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147-656: One of the major features of this area is the Stikine River , which flows through the southern portion of the Stikine-LeConte Wilderness. The river valley is relatively narrow. The surrounding mountains are steep, rugged, and contain numerous glaciers . Meltwater from these glaciers has a high silt content, giving the Stikine River a milky appearance. The river delta is highly braided with three main navigable channels. Two warm and one hot springs are found along

294-579: A communal village, Tahltan , at the confluence of the Stikine and Tahltan rivers. This village was inhabited until 1920, when its remaining residents moved to Telegraph Creek. In the late 1890s the Klondike Gold Rush brought even more people to the area. Due to being considered international waters, the Stikine was marketed as the "All-Canadian" route to the Yukon, allowing travelers to avoid customs duties at

441-414: A couple of weeks. Once the salmon die in the river, they are either scavenged by other animals, or they decompose and release inorganic nutrients to the plankton in the river and the riparian vegetation in the floodplain . The Pacific salmon are a classic example of a semelparous animal, which reproduce only once in their lifetime. Semelparity is sometimes called "big bang" reproduction, since

588-401: A gravel bed in the upper reaches of a stream or river. These are the salmon spawning grounds where salmon eggs are deposited, for safety, in the gravel. The salmon spawning grounds are also the salmon nurseries, providing a more protected environment than the ocean usually offers. After 2 to 6 months the eggs hatch into tiny larvae called sac fry or alevin . The alevin have a sac containing

735-616: A key route for transporting furs from the interior. During the 1800s-1860s the Tlingit controlled trade on the river, transporting Western goods upstream to trade for furs from the Tahltan. At the same time, the British Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) was attempting to extend its influence on the fur trade to the Pacific Coast, after Samuel Black explored northern BC in 1824 and brought news that

882-535: A large delta opposite Mitkof Island about 10 km (6.2 mi) north of Wrangell and 30 km (19 mi) southeast of Petersburg . The main channel empties into the Eastern Passage at the head of Sumner Strait and Stikine Strait , while the North Arm splits off from the main channel and flows into Frederick Sound . King Slough splits southwest from the North Arm and enters Dry Strait , which connects

1029-713: A longer fishing season, from April through October. Recreational fishing is also allowed on the Canadian part of the Stikine River between April and October. In Alaska, commercial fishing on the Stikine falls within the boundaries of District 8, as defined by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G). Salmon are primarily caught offshore by trolling or drift gillnetting, and are either processed on-site or shipped to processing facilities in Wrangell and Petersburg. The ADF&G also issues permits for subsistence fishing on

1176-518: A number of operational mines in the basin in addition to thousands of abandoned mines, many dating back to the gold rush period. One of the largest former mines, the Snip mine near the lower Iskut River, produced 28.3 million grams (1,000,000 oz) of gold prior to shutting down in 1999. Despite the Stikine's long history of mining development, in the 1990s and early 2000s both the U.S. Geological Survey and Environment Canada reported water quality in

1323-487: A pattern of spots and vertical bars. They remain in this stage for up to three years. As they approach the time when they are ready to migrate out to the sea the parr lose their camouflage bars and undergo a process of physiological changes which allows them to survive the shift from freshwater to saltwater. At this point salmon are called smolt . Smolt spend time in the brackish waters of the river estuary while their body chemistry adjusts their osmoregulation to cope with

1470-414: A range of biota, including poor swimmers. Skilled predators, such as bears , bald eagles and fishermen can await the salmon during the run. Normally solitary animals, grizzly bears congregate by streams and rivers when the salmon spawn. Predation from harbor seals , California sea lions , and Steller sea lions can pose a significant threat, even in river ecosystems. Black bears also fish

1617-452: A salmon depends on the position of the standing wave or hydraulic jump at the base of the fall, as well as how deep the water is. Fish ladders , or fishways, are specially designed to help salmon and other fish to bypass dams and other man-made obstructions, and continue on to their spawning grounds further upriver. Data suggest that navigation locks have a potential to be operated as vertical slot fishways to provide increased access for

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1764-482: A shallow depression. The redd may contain up to 5,000 eggs, each about the size of a pea, covering 30 square feet (2.8 m ). The eggs usually range from orange to red. One or more males will approach the female in her redd, depositing his sperm, or milt, over her eggs. The female then covers the eggs by disturbing the gravel at the upstream edge of the depression before moving on to make another redd. The female will make as many as seven redds before her supply of eggs

1911-756: A small portion in the City and Borough of Wrangell , Alaska. Most of the Stikine basin corresponds with the southern half of the Stikine Plateau , a vast and mostly forested region of dissected plateaus , rolling hills and narrow valleys in northwest BC. The Stikine Plateau is bordered on the east by the Cassiar Mountains and Omineca Mountains and on the south by the Stikine Ranges of the Skeena Mountains . All three ranges are part of BC's Interior Mountains . To

2058-456: A spawning area will in fact survive to spawn." The eggs of a female salmon are called her roe . To lay her roe, the female salmon builds a spawning nest, called a redd , in a riffle with gravel as its streambed . A riffle is a relatively shallow length of stream where the water is turbulent and flows faster. She builds the redd by using her tail ( caudal fin ) to create a low-pressure zone, lifting gravel to be swept downstream, and excavating

2205-522: A steel bridge, which was completed at a cost of $ 3 million only a few months before the entire project was cancelled. This is the only bridge across the river other than the Highway 37 bridge. In the 1980s BC Hydro proposed the construction of two hydroelectric dams on the Stikine River and three more on the Stikine's tributary, the Iskut River. The dams were projected to add 2,800 megawatts of capacity to

2352-619: A whole food web, we like to think of them as North America's answer to the Serengeti's wildebeest . Wolves normally hunt for deer. A 2008 study suggests that when the salmon run starts, wolves choose to fish for salmon, even if plenty of deer are still available. "Selecting benign prey such as salmon makes sense from a safety point of view. While hunting deer, wolves commonly incur serious and often fatal injuries. In addition to safety benefits we determined that salmon also provides enhanced nutrition in terms of fat and energy." The upper reaches of

2499-508: Is 2,070 mm (81 in). Dease Lake, about 50 kilometres (31 mi) northeast of Telegraph Creek, experiences a subarctic climate with monthly average temperatures ranging from −16.1 °C (3.0 °F) in January to 13.0 °C (55.4 °F) in June, and an average annual precipitation of just 445.3 mm (17.53 in). In the interior, freezing temperatures are observed in six months of

2646-606: Is Telegraph Creek, the only permanent settlement on the river. Telegraph Creek, 269 km (167 mi) upstream of the Stikine's mouth, is considered the head of navigation on the Stikine. Turning south, the Stikine flows through the Tahltan Highland along the eastern side of the Coast Mountains, where it receives numerous tributaries including the Chutine and Porcupine Rivers. The gradient flattens considerably compared to

2793-407: Is a dynamic equilibrium, controlled by genes, between homing and straying. If the spawning grounds have a uniform high quality, then natural selection should favour the descendants that home accurately. If the spawning grounds have a variable quality, then natural selection should favour a mixture of the descendants that stray and the descendants that home accurately. Prior to the run up the river,

