69-539: The Fresh Kills Landfill was a landfill covering 2,200 acres (890 ha) in the borough of Staten Island in New York City , United States. The name comes from the landfill's location along the banks of the Fresh Kills estuary in western Staten Island. The landfill opened in 1948 as a temporary landfill, but by 1955 it had become the largest landfill in the world, and it remained so until its closure in 2001. At
138-415: A combination of impermeable liners several metres thick, geologically stable sites and collection systems to contain and capture this leachate. It can then be treated and evaporated. Once a landfill site is full, it is sealed off to prevent precipitation ingress and new leachate formation. However, liners must have a lifespan, be it several hundred years or more. Eventually, any landfill liner could leak, so
207-647: A long-term future, and as such, an alternative site had to be found. In 1946, New York City purchased a 2,200-acre (890 ha) site, which was considered worthless swampland in what was then a rural agricultural area in Staten Island, for a proposed three-year municipal waste dump, as a temporary solution to the closing of the Rikers Island Landfill. The plan was endorsed by the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority chairman, Robert Moses . He wanted
276-464: A multiuse area with residential, recreational, and industrial components. In 1950, the height was increased to 25–40 feet (8–12 m). By 1955, Fresh Kills was the largest landfill in the world, serving as the principal landfill for household garbage collected in New York City. Operations during the 1960s were conducted in three locations named "Plant 1", "Plant 2", and "Brookfield Avenue." Plant #1
345-484: A position to use this fill to our advantage, for the development of the West Shore of Staten Island, which is essential.". The talk of using Fresh Kills for only three years may have been a ploy to allow Hall to save face politically. As described in an inter-departmental report from 1946: "Because of the substantial sums involved in the preparation and acquisition of the [Fresh Kills] site, [in order to justify this expense]
414-523: A secession bill in the Legislature. A bill was passed (later vetoed by the governor) requiring all garbage to be incinerated before dumping. Ellsworth B. Buck , called for the federal government to step in and stop the project. Cornelius Hall, when he was the city's public works commissioner, opposed the project, but when he became the Borough President of Staten Island, he surprised residents by backing
483-487: A small portion of the site of the former Fresh Kills Landfill near the old Plant #2 at 40°34′49″N 74°11′38″W / 40.580267°N 74.193994°W / 40.580267; -74.193994 ( Staten Island Transfer Station ) . The transfer station —an integral part of New York City's Solid Waste Management Plan—is expected to process an average of 900 short tons (820 t) per day of Staten Island -generated residential and municipal waste. The waste
552-408: A thick, impermeable cap. The landfill received its last barge of garbage on March 22, 2001. At its peak of operation in 1986–87, Fresh Kills received as much as 29,000 short tons (26,000 t) of trash per day. It was estimated that, if kept open, the landfill would have eventually reached a height of 500 feet (150 m) or more. At this height, it would have been taller than Todt Hill making it
621-418: A third of the rubble from Ground Zero . More than 1,600 personal effects were retrieved during this time. About 1.6 million short tons (1.5 × 10 ^ t) of rubble came here for sorting. Thousands of detectives and forensic evidence specialists worked for over 1.7 million hours at Fresh Kills Landfill to try to recover remnants of the people killed in the attacks. A final count of 4,257 human remains
690-440: A viable and abundant source of materials and energy . In the developing world, waste pickers often scavenge for still-usable materials. In commercial contexts, companies have also discovered landfill sites, and many have begun harvesting materials and energy. Well-known examples include gas-recovery facilities. Other commercial facilities include waste incinerators which have built-in material recovery. This material recovery
759-464: A week. The midnight to 8 am shift was for maintenance. A wooden trestle bridge was built across Fresh Kills Creek to expand the Plant 2 operating area. This bridge allowed dumping east to Richmond Avenue. As the actual dump site moved further from paved roads, it became more difficult for trucks to unload. The Brookfield Avenue site was opened in 1966 and used exclusively for trucks. During this period,
