Li-Po batteries is far less than gasoline or hydrogen. However electric motors are cheaper, lighter and quieter. Complex multi-engine, multi-propeller installations are under development with the goal of improving aerodynamic and propulsive efficiency. For such complex power installations, battery elimination circuitry (BEC) may be used to centralize power distribution and minimize heating, under

4346-480: The microwave range. These are the frequencies at which energy from an oscillating current can radiate off a conductor into space as radio waves , so they are used in radio technology, among other uses. Different sources specify different upper and lower bounds for the frequency range. Electric currents that oscillate at radio frequencies ( RF currents ) have special properties not shared by direct current or lower audio frequency alternating current , such as

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4452-401: The quadcopter design has become popular, though this layout is rarely used for crewed aircraft. Miniaturization means that less-powerful propulsion technologies can be used that are not feasible for crewed aircraft, such as small electric motors and batteries. Control systems for UAVs are often different from crewed craft. For remote human control, a camera and video link almost always replace

4558-459: The 1900s, and originally focused on providing practice targets for training military personnel . The earliest attempt at a powered UAV was A. M. Low 's "Aerial Target" in 1916. Low confirmed that Geoffrey de Havilland's monoplane was the one that flew under control on 21 March 1917 using his radio system. Following this successful demonstration in the spring of 1917 Low was transferred to develop aircraft controlled fast motor launches D.C.B.s with

4664-601: The 1973 Yom Kippur war, a few key people from the team that developed this early UAV joined a small startup company that aimed to develop UAVs into a commercial product, eventually purchased by Tadiran and leading to the development of the first Israeli UAV. In 1973, the U.S. military officially confirmed that they had been using UAVs in Southeast Asia (Vietnam). Over 5,000 U.S. airmen had been killed and over 1,000 more were missing or captured . The USAF 100th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing flew about 3,435 UAV missions during

4770-618: The 1980s and 1990s, interest in UAVs grew within the higher echelons of the U.S. military. The U.S. funded the Counterterrorism Center (CTC) within the CIA, which sought to fight terrorism with the aid of modernized drone technology. In the 1990s, the U.S. DoD gave a contract to AAI Corporation along with Israeli company Malat. The U.S. Navy bought the AAI Pioneer UAV that AAI and Malat developed jointly. Many of these UAVs saw service in

4876-499: The 50 or 60 Hz current used in electrical power distribution . The radio spectrum of frequencies is divided into bands with conventional names designated by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU): Frequencies of 1 GHz and above are conventionally called microwave , while frequencies of 30 GHz and above are designated millimeter wave . More detailed band designations are given by

4982-457: The ACLU, the union had filed a Freedom of Information Act request in 2017, but were not given access to documents. The NYCLU and ACLU proceeded with the lawsuit under the statement that both CBP and ICE had failed, "to produce a range of records about their use, purchase, and oversight of Stingrays." In an official statement expanding their reasoning for the lawsuit, the ACLU expressed their concern over

5088-540: The Atlantic Ocean on less than a gallon of fuel" holds this record. Besides the traditional piston engine, the Wankel rotary engine is used by some drones. This type offers high power output for lower weight, with quieter and more vibration-free running. Claims have also been made for improved reliability and greater range. Small drones mostly use lithium-polymer batteries (Li-Po), while some larger vehicles have adopted

5194-663: The Center for Human Rights and Privacy were able to obtain, through both Freedom of Information Act requests and other legal channels, several copies of various NDAs between some of America's largest police departments and the Harris Corporation, the primary American manufacturer of the Stingray Machine, and its latest upgrade the HailStorm Machine. The NDAs revealed that the FBI has often intervened directly in state criminal trials to protect

5300-629: The Federal Corrections Institution in Three Rivers, Texas. Although the Government knew who these inmates were, they did not know the cell phone numbers. Hence, they filed the pen register application, which essentially seeks authorization of a list of all telephone numbers that are outgoing from a given telephone. Although it was captioned as a pen register, the application sought to use a device that would capture any cell phone used within