2940-603: Is an 11,000-hectare (27,000-acre), up to 26-kilometre (16 mi) wide estuary with a mix of freshwater and tidal wetlands, islands, mud and grass flats, and riparian forests. During low flows in winter, exposed glacial sediments in the upstream Stikine River are blown towards the coast to be deposited as loess on delta islands, renewing nutrients in the soil. The delta provides forage for some three million migrating birds each year including geese, ducks, swans and sandhill cranes . It also supports one of North America's highest concentrations of bald eagles , which gather to feast on

3087-415: Is an annual fish migration event where many salmonid species, which are typically hatched in fresh water and live most of their adult life downstream in the ocean , swim back against the stream to the upper reaches of rivers to spawn on the gravel beds of small creeks . After spawning, all species of Pacific salmon and most Atlantic salmon die, and the salmon life cycle starts over again with

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3234-493: Is approximately 17 miles (27 km) wide and consists of grass flats , tidal marsh , and sand bars . Much of the area, particularly the Stikine River drainage, is recognized as an important fish and wildlife area. Moose , mountain goats , brown bear and black bear , deer , and wolves inhabit the area. The delta flats of the Stikine River are a major resting and nesting area for migratory birds. A variety of fish, including king and other species of salmon , are found in

3381-487: Is because upstream freshwater bodies (especially creeks) typically do not have sufficient food available for the adult salmon diet, and they have used large amounts of energy swimming upriver, thus exhausting their own internal nutrient reserves. Spawning salmon also have programmed senescence , which is "characterized by immunosuppression and organ deterioration", making them more vulnerable to diseases. Most zombie fish die within days of spawning, but some can last up to

3528-788: Is called the salmon run. Anadromous salmon are Northern Hemisphere fish that spend their ocean phase in either the Atlantic Ocean or the Pacific Ocean . They do not thrive in warm water. There is only one species of salmon found in the Atlantic, commonly called the Atlantic salmon . These salmon run up rivers on both sides of the ocean. Seven different species of salmon inhabit the Pacific (see table), and these are collectively referred to as Pacific salmon . Five of these species run up rivers on both sides of

3675-412: Is cloudy. Likewise, electronically tagged salmon were observed to maintain direction even when swimming in water much too deep for sunlight to be of use. In 1973, it was shown that Atlantic salmon have conditioned cardiac responses to electric fields with strengths similar to those found in oceans. "This sensitivity might allow a migrating fish to align itself upstream or downstream in an ocean current in

3822-416: Is exhausted. Male pink salmon and some sockeye salmon develop pronounced humps just before they spawn. These humps may have evolved because they confer species advantages. The humps make it less likely the salmon will spawn in the shallow water at margins of the streambed, which tend to dry out during low water flows or freeze in winter. Further, riffles can contain many salmon spawning simultaneously, as in

3969-403: Is faced with two major challenges: it must supply energy suitable for swimming the river rapids, and it must supply the sperm and eggs required for the reproductive events ahead. The water in the estuary receives the freshwater discharge from the natal river. Relative to ocean water, this has a high chemical load from surface runoff . Researchers in 2009 found evidence that, as the salmon encounter

4116-472: Is found at the upper elevations. The lower mountain slopes near salt water support a dense spruce - hemlock rainforest . Closer to the Canada–US border, the rain decreases and the vegetation changes to stands of cottonwood . Cottonwood are also common on the many islands of the Stikine. The valley floor along the river is a combination of muskegs and dense alder and willow thickets. The Stikine River delta

4263-463: Is joined by its largest tributary, the Iskut River , from the east before passing the former border station of Stikine, BC where it enters Alaska. Turning west, the river cuts through the Coast Mountains for 64 km (40 mi) to the sea. In Alaska, the channel gradient is very low, with tidal influences felt up to 32 km (20 mi) upstream from the mouth. The mouth of the Stikine forms

4410-812: Is located between the Coast Mountains and the Stikine Plateau. Drainage basins adjacent to the Stikine are the Taku River to the northwest, the Dease , Kechika and Finlay Rivers (all part of the greater Mackenzie River system) to the north and east, and the Skeena , Nass and Unuk Rivers to the south. The Stikine basin is very sparsely populated; in 2005, the entire basin was home to about 1,300 people. The only established communities are Iskut , Telegraph Creek and Bob Quinn Lake , all in British Columbia. Dease Lake

4557-463: Is located just outside the northern edge of the basin, near the Tanzilla River. The larger towns of Wrangell (population 2,127) and Petersburg, Alaska (3,398) are located close to the mouth of the river, but are not within the drainage basin. Forests cover about 50 percent of the basin, and most of the remainder is covered by treeless tundra or permanent ice and snow. About 73 percent of

Stikine-LeConte Wilderness - Misplaced Pages Continue

4704-510: Is one of the largest. Glacial activity strongly affects the geomorphology of the lower Stikine River. Due in large part to glacial silt or rock flour , the Stikine carries a heavy sediment load – some 16 million tonnes per year – continually expanding the large delta at the mouth of the river. In August 1979, a glacial lake outburst flood occurred at the Flood Glacier, releasing 150 million cubic metres (120,000 acre⋅ft) of water into

4851-487: Is particularly rich in fauna and has been called the " Serengeti of British Columbia." Spatsizi Plateau Wilderness Provincial Park, located at the headwaters of the Stikine, includes crucial winter caribou range, as well as the Gladys Lake Ecological Reserve , which preserves mountain goat and sheep habitat. More than 140 species of birds have been observed in the area of the park. The Stikine River delta

4998-577: Is that lava flows from the Mount Edziza volcanic complex were responsible for diverting the Stikine to its new course. Pleistocene basaltic lava flows of the Klastline Formation are exposed along the Stikine River south of the Klastline River confluence for 55 km (34 mi). They are believed to have originated from at least three eruptive centres on the northern and eastern sides of

5145-511: Is that there are geomagnetic and chemical cues which the salmon use to guide them back to their birthplace. The fish may be sensitive to the Earth's magnetic field, which could allow the fish to orient itself in the ocean, so it can navigate back to the estuary of its natal stream. Salmon have a strong sense of smell. Speculation about whether odours provide homing cues go back to the 19th century. In 1951, Hasler hypothesised that, once in vicinity of

5292-617: The Chilkat River in Alaska has particularly good spawning grounds. Each year these attract a run of up to half a million chum salmon . As the salmon run up the river, bald eagles arrive in their thousands to feast at the spawning grounds. This results in some of the world's largest congregations of bald eagles. The number of participating eagles is directly correlated with the number of spawning salmon. Residual nutrients from salmon can also accumulate downstream in estuaries. A 2010 study suggests

5439-538: The Sacred Headwaters . The lower Stikine and Iskut rivers are home to "a high number of aboriginal cultural heritage sites, including old villages, legend sites and traditional fishing areas." Archeological sites in southeast Alaska suggest that the first humans arrived in this region about 10,000 years ago, around the end of the last glaciation, when ice dams that had previously blocked the Stikine were receding. According to Tlingit legend, their ancestors lived in

5586-740: The United States . It drains a large, remote upland area known as the Stikine Country east of the Coast Mountains . Flowing west and south for 610 kilometres (379 mi), it empties into various straits of the Inside Passage near Wrangell, Alaska . About 90 percent of the river's length and 95 percent of its drainage basin are in Canada. Considered one of the last truly wild large rivers in BC,