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#1732852428635828-551: Is CO 2 . The gas also contains about 5% molecular nitrogen (N 2 ), less than 1% hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), and a low concentration of non-methane organic compounds (NMOC) , about 2700 ppmv . Landfill gases can seep out of the landfill and into the surrounding air and soil. Methane is a greenhouse gas , and is flammable and potentially explosive at certain concentrations, which makes it perfect for burning to generate electricity cleanly. Since decomposing plant matter and food waste only release carbon that has been captured from
897-401: Is a large watercraft used to transport refuse and waste / garbage across waterways. It is often in the form of a barge which is towed or otherwise moved by means of tugboats ; however, many are also self-propelled. They are most common in large, coastal cities, such as New York City , which may transport collected trash to neighboring ports for disposal or, occasionally, even illegally dump
966-471: Is compacted inside the 79,000-square-foot (7,300 m) facility into sealed 12-foot-high (3.7 m) by 20-foot-long (6.1 m) intermodal shipping containers . These containers are then loaded, four containers each car, onto flatbed rail cars to be hauled by rail to a Republic Services landfill in South Carolina . The eight-mile (13 km) Staten Island Railway freight service , which connects
1035-548: Is possible through the use of filters ( electro filter , active-carbon and potassium filter, quench, HCl-washer, SO 2 -washer, bottom ash -grating, etc.). In addition to waste reduction and recycling strategies, there are various alternatives to landfills, including waste-to-energy incineration, anaerobic digestion , composting , mechanical biological treatment , pyrolysis and plasma arc gasification . Depending on local economics and incentives, these can be made more financially attractive than landfills. The goal of
1104-667: Is rapidly displaced by CO 2 in the effluent gas. Hydrolysis of the biodegradable fraction of the solid waste begins in the acid formation phase, which leads to rapid accumulation of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) in the leachate. The increased organic acid content decreases the leachate pH from approximately 7.5 to 5.6. During this phase, the decomposition intermediate compounds like the VFAs contribute much chemical oxygen demand (COD). Long-chain volatile organic acids (VOAs) are converted to acetic acid (C 2 H 4 O 2 ), CO 2 , and hydrogen gas (H 2 ). High concentrations of VFAs increase both
1173-518: Is the first stage by which wastes are broken down in a landfill. These are followed by four stages of anaerobic degradation. Usually, solid organic material in solid phase decays rapidly as larger organic molecules degrade into smaller molecules. These smaller organic molecules begin to dissolve and move to the liquid phase, followed by hydrolysis of these organic molecules, and the hydrolyzed compounds then undergo transformation and volatilization as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and methane (CH 4 ), with rest of
1242-403: Is the longest decomposition phase. The rate of microbiological activity slows during the last phase of waste decomposition as the supply of nutrients limits the chemical reactions, e.g. as bioavailable phosphorus becomes increasingly scarce. CH 4 production almost completely disappears, with O 2 and oxidized species gradually reappearing in the gas wells as O 2 permeates downwardly from
1311-490: The Anthropocene . Animals were also a problem. Feral dog packs roamed the dump and were a hazard to employees. Rats also posed a problem. Attempts to suppress the population with poison failed. The area was declared a wild bird sanctuary , and some hawks, falcons, and owls were brought in. The area became a popular spot for birdwatching . Because of the predatory birds , rat sightings dropped dramatically, especially during
1380-679: The Landfill Allowance Trading Scheme has been established for local authorities to trade landfill quotas in England. A different system operates in Wales where authorities cannot 'trade' amongst themselves, but have allowances known as the Landfill Allowance Scheme. U.S. landfills are regulated by each state's environmental agency, which establishes minimum guidelines; however, none of these standards may fall below those set by
1449-671: The September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center in Manhattan (see below ). The garbage once destined for Fresh Kills was shipped to landfills in other states, primarily in Pennsylvania, but also in Virginia and Ohio. Some garbage was also sent to New Jersey for incineration. After the September 11, 2001 attacks , Fresh Kills was temporarily reopened as a sorting ground for roughly
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#17328524286351518-576: The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Permitting a landfill generally takes between five and seven years, costs millions of dollars and requires rigorous siting, engineering and environmental studies and demonstrations to ensure local environmental and safety concerns are satisfied. The status of a landfill's microbial community may determine its digestive efficiency. Bacteria that digest plastic have been found in landfills. One can treat landfills as