5406-432: The HCSLI records. This is typically done at the same time of day and under the same weather conditions that were in effect when the HCSLI was logged. Using a StingRay to conduct base station surveys in this manner allows for mapping out cell site coverage areas that more accurately match the coverage areas that were in effect when the cellular device was used. The use of the devices has been frequently funded by grants from

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5512-589: The Middle East, Israeli intelligence tested the first tactical UAVs installed with reconnaissance cameras, which successfully returned photos from across the Suez Canal. This was the first time that tactical UAVs that could be launched and landed on any short runway (unlike the heavier jet-based UAVs) were developed and tested in battle. In the 1973 Yom Kippur War , Israel used UAVs as decoys to spur opposing forces into wasting expensive anti-aircraft missiles. After

5618-537: The Royal Navy in 1918 intended to attack shipping and port installations and he also assisted Wing Commander Brock in preparations for the Zeebrugge Raid . Other British unmanned developments followed, leading to the fleet of over 400 de Havilland 82 Queen Bee aerial targets that went into service in 1935. Nikola Tesla described a fleet of uncrewed aerial combat vehicles in 1915. These developments also inspired

5724-497: The SIM card. Therefore, the StingRay performs "GSM Active Key Extraction" during step three of the man-in-the-middle attack as follows: (1) instruct target device to use the weaker A5/2 encryption cypher, (2) collect A5/2 encrypted signals from target device, and (3) perform cryptanalysis of the A5/2 signals to quickly recover the underlying stored encryption key. Once the encryption key is obtained,

5830-468: The StingRay and similar Harris products can be used to intercept GSM communications content transmitted over-the-air between a target cellular device and a legitimate service provider cell site. The StingRay does this by way of the following man-in-the-middle attack : (1) simulate a cell site and force a connection from the target device, (2) download the target device's IMSI and other identifying information, (3) conduct "GSM Active Key Extraction" to obtain

5936-404: The StingRay mimics a cell phone while passively collecting signals being transmitted by cell-sites in the area of the StingRay. Base station survey data can be used to further narrow the past locations of a cellular device if used in conjunction with historical cell site location information ("HCSLI") obtained from a wireless carrier. HCSLI includes a list of all cell sites and sectors accessed by

6042-428: The StingRay uses it to comply with the encryption request made to it by the service provider during the man-in-the-middle attack. A rogue base station can force unencrypted links, if supported by the handset software. The rogue base station can send a 'Cipher Mode Settings' element (see GSM 04.08 Chapter 10.5.2.9 ) to the phone, with this element clearing the one bit that marks if encryption should be used. In such cases

6148-480: The StingRay's actions or alert the user to IMSI capture. EFF developed a system to catch stingrays. Two US university researchers in their arxiv paper demonstrated simple timing based approaches to detect stingrays attacks. Unmanned aerial vehicle An unmanned aerial vehicle ( UAV ), or unmanned aircraft system ( UAS ), commonly known as a drone , is an aircraft with no human pilot , crew, or passengers on board. UAVs were originally developed through

6254-456: The Stingrays current and future applications, stating that ICE were using them for "unlawfully tracking journalists and advocates and subjecting people to invasive searches of their electronic devices at the border." A number of countermeasures to the StingRay and other devices have been developed, for example crypto phones such as GSMK's Cryptophone have firewalls that can identify and thwart

6360-472: The Syrian air defenses at the start of the 1982 Lebanon War , resulting in no pilots downed. In Israel in 1987, UAVs were first used as proof-of-concept of super-agility, post-stall controlled flight in combat-flight simulations that involved tailless, stealth-technology-based, three-dimensional thrust vectoring flight-control, and jet-steering. With the maturing and miniaturization of applicable technologies in

6466-636: The Tonkin Gulf between naval units of the U.S. and the North Vietnamese Navy initiated America's highly classified UAVs ( Ryan Model 147 , Ryan AQM-91 Firefly , Lockheed D-21 ) into their first combat missions of the Vietnam War . When the Chinese government showed photographs of downed U.S. UAVs via Wide World Photos , the official U.S. response was "no comment". During the War of Attrition (1967–1970) in