5733-610: The United States Coast Survey in 1869 after the Alaska Purchase . Other 19th century names for the river include "St. Francis River" and "Pelly's River". A historic alternative spelling was Stickeen , reflected in the short-lived British Stickeen Territories . The Stikine River basin covers about 50,900 km (19,700 sq mi) in the Stikine Region and Regional District of Kitimat–Stikine , BC, with

5880-400: The electric grid . The Stikine dams, 270 metres (890 ft) and 193 metres (633 ft) high, would have flooded the entire Grand Canyon stretch of the river. The proposal was met with outrage from the general public, the Tahltan tribe, and conservation groups. Two environmental organizations, Friends of the Stikine and Residents for a Free-Flowing Stikine, were formed in direct response to

6027-615: The estuary or entrance to its birth river, salmon may use chemical cues which they can smell, and which are unique to their natal stream, as a mechanism to home onto the entrance of the stream. In 1978, Hasler and his students found that the way salmon locate their home rivers with such precision was because they could recognise its characteristic smell. They further demonstrated that the smell of their river becomes imprinted in salmon when they transform into smolts, just before they migrate out to sea. Homecoming salmon can also recognise characteristic smells in tributary streams as they move up

Stikine-LeConte Wilderness - Misplaced Pages Continue

6174-495: The 1800s and remained an important transportation route until the 1970s, when roads were finally opened to the northern interior. However, most of the Stikine basin remains wilderness, with only a few small settlements; only two bridges, one disused, cross the river along its entire length. The river's salmon run supports large commercial and subsistence fisheries, and its extensive estuary and delta provide habitat for numerous fish and migratory bird species. Despite its isolation,

6321-513: The 21st century some 60 percent of the basin was under some form of conservation management. However, in recent decades the water quality and natural beauty of the Stikine have been threatened by new energy, transport and mining developments in northern BC. The river was known to the Tlingit as Shtax'heen , "bitter river" or "muddy river", in reference to its murky glacial waters. The Stikine group of Tlingit, Shtaxʼhéen Ḵwáan, takes its name from

6468-534: The Alaska border. In 1897–98 more than three thousand miners passed through the Stikine, many in such a hurry that they embarked in winter and traveled by sled up the frozen river. They camped at Telegraph Creek or Glenora (the head of low water navigation) before continuing overland north to the Yukon. In its promotion of the route, the Canadian government promised a "first-class wagon road" to be built from Telegraph Creek to Teslin Lake , where miners could board boats for

6615-683: The Alaskan portion of the Stikine. Sockeye are the predominant commercial species, accounting for over 90 percent of the catch between 1991 and 2000, with chinook and coho making up most of the remainder. US and Canadian shares of the Stikine fishery are regulated by the Pacific Salmon Treaty , signed between the US and Canada in 1985. For sockeye, the Pacific Salmon Commission has established an annual escapement goal of 20,000–40,000 for

6762-436: The BC interior, large bales of wire were shipped via steamboat to the Stikine's head of navigation, which became known as Telegraph Creek. After the completion of the transatlantic telegraph cable in 1867 the project was abandoned, though the name remained. At that point the telegraph had been completed as far north as Hazelton, BC . The section from Quesnel to Hazelton was abandoned and fell into disrepair. Telegraph service

6909-516: The BC–Alaska border, is home to one of the largest glaciers along the lower Stikine River. Descending from the Stikine Icefield, the glacier forms a meltwater lake that empties directly into the river. Directly across the river is the small Choquette Hot Springs Provincial Park , which includes the namesake hot springs and the site of Alexander Choquette's Stikine Gold Rush trading post. In Alaska,

7056-467: The HBC in part due to Campbell's expedition the previous year, in which he had attempted to establish a trading post at Dease Lake. This was seen as an attempt to break the monopoly the Tlingit held on furs from the interior. The HBC also reduced the price they were willing to pay for furs, further worsening relations with the Tlingit. In 1842 the Tlingit besieged Fort Stikine, and were close to destroying it before

7203-555: The Iskut River, with smaller numbers in the main Stikine. Steelhead spawn in the main Stikine in both spring and fall runs. The Stikine basin is also home to several species of freshwater fish , including the coastal cutthroat , lake , rainbow and Dolly Varden trout , grayling , mountain whitefish and longnose sucker . The Stikine River and the Taku River are the highest-producing salmon rivers in Southeast Alaska. Although

7350-568: The Mount Edziza volcanic complex. The Stikine River creates one of the only natural passages through the Coast Mountains, and for thousands of years it has been used as a trade route by indigenous peoples. The river has great cultural significance for indigenous peoples; the adjacent headwaters of the Stikine, Skeena River and Nass Rivers in the Klappan Range are known to the Tahltan as Klabona ,

7497-573: The Pacific, but two species are found only on the Asian side. In the early 19th century, Chinook salmon were successfully established in the Southern Hemisphere, far from their native range, in New Zealand rivers. Attempts to establish anadromous salmon elsewhere have not succeeded. The life cycle of an anadromous salmon begins and, if it survives the full course of its natural life, usually ends in

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7644-462: The Russians were trading with the Tlingit for furs. The HBC also attempted to seize control of the Stikine fur trade from the coast, sending a ship, Dryad , to establish a trading post at the mouth of the river. However, they were beaten by the Russians who in 1834 built Redoubt St. Dionysius in what is now Wrangell, Alaska. In 1838, HBC trader Robert Campbell reached the upper Stikine River and became

7791-459: The Stikine River, causing minor flooding as far as the mouth of the river. The Stikine's Grand Canyon likely formed after one such glacial period. Previously, the Stikine may have turned south around the present-day Klappan River confluence, and flowed down the valley of what is now the Iskut River. The river's former course may have been blocked by glaciers and it was forced to cut a new path west towards present-day Telegraph Creek. Another theory

7938-412: The Stikine River. The Canadian portion of the Stikine River has had a commercial gillnet fishery, based out of Telegraph Creek, since 1975. Due to its remote location, commercial fishing struggled until 1979, when a system was devised to preserve fish in brine -filled barges before transportation by air to the port of Prince Rupert . The two reaches open to commercial fishing are an upper reach from

8085-537: The Stikine are boreal forests including white spruce , black spruce , lodgepole pine and subalpine fir , and various hardwoods including aspens, birches and poplars. At higher elevations, dominant subalpine tree species include mountain hemlock , amabilis fir and yellow cedar closer to the coast, while interior species include Engelmann spruce , subalpine fir, and lodgepole pine . Interior forests also include various riparian hardwoods, such as quaking aspen , birches, willows and poplars. A significant portion of

8232-603: The Stikine basin. Economic activities such as mining, logging and grazing are allowed on the SMZs, but are subject to regulation, with objectives such as preserving wildlife habitat and recreational opportunities. Following the plan implementation, about 26 percent of the Stikine basin in BC was within provincial parks, and including the SMZs, about 60 percent of the basin was under some form of conservation management. Spatsizi Plateau Wilderness Provincial Park , established in 1975, encompasses 698,659 ha (1,726,420 acres) in