1587-574: The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and VOA concentrations, which initiates H 2 production by fermentative bacteria, which stimulates the growth of H 2 -oxidizing bacteria. The H 2 generation phase is relatively short because it is complete by the end of the acid formation phase. The increase in the biomass of acidogenic bacteria increases the amount of degradation of the waste material and consuming nutrients. Metals, which are generally more water-soluble at lower pH, may become more mobile during this phase, leading to increasing metal concentrations in
1656-502: The common reed , a grass that grows abundantly in disturbed areas and can tolerate both fresh and brackish water. The stagnant, deoxygenated water was also less attractive to waterfowl, and their population decreased. Samuel Kearing, who had served as sanitation commissioner under Mayor John V. Lindsay , remembered in 1970 his first visit to the Fresh Kills project: It had a certain nightmare quality. ... I can still recall looking down on
1725-792: The landfill gas utilization and generation of electricity . Landfill gas monitoring alerts workers to the presence of a build-up of gases to a harmful level. In some countries, landfill gas recovery is extensive; in the United States, for example, more than 850 landfills have active landfill gas recovery systems. A Solar landfill is a repurposed used landfill that is converted to a solar array solar farm . Landfills in Canada are regulated by provincial environmental agencies and environmental protection legislation. Older facilities tend to fall under current standards and are monitored for leaching . Some former locations have been converted to parkland. In
1794-501: The zero waste concept is to minimize landfill volume. Countries including Germany , Austria , Sweden , Denmark , Belgium , the Netherlands , and Switzerland , have banned the disposal of untreated waste in landfills. In these countries, only certain hazardous wastes, fly ashes from incineration or the stabilized output of mechanical biological treatment plants may still be deposited. Garbage scow A garbage scow
1863-566: The 20th century, but gained wide use in the 1960s and 1970s, in an effort to eliminate open dumps and other "unsanitary" waste disposal practices. The sanitary landfill is an engineered facility that separates and confines waste. Sanitary landfills are intended as biological reactors ( bioreactors ) in which microbes will break down complex organic waste into simpler, less toxic compounds over time. These reactors must be designed and operated according to regulatory standards and guidelines (See environmental engineering ). Usually, aerobic decomposition
1932-611: The City must dispose of refuse at this location for a number of years." One of the first steps taken was the dredging of the marsh to allow the passage of the city's garbage scows . The landfill accepted its first scow in April 1948. Shortly before the landfill opened, an expansion of the landfill project was approved by the City Planning Commission, which called for a 2,200-acre (890 ha) project organized in 13 sections. The landfill
2001-692: The European Union, individual states are obliged to enact legislation to comply with the requirements and obligations of the European Landfill Directive . The majority of EU member states have laws banning or severely restricting the disposal of household trash via landfills. Landfilling is currently the major method of municipal waste disposal in India. India also has Asia's largest dumping ground in Deonar, Mumbai. However, issues frequently arise due to
2070-560: The South Park section were completed in mid-2011. The Department of Parks and Recreation is responsible for implementing the plan for turning the landfill into a park. They used a Draft Master Plan that integrated three aspects—programming, wildlife, and circulation—and proposed five main parks: the Confluence, North Park, South Park, East Park, and West Park. With an eventual size of 2,200 acres (890 ha), Freshkills Park will be three times
2139-415: The age of landfill, type of waste, moisture content and other factors. For example, the maximum amount of landfill gas produced can be illustrated a simplified net reaction of diethyl oxalate that accounts for these simultaneous reactions: 4 C 6 H 10 O 4 + 6 H 2 O → 13 CH 4 + 11 CO 2 On average, about half of the volumetric concentration of landfill gas is CH 4 and slightly less than half
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2208-507: The alarming growth rate of landfills and poor management by authorities. On and under surface fires have been commonly seen in the Indian landfills over the last few years. Landfilling practices in the UK have had to change in recent years to meet the challenges of the European Landfill Directive . The UK now imposes landfill tax upon biodegradable waste which is put into landfills. In addition to this