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6572-456: The UAV industry, is projected to experience a compound annual growth rate of 4.8% over the next decade. This represents a near doubling in market size, from $ 12.5 billion in 2024 to an estimated $ 20 billion by 2034. Crewed and uncrewed aircraft of the same type generally have recognizably similar physical components. The main exceptions are the cockpit and environmental control system or life support systems . Some UAVs carry payloads (such as

6678-458: The United States that have validated their use of cell-site simulators: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Drug Enforcement Administration, US Secret Service, Immigration and Customs Enforcement, US Marshals Service, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives, US Army, US Navy, US Marine Corps, US National Guard, US Special Command, and National Security Agency. In the 2010-14 fiscal years,

6784-503: The advances of computing technology, beginning with analog controls and evolving into microcontrollers, then system-on-a-chip (SOC) and single-board computers (SBC). Modern system hardware for UAV control is often called the flight controller (FC), flight controller board (FCB) or autopilot. Common UAV-systems control hardware typically incorporate a primary microprocessor, a secondary or failsafe processor, and sensors such as accelerometers, gyroscopes, magnetometers, and barometers into

6890-496: The civil or criminal discovery process, or other judicial, legislative, or administrative process, to disclose information concerning the Harris Corporation wireless collection equipment/technology... the San Diego Police Department will notify the FBI of any such request telephonically and in writing in order to allow sufficient time for the FBI to seek to prevent disclosure through appropriate channels..." This language

6996-484: The cockpit windows; radio-transmitted digital commands replace physical cockpit controls. Autopilot software is used on both crewed and uncrewed aircraft, with varying feature sets. UAVs can be designed in different configurations than manned aircraft both because there is no need for a cockpit and its windows, and there is no need to optimize for human comfort, although some UAVs are adapted from piloted examples, or are designed for optionally piloted modes. Air safety

7102-562: The computer system centralizes the phone and is able to find it. Cell phones are programmed to constantly search for the strongest signal emitted from cell phone towers in the area. Over the course of the day, most cell phones connect and reconnect to multiple towers in an attempt to connect to the strongest, fastest, or closest signal. Because of the way they are designed, the signals that the Stingray emits are far stronger than those coming from surrounding towers. For this reason, all cell phones in

7208-506: The confidentiality of any information relating to the Harris Corporation. In fact, NDA between the Harris Corporation and Police Departments in San Diego, Chicago, Miami, Indianapolis, Tucson, and many others include a contractual clause that reads: "In the event that the San Diego Police Department receives a request pursuant to the Freedom of Information Act... or any equivalent state or local law,

7314-665: The construction of the Kettering Bug by Charles Kettering from Dayton, Ohio and the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane – initially meant as an uncrewed plane that would carry an explosive payload to a predetermined target. Development continued during World War I, when the Dayton-Wright Airplane Company invented a pilotless aerial torpedo that would explode at a preset time. The film star and model-airplane enthusiast Reginald Denny developed

7420-409: The control of a microcontroller unit (MCU). Flapping-wing ornithopters , imitating birds or insects, have been flown as microUAVs . Their inherent stealth recommends them for spy missions. Sub-1g microUAVs inspired by flies, albeit using a power tether, have been able to "land" on vertical surfaces. Other projects mimic the flight of beetles and other insects. UAV computing capability followed

7526-553: The court system or obtaining a warrant. The Electronic Frontier Foundation has called the devices "an unconstitutional, all-you-can-eat data buffet." In June 2015, WNYC Public Radio published a podcast with Daniel Rigmaiden about the StingRay device. In 2016, Professor Laura Moy of the Georgetown University Law Center filed a formal complaint to the FCC regarding the use of the devices by law enforcement agencies, taking