8379-527: The Stikine flows through a variety of landscapes including boreal forest , steep canyons and wide glacial valleys. Known as the "fastest-flowing navigable river in North America," the Stikine forms a natural waterway from northern interior British Columbia to the Pacific coast. The river has been used for millennia by indigenous peoples including the Tlingit and Tahltan for fishing, hunting and trade. It provided access for fur traders and prospectors during

8526-648: The Stikine flows west cutting through them to reach the Pacific. Several nearby rivers including the Copper , Alsek and Taku Rivers do the same, suggesting that these river systems had been established along the west coast of the North American continent prior to the development of the Coast Range Arc. During the uplift of the Coast Mountains, the rivers maintained their courses as antecedent streams . The ancestral Stikine River may be as much as 50 million years old, with

8673-440: The Stikine gradually faded in importance as a commercial waterway. Commercial boat traffic on the Stikine had mostly ceased by 1972. Another effort to develop the Stikine country and beyond was the BC government's effort to build a railroad to northwest BC starting in the 1950s. The "Pacific Northern Railway" (PNR) was intended to open up the mineral and timber resources of the area and was ultimately proposed to reach Alaska via

8820-415: The Stikine is a destination for recreational activities including boating, hunting and fishing. The river's Grand Canyon , known for its dangerous rapids, has been called the " K2 of white-water challenges" and has only been run by a handful of expert kayakers . During the latter part of the 20th century, numerous large parks and protected areas were established in the Stikine basin, and by the beginning of

8967-542: The Stikine is a much larger river, it produces significantly fewer salmon than the Taku basin. This is largely due to geological barriers – such as the rapids of the Grand Canyon, and falls on tributaries such as the Iskut River – which naturally block between 50 and 75 percent of potential spawning habitat within the Stikine basin. Between 2003 and 2010, the Stikine produced an average of 67,000 sockeye salmon each year, while

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9114-486: The Stikine is almost entirely within the park boundaries. First established in 1987 and expanded in 2000 to include the Grand Canyon, the park now includes 257,177 ha (635,500 acres) of the Stikine valley along the western foothills of the Cassiar Mountains. Further downstream the Stikine flows through the northern part of 266,180 ha (657,700-acre) Mount Edziza Provincial Park , established in 1972 to preserve

9261-419: The Stikine is the largest river in southeast Alaska and the fifth largest river in BC. Flows of the Stikine River are affected by three main sources of runoff: snowmelt from the Stikine Plateau (peaking late spring or early summer), glacier melt from the Coast Mountains (peaking late summer), and rainfall from coastal Pacific storms (peaking autumn). The U.S. Geological Survey has operated a stream gage near

9408-554: The Stikine. Although not much gold was found on the Stikine, the Stickeen Territories were established to administer the region, and soon incorporated into the Colony of British Columbia . Prospectors continued to push deeper into the Stikine country over the next few years. In light of this and declining profits from the fur trade, Russia feared it would lose control of its North American colonies to Great Britain, and sold Alaska to

9555-490: The Stikine. They also transported goods from other coastal tribes including the Haida and Tsimshian into the interior, where they traded with the Tahltan. The primary trading location was at the confluence of the Stikine and Tahltan rivers. Most of the Tahltan clans visited this place every year to fish and trade. From the coast, goods including eulachon , salmon oil, shells, woven baskets and blankets, as well as slaves obtained by

9702-594: The Tahltan River down to the Chutine River confluence, and a lower reach between the Flood River and the international boundary. Fishing is limited to the main stem and a small portion of the lower Iskut River. The commercial fishing season is generally June through October. First Nation fisheries in the Stikine River include the area upstream of the Chutine River and the lower Tahltan River. The First Nations are allowed

9849-500: The Tahltan population. Over the next few decades, repeated waves of smallpox devastated Tlingit and Tahltan populations. At the beginning of the summer 1862 epidemic , numerous Tlingit were working or trading in Victoria, BC when the first cases were discovered. To prevent the spread of disease among the white population, the Tlingit were forced to return to their homelands in southeast Alaska, bringing smallpox with them. Smallpox ravaged

9996-560: The Tahltan, Iskut and Chutine tributaries. Sockeye (red) follow in mid-summer; although they run up many tributaries their largest spawning grounds are at Tahltan Lake, which accounts for 30–60 percent of the total. Pink and chum (dog) salmon spawn in August, primarily in the main Stikine below the Tahltan River; compared to the other species, these runs are relatively small. Coho (silver) spawn in September–October, primarily in

10143-485: The Taku produced over 110,000 sockeye per year. However, the Stikine produces slightly more chinook salmon, with an average of 40,000 per year compared to 35,000 on the Taku. Temperate rainforest , dominated by western hemlock and Sitka spruce , extends from Alaska up the lower valleys of the Stikine and Iskut rivers well into BC. Along the river's floodplain there are large riparian forests , consisting primarily of cottonwood, alder and willow. Further upstream along

10290-645: The United States in 1867 . The U.S. Army occupied Fort Stikine in 1868, renaming it Fort Wrangel. Military force was used to assert control over the Tlingit, preventing them from interfering with settlers, prospectors and traders headed to the interior. In 1866 the Western Union Telegraph Company sought to build a telegraph line connecting North America and Europe , crossing the Bering Strait and Siberia . In order to support construction through

10437-409: The Yukon. The proposal died in 1964 due to increasingly poor economic justifications. However, a second attempt was made in the 1970s when BC Rail began constructing the "Dease Lake Extension" from Fort St. James towards the asbestos mines at Cassiar, BC . Construction was cancelled in 1977 as the project went over budget and global prices for copper and asbestos (the main commodities to be hauled by

10584-500: The absence of fixed references." In 1988, researchers found iron, in the form of single domain magnetite , resides in the skulls of sockeye salmon. The quantities present are sufficient for magnetoception . Tagging studies have shown a small number of fish do not find their natal rivers, but travel instead up other, usually nearby streams or rivers. It is important some salmon stray from their home areas; otherwise new habitats could not be colonized. In 1984, Quinn hypothesized there

10731-455: The animal kingdom's more extreme migrations , the salmon return from the saltwater ocean back to a freshwater river to spawn afresh. After several years wandering huge distances in the ocean, most surviving salmon return to the same natal rivers where they were spawned. Then most of them swim up the rivers until they reach the very spawning ground that was their original birthplace. There are various theories about how this happens. One theory

10878-453: The arrival of British and Russian reinforcements. After continued tense relations led to Tlingit attacks in 1846–47, the HBC abandoned the fort in 1849, though they continued to trade in the Stikine River area via ships. As trading with Westerners increased, the regional balance of power shifted towards the Tlingit, and the Tahltan became more culturally integrated with their coastal neighbors. Intermarriage became increasingly common, Tlingit

11025-505: The average annual discharge is 405 m /s (14,300 cu ft/s). The lower Stikine near the international border is generally frozen from October/November to April/May, while at Telegraph Creek, freezing occurs about a week earlier and break-up occurs one to three weeks later. The Stikine basin includes several major terranes or crustal fragments that accreted to the western North American continent starting from about 180 million years ago. The Stikine Plateau roughly corresponds with