2277-462: The area to be developed as Staten Island's industrial base, as it was opposite the Arthur Kill from the heavy industry of New Jersey. Moses saw the project as key to the development of the island, and with it, the possibility of more parkland, highways, industry, and possibly even an airport. Staten Island residents and their representatives opposed the plan. Assemblyman Edmund P. Radigan introduced
2346-510: The atmosphere through photosynthesis, no new carbon enters the carbon cycle and the atmospheric concentration of CO 2 is not affected. Carbon dioxide traps heat in the atmosphere, contributing to climate change . In properly managed landfills, gas is collected and flared or recovered for landfill gas utilization . Poorly run landfills may become nuisances because of vectors such as rats and flies which can spread infectious diseases . The occurrence of such vectors can be mitigated through
2415-418: The compacted waste and the cover material is called a daily cell. Waste compaction is critical to extending the life of the landfill. Factors such as waste compressibility, waste-layer thickness and the number of passes of the compactor over the waste affect the waste densities. The term landfill is usually shorthand for a municipal landfill or sanitary landfill. These facilities were first introduced early in
2484-511: The day. From 1987 through 1988, in an environmental disaster known as the syringe tide , significant amounts of medical waste from the Fresh Kills landfill, including hypodermic syringes and raw garbage, washed up onto beaches on the Jersey Shore , in New York City , and on Long Island . This event forced the closing of beaches on the Atlantic coast . After much deliberation, New York City
2553-479: The dump was in a state of flux. Original plans showed the dump with a twenty-year lifespan. One proposal for the West Shore Expressway bridge across Fresh Kills included a tide gate , which would have blocked Plant 2's marine access. The bridge, when finally built in 1959, actually enhanced operations. The bridge was finished long before the rest of the expressway and was used by workers to travel between
2622-485: The facility to the national rail freight network via the Arthur Kill Vertical Lift Bridge , was reactivated in April 2007, after it had been closed in 1991. Landfill A landfill is a site for the disposal of waste materials. It is the oldest and most common form of waste disposal , although the systematic burial of waste with daily, intermediate and final covers only began in the 1940s. In
2691-445: The former landfill to regular traffic, as part of an effort to ease road congestion. Construction on the actual park began in 2008. The three-phase development of the park, which includes a September 11 memorial , is expected to last 30 years. The draft Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) was published for public review in May 2008. Construction drawings for the first phase of development in
2760-436: The ground around landfills must be tested for leachate to prevent pollutants from contaminating groundwater . Rotting food and other decaying organic waste create decomposition gases , especially CO 2 and CH 4 from aerobic and anaerobic decomposition, respectively. Both processes occur simultaneously in different parts of a landfill. In addition to available O 2 , the fraction of gas constituents will vary, depending on
2829-525: The ground during an earthquake . Once full, the area over a landfill site may be reclaimed for other uses. Operators of well-run landfills for non-hazardous waste meet predefined specifications by applying techniques to: They can also cover waste (usually daily) with layers of soil or other types of material such as woodchips and fine particles. During landfill operations, a scale or weighbridge may weigh waste collection vehicles on arrival and personnel may inspect loads for wastes that do not accord with
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2898-510: The highest point on the East Coast south of Mount Desert Island in Maine. Under local pressure from Staten Island Borough President Guy Molinari , and with the support of mayor Rudy Giuliani , New York state governor George Pataki , and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the landfill site was finally closed on March 22, 2001, though it was temporarily reopened soon after for
2967-427: The landfill bioreactor strata gradually decreases. Microbial populations grow, density increases. Aerobic biodegradation dominates, i.e. the primary electron acceptor is O 2 . The O 2 is rapidly degraded by the existing microbial populations. The decreasing O 2 leads to less aerobic and more anaerobic conditions in the layers. The primary electron acceptors during transition are nitrates and sulphates since O 2