7632-522: The current proliferation of radio frequency wireless telecommunications devices such as cellphones . Medical applications of radio frequency (RF) energy, in the form of electromagnetic waves ( radio waves ) or electrical currents, have existed for over 125 years, and now include diathermy , hyperthermy treatment of cancer, electrosurgery scalpels used to cut and cauterize in operations, and radiofrequency ablation . Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses radio frequency fields to generate images of

7738-511: The degree of autonomy in their flight operations. ICAO classifies unmanned aircraft as either remotely piloted aircraft or fully autonomous. Some UAVs offer intermediate degrees of autonomy. For example, a vehicle may be remotely piloted in most contexts but have an autonomous return-to-base operation. Some aircraft types may optionally fly manned or as UAVs, which may include manned aircraft transformed into manned or Optionally Piloted UAVs (OPVs). The flight of UAVs may operate under remote control by

7844-431: The device causes a disruption in service. Under this scenario, any attempt by the cellular device user to place a call or access data services will fail while the StingRay is conducting its surveillance. On August 21, 2018, Senator Ron Wyden noted that Harris Corporation confirmed that Stingrays disrupt the targeted phone's communications. Additionally, he noted that "while the company claims its cell-site simulators include

7950-454: The device using radio waves. In some cases, the IMSI or equivalent identifier of a target device is known to the StingRay operator beforehand. When this is the case, the operator will download the IMSI or equivalent identifier from each device as it connects to the StingRay. When the downloaded IMSI matches the known IMSI of the desired target, the dragnet will end and the operator will proceed to conduct specific surveillance operations on just

8056-534: The devices has largely been kept secret from the court system and the public. In 2014, police in Florida revealed they had used such devices at least 200 additional times since 2010 without disclosing it to the courts or obtaining a warrant. One of the reasons the Tallahassee police provided for not pursuing court approval is that such efforts would allegedly violate the non-disclosure agreements (NDAs) that police sign with

8162-413: The devices take in all cell calls in its geographic area and repeat them out to other cell installations which repeat the signals onward to their destination telephone (either by radio or landline wires). Radio is used also to transmit a caller's voice/data back to the receiver's cell telephone. The two-way duplex phone conversation then exists via these interconnections. To make all that work correctly,

8268-539: The early days of aviation , some being applied to remotely flown target aircraft used for practice firing of a battleship's guns, such as the 1920s Fairey Queen and 1930s de Havilland Queen Bee . Later examples included the Airspeed Queen Wasp and Miles Queen Martinet , before ultimate replacement by the GAF Jindivik . The term remains in common use. In addition to the software, autonomous drones also employ

8374-423: The extensive use of these devices by local Florida police. After this publication, United States Marshals Service then seized the local police's surveillance records in a bid to keep them from coming out in court. In some cases, police have refused to disclose information to the courts citing non-disclosure agreements signed with Harris Corporation. The FBI defended these agreements, saying that information about

8480-469: The first scaled remote piloted vehicle in 1935. Soviet researchers experimented with controlling Tupolev TB-1 bombers remotely in the late 1930s. In 1940, Denny started the Radioplane Company and more models emerged during World War II  – used both to train antiaircraft gunners and to fly attack-missions. Nazi Germany produced and used various UAV aircraft during the war, like

8586-426: The geographic area. A StingRay can be used to identify and track a phone or other compatible cellular data device even while the device is not engaged in a call or accessing data services. A Stingray closely resembles a portable cellphone tower. Typically, law enforcement officials place the Stingray in their vehicle with a compatible computer software. The Stingray acts as a cellular tower to send out signals to get

8692-413: The human body. Radio Frequency or RF energy is also being used in devices that are being advertised for weight loss and fat removal. The possible effects RF might have on the body and whether RF can lead to fat reduction needs further study. Currently, there are devices such as trusculpt ID , Venus Bliss and many others utilizing this type of energy alongside heat to target fat pockets in certain areas of

8798-530: The loss rate is high, but we are willing to risk more of them ...they save lives!" During the 1973 Yom Kippur War , Soviet-supplied surface-to-air missile -batteries in Egypt and Syria caused heavy damage to Israeli fighter jets . As a result, Israel developed the IAI Scout as the first UAV with real-time surveillance. The images and radar decoys provided by these UAVs helped Israel to completely neutralize