11172-438: The base of the tail ( caudal peduncle ) of an opponent. The physical condition of the salmon deteriorates the longer they remain in fresh water. Once the salmon have spawned, most of them deteriorate rapidly (a.k.a. "spawned out") and soon die. Some deteriorating salmon are still alive, but their bodies have already begun the process of rotting, and these deteriorating salmon are sometimes colloquially called "zombie fish". This

11319-418: The basin consists of high-elevation, treeless tundra or year-round snow/ice. Overall, the Stikine basin represents eight of fourteen biogeoclimatic zones found in BC . Across the interior of the Stikine basin, vast expanses of wilderness support a diversity of animal populations including caribou, mountain goats, Stone sheep , black and brown bears, wolverines, marmots, moose and wolves. The Spatsizi Plateau

11466-493: The basin in BC is considered to be in a wilderness or semi-wilderness condition. Due to the rain shadow effect of the Coast Mountains, the interior Stikine basin has a much drier and more variable climate than the coast. Wrangell experiences a humid continental climate , with monthly average temperatures ranging from a low of 2.6 °C (36.7 °F) in January to 18.0 °C (64.4 °F) in July. The average annual precipitation

11613-475: The channel narrows from 200 m (660 ft) wide to just 2 m (6.6 ft) wide, a place known as the "Tanzilla Slot", where it squeezes between sheer walls of volcanic rock. After receiving the Tuya and Tahltan Rivers from the north it flows through Mount Edziza Provincial Park , home to the dormant stratovolcano Mount Edziza , the central feature of the Mount Edziza volcanic complex . Just downstream

11760-538: The coast over the 1862 summer, killing some 60 percent of the Stikine Tlingit. Alexander "Buck" Choquette discovered gold on the lower Stikine in 1861, sparking the brief Stikine Gold Rush . More than 800 men departed from Victoria to the Stikine River, where they traveled into the interior on steamboats. The large influx of miners into the Stikine country, along with the businesses that supplied them with provisions, brought an end to Tlingit control of trade on

11907-487: The density and diversity of many estuarine breeding birds in the summer "were strongly predicted by salmon biomass in the autumn". Anadromous salmon provide nutrients to these "diverse assemblages ... ecologically comparable to the migrating herds of wildebeest in the Serengeti ". In 1997, researchers noted that the future of salmon runs worldwide would depend on many factors, most of which are driven by human actions. Among

12054-536: The ecological impact they have on other wildlife is greater than would be expected in relation to their biomass . Most salmon species migrate during the autumn (September through November) , which coincides with the pre- winter activities of many hibernating animals. The annual salmon run can be a major feeding event for predators such as grizzly bears and bald eagles , as well as an important window period for sport fishermen . The post-spawning death of salmon also has important ecological consequences, because

12201-643: The entirety of the river is within the Stikine-LeConte Wilderness of the Tongass National Forest . Designated in 1980, the 181,674 ha (448,930-acre) wilderness includes temperate rainforest, the Stikine River estuary, and the LeConte Glacier – the southernmost tidewater glacier in North America – just to the north of the Stikine's mouth. The U.S. Forest Service maintains twelve recreational cabins and several primitive campsites along

12348-459: The first white man to make contact with the Tahltans. By doing so, Campbell had established the final link of a route connecting the Pacific and Atlantic fur trades, stretching 5,000 km (3,100 mi) across northern Canada. In 1839, the HBC leased rights to the Stikine fur trade from the Russians, and took control of Redoubt St. Dionysius, renaming it Fort Stikine . The Tlingit were upset with

12495-574: The higher salt levels they will encounter in the ocean. Smolt also grow the silvery scales which visually confuse ocean predators. When they have matured sufficiently in late spring, and are about 15 to 20 centimetres long, the smolt swim out of the rivers and into the sea. There they spend their first year as a post-smolt . Post-smolt form schools with other post-smolt, and set off to find deep-sea feeding grounds. They then spend up to four more years as adult ocean salmon while their full swimming ability and reproductive capacity develop. Then, in one of

12642-439: The image on the right. Predators, such as bears, will be more likely to catch the more visually prominent humped males, with their humps projecting above the surface of the water. This may provide a protective buffer for the females. Dominant male salmon defend their redds by rushing at and chasing intruders. They butt and bite them with the canine-like teeth they developed for the spawning event. The kypes are used to clamp around

12789-454: The interior thousands of years ago and migrated to the coast via the Stikine River. However, a glacier (perhaps today's Great Glacier ) blocked their passage down the river. Tribal elders explored a tunnel through which the river flowed under the glacier, expecting not to return from this dangerous mission. To their surprise they discovered a way through, and their people followed to settle in southeast Alaska. Similar stories are told regarding

12936-462: The journey down the Yukon River . However, the construction was a fiasco due to delays and engineering challenges, and miners found difficult, muddy conditions waiting for them. By 1900 the gold rush was over, and the boomtowns of the Stikine quickly faded. Glenora was abandoned while Telegraph Creek remained as a small village. The Stikine remained the primary route to interior northern BC well into

13083-805: The key driving factors are (1) harvest of salmon by commercial, recreational, and subsistence fishing, (2) alterations in stream and river channels, including construction of dikes and other riparian corridor modifications, (3) electricity generation, flood control, and irrigation supplied by dams, (4) alteration by humans of freshwater, estuarine, and marine environments used by salmon, coupled with aquatic changes due to climate and ocean circulatory regimes, (5) water withdrawals from rivers and reservoirs for agricultural, municipal, or commercial purposes, (6) changes in climate caused at least in part by human activities, (7) competition from non-native fishes, (8) salmon predation by marine mammals, birds, and other fish species, (9) diseases and parasites, including those from outside

13230-419: The landscape of basalt flows, cinder cones and craters surrounding the dormant volcano Mount Edziza, which last erupted 10,000 years ago. All three parks provide opportunities for wilderness camping, wildlife viewing, horseback riding, hunting, and fishing. Several parks along the lower Stikine River can be reached only by boat. The 9,300 ha (23,000-acre) Great Glacier Provincial Park , located near

13377-602: The lower Stikine are operated out of Wrangell. These day trips are popular with visitors traveling to southeast Alaska by cruise ship . The upper Stikine River is more technical, with a few class III-IV rapids, but is also suitable for recreational boating. The take-out for the upper Stikine run is at the Cassiar Highway bridge, just upstream of the Grand Canyon. The Grand Canyon is not suitable for recreational boating and should only be attempted by experts. Points further upstream are not accessible by road. Boaters can access

13524-470: The lower river as generally good, except for elevated copper levels. Several large new mining developments in the 21st century have generated concern over potential impacts to water quality and fish habitat in the Stikine and Iskut rivers. The Red Chris copper/gold mine near Iskut , BC began operation in 2015, despite concerns raised by the Tlingit tribe and downstream communities in Alaska. The boroughs of Wrangell and Petersburg have expressed concern over

13671-556: The main Stikine River and 18,000–30,000 for Tahltan Lake. The chinook escapement goal for the main Stikine is 14,000–28,000. If the annual run is forecasted to be below this level, both Canadian and US fisheries are subject to restrictions. Since the beginning of the 21st century, the Stikine sockeye run has been relatively stable. Chinook have seen a significant decline, which has been attributed to reduced marine survival rates. The Stikine Plateau has extensive mineral deposits including gold, silver, copper, molybdenum , and coal. There are

13818-449: The main river. They may also be sensitive to characteristic pheromones given off by juvenile conspecifics . There is evidence that they can "discriminate between two populations of their own species". The recognition that each river and tributary has its own characteristic smell, and the role this plays as a navigation aid, led to a widespread search for a mechanism or mechanisms that might allow salmon to navigate over long distances in

13965-591: The militaristic Haida, were ferried to the interior and exchanged for furs, caribou and moose hides, babiche , and obsidian knives and arrowheads (the latter mined from volcanic deposits around Mount Edziza). The Tahltan in turn traded coastal goods with the Kaska and Sekani further inland. Captain George Vancouver mapped the Stikine delta in 1793 during the Vancouver Expedition , but did not realize that

14112-642: The most difficult possible. A number of boaters have died attempting the run. Because of its danger and difficulty it has earned a reputation as the " K2 of white-water challenges." In 1995 the Stikine was one of seven initial rivers included in the BC Heritage Rivers system. In 1998, it was nominated for the Canadian Heritage Rivers System . The Stikine supports runs of five species of native salmon as well as steelhead trout . Chinook salmon (king), running May–July, primarily spawn in

14259-495: The mouth of the river from 1976 to the present. The average annual discharge is 1,576 m /s (55,700 cu ft/s) with a monthly maximum of 3,823 m /s (135,000 cu ft/s) in June, and a minimum of 251 m /s (8,900 cu ft/s) in February. The highest annual mean was 2,063 m /s (72,900 cu ft/s) in 1981, and the lowest was 1,192 m /s (42,100 cu ft/s) in 1978. At Telegraph Creek,

14406-644: The native region, and (10) reduced nutrient replenishment from decomposing salmon. In 2009, NOAA advised that continued runoff into North American rivers of three widely used pesticides containing neurotoxins would "jeopardize the continued existence" of endangered and threatened Pacific salmon. Global warming could see the end of some salmon runs by the end of the century, such as the Californian runs of Chinook salmon. A 2010 United Nations report said that increases in acidification of oceans would mean that shellfish such as pteropods , an important component of

14553-563: The navigation channel along the Alaska reach, which is often clogged with snags and driftwood. The shallow channels of the Stikine delta were another hazard to shipping, with boats occasionally stranding at low tide. One of the last boats to operate regularly on the Stikine was the Judith Ann , which plied the river between 1950 and 1970. In the 1960s the Cassiar Highway was extended from the Alaska Highway to Dease Lake and Telegraph Creek, and

14700-402: The new generation of hatchlings . Salmon are anadromous , spending their juvenile life in rivers or lakes, and then migrating out to sea where they spend adult lives and gain most of their body mass . When they reach sexual maturity , the adults return to the upstream rivers to reproduce . Usually they return with uncanny precision to the natal river where they were born, and even to

14847-513: The night because their black fur is easily spotted by salmon in the daytime. In 2009, researchers compared the foraging success of black bears with the white-coated Kermode bear , a morphed subspecies of the black bear. They found the Kermode bear had no more success catching salmon at night time, but had greater success than the black bears during the day. Otters are also common predators. In 2011, researchers showed that when otters predate salmon,

14994-544: The north end of Eastern Passage to Frederick Sound. Farm Island and Dry Island are situated between the north and main channels, with King Slough dividing the two. Due to sediment deposits from the Stikine River delta, Dry Strait is often dry at low tide and thus unsuitable for most ships using the Inside Passage . Marine traffic typically uses the Wrangell Narrows or the Chatham Strait further west. By flow volume,

15141-519: The northern part of the Stikine Terrane (" Stikinia "), part of the larger Intermontane Belt complex. The Cassiar and Omineca Mountains to the east are formed from granite batholith remnants of an ancient continental volcanic arc (the Omineca Arc ) which arose as a result of subduction following Stikinia's collision with the North American continent. The Coast Mountains, to the west, are formed in

15288-533: The ocean salmon diet, would be finding it more difficult to build their aragonite shells. There were concerns that this too could endanger future salmon runs. In a 1982 video game called Salmon Run , the player takes the role of Sam the Salmon, swimming upriver to mate. Along the way he encounters waterfalls, a bear, fishermen, and seagulls. In the Disney animated feature film, Brother Bear , Kenai and Koda reached

15435-645: The ocean where they can recover and spawn again the next season. In the Pacific Northwest and Alaska, salmon is a keystone species , supporting wildlife from birds to bears and otters. The bodies of salmon represent a transfer of nutrients from the ocean, rich in nitrogen, sulfur, carbon and phosphorus, to the forest ecosystem . Grizzly bears function as ecosystem engineers , capturing salmon and carrying them into adjacent wooded areas. There they deposit nutrient-rich urine and faeces and partially eaten carcasses. It has been estimated that bears leave up to half

15582-413: The ocean. They need high swimming and leaping abilities to battle the rapids and other obstacles the river may present, and they need a full sexual development to ensure a successful spawn at the end of the run. All their energy goes into the physical rigours of the journey and the dramatic morphological transformations they must still complete before they are ready for the spawning events ahead. The run up

15729-411: The open ocean. In 1977, Leggett identified, as mechanisms worth investigating, the use of the sun for navigation, and orientation to various possible gradients, such as temperature, salinity or chemicals gradients, or geomagnetic or geoelectric fields. There is little evidence salmon use clues from the sun for navigation. Migrating salmon have been observed maintaining direction at nighttime and when it

15876-542: The other rivers (Copper, Alsek and Taku) that slice through the Coast Mountains. The Pacific coastal part of the Stikine basin is in the traditional lands of the Shtax'héen Kwáan (Stikine band of Tlingit). Formed by the unification of several smaller clans under the hereditary lineage of Chief Shakes , they controlled a large area around the mouth of the Stikine and extending well upriver. The original Shtax'héen Kwáan territory, estimated at 20,000 km (7,700 sq mi),

16023-585: The ports of Wrangell and Petersburg, is a popular area for recreational boating, fishing and camping. The 167-mile (269 km) section from Telegraph Creek to Wrangell often hosts canoe and raft trips by both commercial outfitters and private groups. The trip takes 7 to 10 days and has a difficulty rating of Class I–II , with only a few small rapids. Numerous features along this section of the Stikine River, including Mud, Flood and Great Glaciers in BC and Chief Shakes Hot Springs in Alaska, are only accessible by boat. In addition, single-day jetboat and kayak tours of

16170-459: The present uplift of the Coast Mountains starting about 7 million years ago. Beginning about 2.5 million years ago in the Pleistocene , much of the interior Stikine basin was covered by successive Ice Age glaciations. During interglacial periods, the continental ice sheet retreated northward but remnant Coast Mountain glaciers blocked the outlet of the Stikine River, causing glacier melt to back up

16317-486: The proposal. BC Hydro camps and survey sites experienced arson and sabotage. In 1983, BC Hydro temporarily postponed the dam projects, citing rising costs, in particular the immense cost just to build transmission lines to the remote Stikine. In 2000 the Tahltan negotiated a management plan with the BC government, which protected parts of the Stikine River including the Grand Canyon from future hydroelectric development. The Grand Canyon, long considered impassable by boat,