8904-471: The manufacturer. The American Civil Liberties Union has filed multiple requests for the public records of Florida law enforcement agencies about their use of the cell phone tracking devices. Local law enforcement and the federal government have resisted judicial requests for information about the use of stingrays, refusing to turn over information or heavily censoring it. In June 2014, the American Civil Liberties Union published information from court regarding

9010-408: The phone display could indicate the use of an unsafe link—but the user interface software in most phones does not interrogate the handset's radio subsystem for use of this insecure mode nor display any warning indication. In passive mode, the StingRay operates either as a digital analyzer, which receives and analyzes signals being transmitted by cellular devices and/or wireless carrier cell sites or as

9116-432: The pilot signals being broadcast by legitimate cell sites operating in the area. A common function of all cellular communications protocols is to have the cellular device connect to the cell site offering the strongest signal. StingRays exploit this function as a means to force temporary connections with cellular devices within a limited area. During the process of forcing connections from all compatible cellular devices in

9222-692: The position that because the devices mimic the properties of cell phone towers , the agencies operating them are in violation of FCC regulation, as they lack the appropriate spectrum licenses . On December 4, 2019, the American Civil Liberties Union and the New York Civil Liberties Union (NYCLU) filed a federal lawsuit against the Customs and Border Protection and the Immigrations and Customs Enforcement agencies. According to

9328-607: The problematic and unconstitutional aspects of the ways in which law enforcement use of Stingray machines seemed to him to regularly surpass the parameters of the very electronic surveillance warrants that were being issued to sanction the Stingray machine's capabilities. In his testimony, former-Judge Owsley stated: "The first time I ever dealt with a StingRay was in April 2011. I received a pen register application filed by an Assistant U.S. Attorney alleging that some federal inmates were suspected of using cell phones to engage in federal crimes at

9434-411: The protest area. After identifying the phones, locating and tracking operations can be conducted, and service providers can be forced to turn over account information identifying the phone users. Cellular telephones are radio transmitters and receivers, much like a walkie-talkie . However, the cell phone communicates only with a repeater inside a nearby cell tower installation. At that installation,

9540-456: The public and media. Also, the relation of UAVs to remote controlled model aircraft is unclear, UAVs may or may not include remote-controlled model aircraft. Some jurisdictions base their definition on size or weight; however, the US FAA defines any unmanned flying craft as a UAV regardless of size. A similar term is remotely piloted aerial vehicle ( RPAV ). UAVs or RPAVs can also be seen as

9646-462: The service provider cell site will ask the StingRay (which it believes to be the target device) to initiate encryption using the key stored on the target device. Therefore, the StingRay needs a method to obtain the target device's stored encryption key else the man-in-the-middle attack will fail. GSM primarily encrypts communications content using the A5/1 call encryption cypher. In 2008 it was reported that

9752-419: The specific device to connect to it. Cell phones are programmed to connect with the cellular tower offering the best signal. When the phone and Stingray connect, the computer system determines the strength of the signal and thus the distance to the device. Then, the vehicle moves to another location and sends out signals until it connects with the phone. When the signal strength is determined from enough locations,

9858-465: The standard IEEE letter- band frequency designations and the EU/NATO frequency designations. Radio frequencies are used in communication devices such as transmitters , receivers , computers , televisions , and mobile phones , to name a few. Radio frequencies are also applied in carrier current systems including telephony and control circuits. The MOS integrated circuit is the technology behind

9964-473: The system allows automatic increases and decreases in transmitter power (for the individual cell phone and for the tower repeater, too) so that only the minimum transmit power is used to complete and hold the call active, "on", and allows the users to hear and be heard continuously during the conversation. The goal is to hold the call active but use the least amount of transmitting power, mainly to conserve batteries and be efficient. The tower system will sense when