16464-499: The railway) declined. At that point, 661 kilometres (411 mi) of railroad grade had been completed to Dease Lake, but track had only been laid as far as Jackson, well short of the Stikine basin. The abandoned railroad grade still stretches across the Stikine basin today, following portions of the Klappan , Stikine and Tanzilla Rivers . It crosses the Stikine near the Klappan confluence on

16611-408: The remainder of the yolk, and they stay hidden in the gravel while they feed on the yolk. When the yolk has gone they must find food for themselves, so they leave the protection of the gravel and start feeding on plankton . At this point the baby salmon are called fry . At the end of the summer the fry develop into juvenile fish called parr . Parr feed on small invertebrates and are camouflaged with

16758-420: The resulting drop in salinity and increase in olfactory stimulation, two key metabolic changes are triggered: there is a switch from using red muscles for swimming to using white muscles, and there is an increase in the sperm and egg load. "Pheromones at the spawning grounds [trigger] a second shift to further enhance reproductive loading." The salmon also undergo radical morphological changes as they prepare for

16905-509: The riparian zones the salmon reach. The nutrients can also be washed downstream into estuaries where they accumulate and provide significant support for invertebrates and estuarine-breeding waterbirds . Most salmon are anadromous , a term which comes from the Greek anadromos , meaning "running upward". Anadromous fish grow up mostly in the saltwater in oceans. When they have matured they migrate or "run up" freshwater rivers to spawn in what

17052-604: The river can be exhausting, sometimes requiring the salmon to battle hundreds of miles upstream against strong currents and rapids. They cease feeding during the run. Chinook and sockeye salmon from central Idaho must travel 900 miles (1,400 km) and climb nearly 7,000 feet (2,100 m) before they are ready to spawn. Salmon deaths that occur on the upriver journey are referred to as en route mortality . Salmon negotiate waterfalls and rapids by leaping or jumping. They have been recorded making vertical jumps as high as 3.65 metres (12 ft). The height that can be achieved by

17199-539: The river extended into the interior. In 1799, Captain Rowan in the sloop Eliza reached the Stikine delta and was the first European to record the name "Stikine". In 1799 the Russian-American Company was chartered to establish new Russian settlements in North America and was granted a monopoly on the maritime fur trade in what was then Russian Alaska. The area included the mouth of the Stikine River, which became

17346-522: The river to dry salmon and berries in the dry interior climate. During winter the Tahltan had exclusive use of this section, which they utilized for hunting and trapping. In the area around present-day Glenora, the Tlingit claimed use of tributaries while the Tahltan held rights to the main stem. The Tlingit also had exclusive use of certain berry patches, which were not so abundant on the coast. The Tlingit, traveling in large dugout canoes up to 18 metres (59 ft) in length, dominated river commerce on

17493-409: The river valley and create Glacial Lake Stikine. The lake filled and emptied numerous times, leaving shoreline deposits high on nearby mountainsides. Glaciers and ice sheets still exist in the Stikine basin today, but to a much more limited extent. The Stikine Icecap , located in the Coast Mountains between the Stikine and Taku Rivers and the source of numerous glaciers descending to the Stikine valley,

17640-514: The river. The Tahltan called the river Spatsizi , "red goat", referring to the mountain goats whose white coats were often colored by the red earth of the region. One tributary of the upper Stikine retains the name of Spatsizi River . Another Tahltan name for the river was Tudessa , "long river", from which the Tudenekoten clan of Tahltan took its name. Russian fur traders called the river ryka Stahkin ( река Стакин ), changed to Stikine by

17787-493: The river. North of the Stikine River area is the LeConte Glacier , which flows into LeConte Bay . LeConte Glacier is the southernmost glacier in North America that flows directly into salt water. Mountains in the area of LeConte Bay are steep and most of the upper valleys are glacier-filled. Glaciers and ice fields cover most of the rugged, mountainous area in the eastern part of the Stikine-LeConte Wilderness. Alpine vegetation, including mosses , lichens , and other small plants,

17934-569: The safety of the tailings dam at the Red Chris mine, which is operated by Imperial Metals , the owner of the Mount Polley mine which suffered a tailings dam failure in 2014 that contaminated Quesnel Lake . Tahltan tribal leaders have generally been supportive of this mine and some others due to the economic benefits for the region; however, they have opposed projects that impact sites of cultural significance. Salmon run A salmon run

18081-634: The salmon can "sniff them out". They demonstrated that once otters have eaten salmon, the remaining salmon could detect and avoid the waters where otter faeces was present. The term prespawn mortality is used to refer to fish that arrive successfully at the spawning grounds, and then die without spawning. Prespawn mortality is surprisingly variable, with one study observing rates between 3% and 90%. Factors that contribute to these mortalities include high temperatures, high river discharge rates, and parasites and diseases. "At present there are no reliable indicators to predict whether an individual arriving at

18228-546: The salmon they harvest on the forest floor, in densities that can reach 4,000 kilograms per hectare, providing as much as 24% of the total nitrogen available to the riparian woodlands. The foliage of spruce trees up to 500 m (1,600 ft) from a stream where grizzlies fish salmon have been found to contain nitrogen originating from fished salmon. Salmon continue to surprise us, showing us new ways in which their oceanic migrations eventually permeate entire terrestrial ecosystems. In terms of providing food and nutrients to

18375-409: The salmon undergo profound physiological changes. Fish swim by contracting longitudinal red muscle and obliquely oriented white muscles. Red muscles are used for sustained activity, such as ocean migrations. White muscles are used for bursts of activity, such as bursts of speed or jumping. As the salmon comes to end of its ocean migration and enters the estuary of its natal river, its energy metabolism

18522-456: The salmon. Black bears usually operate during the day, but when it comes to salmon they tend to fish at night. This is partly to avoid competition with the more powerful brown bears, but it is also because they catch more salmon at night. During the day, salmon are very evasive and attuned to visual clues, but at night they focus on their spawning activities, generating acoustic clues the bears tune into. Black bears may also fish for salmon during

18669-563: The same manner by the later collision of the Insular Belt terrane with the Intermontane terrane. Subduction forces created the granite batholith of the Coast Range volcanic arc , which was eventually uplifted to form the contemporary Coast Mountains between the Stikine Plateau and the Pacific coast. Despite the Coast Mountains being higher in elevation than the interior plateaus and ranges,

18816-400: The significant nutrients in their carcasses , rich in nitrogen , sulfur , carbon and phosphorus , are transferred from the ocean and released to inland aquatic ecosystems , terrestrial animals (such as bears) and the wetlands and riparian woodlands adjacent to the rivers. This has knock-on effects not only for the next generation of salmon, but to every wildlife species living in

18963-553: The single reproductive event of semelparous organisms is usually large and fatal to the spawners. It is an evolutionary strategy that concentrates all available resources into maximizing reproduction, at the expense of individual organism's life, which is common among insects but rare among vertebrates . All six species of Pacific salmons live for many years in the ocean before swimming to the freshwater stream of its birth, spawning, and then dying. Most Atlantic salmon also die after spawning, but about 5 to 10% (mostly female) return to

19110-588: The south. North of Iskut , it is crossed by BC Highway 37 (Cassiar Highway), the only road bridge across the Stikine. Below Highway 37, the river enters the Grand Canyon of the Stikine , a 300-metre (980 ft) deep canyon cutting between the Tanzilla and Klastline Plateaus , both sub-plateaus of the Stikine Plateau. Here, it flows much more swiftly, falling 460 m (1,510 ft) in 90 km (56 mi) between Highway 37 and Telegraph Creek . At one point

19257-421: The spawning event ahead. All salmon lose the silvery blue they had as ocean fish, and their colour darkens, sometimes with a radical change in hue. Salmon are sexually dimorphic , and the male salmon develop canine-like teeth and their jaws develop a pronounced curve or hook ( kype ). Some species of male salmon grow large humps. Salmon start the run in peak condition, the culmination of years of development in

19404-497: The spring eulachon run. Numerous mammal species also use the delta including Sitka black-tailed deer , moose, bears, gray wolf , coyote, mink, river otter, beaver, seals and sea lions. Where the Stikine delta has partially filled in the Inside Passage at Dry Straits, it has provided a passage for mainland animals such as moose to colonize Mitkof , Kupreanof and Kuiu Islands . The lower Stikine River, with its proximity to

19551-457: The tallest mountains in the Stikine basin, with the highest point being Mount Ratz , 3,136 m (10,289 ft) above sea level. The highest points of the Stikine Plateau are generally around 1,500 to 2,000 m (4,900 to 6,600 ft). The Cassiar and Omineca Mountains, rising 2,300 to 2,600 m (7,500 to 8,500 ft), are also rugged but have less relief than the Coast Mountains due to their higher base elevation. The Tahltan Highland

19698-475: The twentieth century. After the end of the Klondike gold rush, riverboats continued to operate on the Stikine, carrying oil, machinery and food upriver and returning with furs and ore, in addition to ferrying passengers. Goods were unloaded at Telegraph Creek and transported by vehicle or pack train to remote inland communities. From the 1930s to the 1960s the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was responsible for clearing

19845-635: The upper Stikine by taking a floatplane to Tuaton or Laslui Lakes. In 2000, the BC government approved the Cassiar Iskut-Stikine Long Range Management Plan (LRMP) with the goal of "a healthy, productive and sustainable wilderness environment, a thriving and diverse economy, and strong communities supporting a wide range of local employment and lifestyle opportunities." The LRMP increased the size of existing protected areas (such as provincial parks), added new protected areas, and established special management zones (SMZs) across

19992-502: The upper Stikine, Spatsizi and Klappan River drainages. The western edge of the park can be reached by hiking or biking along the old BC Rail grade, which provides access to several trails leading into the park (motorized vehicles are not allowed). To the north is the long, narrow Stikine River Provincial Park , which protects the Stikine River corridor from the Chukachida River confluence nearly to Telegraph Creek. The Grand Canyon of

20139-481: The upper course, and after the Chutine confluence it becomes wide and braided . Its course takes it around the east and south sides of the massive Stikine Icecap , the source of numerous glaciers that descend to the valley floor. John Muir , who visited the Stikine country in 1879, described the lower Stikine as "a Yosemite 100 miles long" due to its hundreds of glaciers and other glacially formed features. The Stikine

20286-844: The very spawning ground of their birth. It is thought that, when they are in the ocean, they use magnetoreception to locate the general position of their natal river, and once close to the river, that they use their sense of smell to home in on the river entrance and even their natal spawning ground. Trout , which are sister species of salmon, also perform similar migrations, although they mostly move potamodromously between creeks and large freshwater lakes, except for some coastal/ estuary subspecies such as steelhead and sea trout that migrate seasonally between salty / brackish and fresh water just like salmon do. There are also landlocked populations of some salmon species that have adapted to spend their entire life in freshwater like trout. In Northwest America , salmons are keystone species , which means

20433-425: The waters of the area. Up to 2000 eagles congregate in the mouth of the river, following a run of smelt . 56°50′00″N 132°19′30″W  /  56.83333°N 132.32500°W  / 56.83333; -132.32500 Stikine River The Stikine River ( / s t ɪ ˈ k iː n / stick- EEN ) is a major river in northern British Columbia (BC), Canada and southeastern Alaska in

20580-534: The west are the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains , which run along the U.S.–Canada border. After collecting runoff from the Stikine Plateau, the Stikine River slices west through the Coast Mountains, emptying into the Inside Passage roughly in the middle of the Alexander Archipelago , which shelters Inside Passage waterways from the Pacific Ocean . The extensively glaciated Coast Mountains are

20727-702: The western foothills of the Omineca Mountains and the Cassiar Mountains. The river enters Stikine River Provincial Park , turning west at the confluence with the Chukachida River, then northwest at the confluence with the Spatsizi River . At the confluence with the Pitman River, it turns due west again, now flowing along the south side of the Three Sisters Range , then receives the Klappan River from

20874-543: The year. The headwaters of the Stikine are in the Spatsizi Plateau , the southeasternmost sub-plateau of the Stikine Plateau. Originating on Mount Umbach 1,830 metres (6,000 ft) above sea level in the Spatsizi Plateau Wilderness Provincial Park , it flows northeast through a chain of small lakes, including Tuaton and Laslui Lakes, then turns north, following a meandering course along

21021-435: Was adopted as the official language of trade, and Tlingit customs such as potlatch made their way into the interior. Seeking more furs to trade, the Tahltan also expanded their territory beyond the Stikine River basin into the upper Nass and Taku Rivers, leading to conflicts with neighboring tribes. In the 1830s smallpox , likely introduced via Russian ships and spread up the Stikine by Tlingit traders, killed more than half

21168-453: Was discovered near Dease Lake. The Cassiar Gold Rush , lasting until 1880, saw hundreds of miners traveling deep into Tahltan lands and a resurgence in riverboat traffic. Although many Tahltans found employment as packers or hunters during the gold rush period, there were also frequent conflicts due to miners encroaching on their land, while disease continued to reduce Tahltan numbers. In order to protect their culture, several Tahltan clans built

21315-418: Was eventually extended to Telegraph Creek and onward to Dawson City, Yukon in 1899, closely following the route laid out three decades before. In 1871, the US and a newly independent Canada signed a treaty guaranteeing free navigation on the Stikine through American territory. The treaty still applies to Canada's use of the river, even though the river is no longer used for commercial shipping. In 1874, gold

21462-416: Was first attempted by American kayaker Rob Lesser and several others in 1981. In 1985 Lesser returned with a larger group in addition to a National Geographic film crew who documented the descent – the first successful run through the entire canyon. In 1992 Doug Ammons completed the first solo descent of the canyon. As of 2016, fewer than 40 paddlers have run the canyon, which is rated Class V+ whitewater ,

21609-432: Was the largest of any Tlingit group. The lands of the Tahltan people extended over much of the interior Stikine Plateau, including the entirety of the inland Stikine basin. Tahltan and Tlingit lands met around the confluence of the Stikine and Iskut rivers. The navigable section of Stikine between the Grand Canyon and the Iskut River was shared by the Tlingit and Tahltan on a seasonal basis. In summer, Tlingit would travel up

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