10070-422: The system detects need. Encoding of all transmissions ensures that no crosstalk or interference occurs between two nearby cell users. The boosting of power, however, is limited by the design of the devices to a maximum setting. The standard systems are not "high power" and thus can be overpowered by secret systems using much more boosted power that can then take over a user's cell phone. If overpowered that way,

10176-433: The target device and the legitimate cell site while decrypting and recording communications content. The "GSM Active Key Extraction" performed by the StingRay in step three merits additional explanation. A GSM phone encrypts all communications content using an encryption key stored on its SIM card with a copy stored at the service provider. While simulating the target device during the above explained man-in-the-middle attack,

10282-416: The target device's stored encryption key, (4) use the downloaded identifying information to simulate the target device over-the-air, (5) while simulating the target device, establish a connection with a legitimate cell site authorized to provide service to the target device, (6) use the encryption key to authenticate the StingRay to the service provider as being the target device, and (7) forward signals between

10388-409: The target device. In other cases, the IMSI or equivalent identifier of a target is not known to the StingRay operator and the goal of the surveillance operation is to identify one or more cellular devices being used in a known area. For example, if visual surveillance is being conducted on a group of protestors, a StingRay can be used to download the IMSI or equivalent identifier from each phone within

10494-487: The technology could allow adversaries to circumvent it. The ACLU has said "potentially unconstitutional government surveillance on this scale should not remain hidden from the public just because a private corporation desires secrecy. And it certainly should not be concealed from judges." In 2014, former U.S. Magistrate Judge for the Southern District of Texas, Brian Owsley, became the first judge to openly testify about

10600-529: The term RPAS has been adopted by the Canadian Government to mean "a set of configurable elements consisting of a remotely piloted aircraft, its control station, the command and control links and any other system elements required during flight operation". UAVs may be classified like any other aircraft , according to design configuration such as weight or engine type, maximum flight altitude, degree of operational autonomy, operational role, etc. According to

10706-408: The trade name KingFish . In active mode, the StingRay will force each compatible cellular device in a given area to disconnect from its service provider cell site (e.g., operated by Verizon, AT&T, etc.) and establish a new connection with the StingRay. In most cases, this is accomplished by having the StingRay broadcast a pilot signal that is either stronger than, or made to appear stronger than,

10812-663: The twentieth century for military missions too "dull, dirty or dangerous" for humans, and by the twenty-first, they had become essential assets to most militaries. As control technologies improved and costs fell, their use expanded to many non-military applications. These include aerial photography , area coverage, precision agriculture , forest fire monitoring, river monitoring, environmental monitoring , policing and surveillance, infrastructure inspections, smuggling, product deliveries , entertainment, and drone racing . Many terms are used for aircraft which fly without any persons on board. The term drone has been used from

10918-407: The vicinity connect to the Stingray regardless of the cell phone owner's knowledge. From there, the stingray is capable of locating the device, interfering with the device, and collecting personal data from the device. The FBI has claimed that when used to identify, locate, or track a cellular device, the StingRay does not collect communications content or forward it to the service provider. Instead,

11024-406: The vicinity of the prison. In other words, this did not sound like a pen register." In 2015 Santa Clara County pulled out of contract negotiations with Harris for StingRay units, citing onerous restrictions imposed by Harris on what could be released under public records requests as the reason for exiting negotiations. Beginning around 2018 and over the next several years until 2023, the ACLU and

11130-450: The war at a cost of about 554 UAVs lost to all causes. In the words of USAF General George S. Brown , Commander, Air Force Systems Command , in 1972, "The only reason we need (UAVs) is that we don't want to needlessly expend the man in the cockpit." Later that year, General John C. Meyer , Commander in Chief, Strategic Air Command , stated, "we let the drone do the high-risk flying ...

11236-522: The wind changing after launch, most of the balloons missed their target, and some drifted back over Austrian lines and the launching ship Vulcano . The Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres Quevedo introduced a radio-based control-system called the Telekino at the Paris Academy of Science in 1903, as a way of testing airships without risking human life. Significant development of drones started in

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