3036-469: The landfill can be significant and can be mitigated by wheel washing systems . Pollution of the local environment , such as contamination of groundwater or aquifers or soil contamination may occur, as well. When precipitation falls on open landfills, water percolates through the garbage and becomes contaminated with suspended and dissolved material, forming leachate. If this is not contained it can contaminate groundwater. All modern landfill sites use
3105-451: The landfill's waste-acceptance criteria. Afterward, the waste collection vehicles use the existing road network on their way to the tipping face or working front, where they unload their contents. After loads are deposited, compactors or bulldozers can spread and compact the waste on the working face. Before leaving the landfill boundaries, the waste collection vehicles may pass through a wheel-cleaning facility. If necessary, they return to
3174-430: The largest man-made structures in the history of the world." In October 2008, reclamation of the site began for a multi-phase, 30-year site redevelopment. The landfill has been developed into Freshkills Park . New York's municipal incinerators peaked in capacity with 21 plants in 1937 and declined during World War II when salvage and conservation programs reduced the use and discard of combustible materials. The result
3243-456: The leachate. The acid formation phase intermediary products (e.g., acetic, propionic, and butyric acids) are converted to CH 4 and CO 2 by methanogenic microorganisms. As VFAs are metabolized by the methanogens, the landfill water pH returns to neutrality. The leachate's organic strength, expressed as oxygen demand, decreases at a rapid rate with increases in CH 4 and CO 2 gas production. This
3312-516: The most significant expansion of the New York City parks since the development of the chain of parks in the Bronx during the 1890s. The new park was designed by James Corner Field Operations, the landscape architecture firm also responsible for the design of the High Line in Manhattan . In January 2005, Staten Island Borough President James Molinaro announced plans to open three roads leading out of
3381-433: The operation from a control tower and thinking that Fresh Kills, like Jamaica Bay , had for thousands of years been a magnificent, teeming, literally life-enhancing tidal marsh. And in just twenty-five years, it was gone, buried under millions of tons of New York City's refuse. The environmental impact of the waste site was so significant that the base of the landfill was even discussed as the global starting point ( GSSP ) of
3450-462: The past, waste was simply left in piles or thrown into pits (known in archeology as middens ). Landfills take up a lot of land and pose environmental risks. Some landfill sites are used for waste management purposes, such as temporary storage, consolidation and transfer, or for various stages of processing waste material, such as sorting, treatment, or recycling. Unless they are stabilized, landfills may undergo severe shaking or soil liquefaction of
3519-565: The payload at sea. The garbage scow Mobro 4000 , which was given the nickname the "Gar-Barge", became notorious in 1987 for travelling between New York City and Belize trying unsuccessfully to get rid of a load of rubbish, ultimately incinerated in New York. Garbage scows have been used to covertly transport illegal substances in the US. In 1948, the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel reported
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#17328524286353588-573: The peak of its operation, in 1986, Fresh Kills received 29,000 short tons (26,000 t) of residential waste per day, playing a key part in the New York City waste management system . From 1991 until its closing it was the only landfill to accept New York City's residential waste. It consists of four mounds that range in height from 90 to about 225 feet (30 to about 70 m) and hold about 150 million short tons (140 × 10 ^ t) of solid waste. The archaeologist Martin Jones characterizes it as "among
3657-578: The plan, saying: "I am firmly convinced that a limited landfill project can be undertaken at Fresh Kills, a project that would prove of great value to the island through the reclamation of valuable land from now worthless marshland. Hall intended the landfill to be part of a proposed belt highway along Staten Island's west shore, which was approved by Moses in exchange for his support of the landfill. Hall went on to say "I want [landfilling] operations limited to [a] period not to exceed three years ... I am going along with this proposal because I believe ... we are in
3726-507: The public in 2012. Although the park is not scheduled for completion until 2037, the Parks Department reported that in 2010–11 two hundred species of wildlife had been seen in the former landfill. These included red-winged blackbirds , American goldfinches , red-tailed hawks , American kestrels , osprey , ring-necked pheasants , tree swallows , turkey vultures , and northern snapping turtles . Staten Island Transfer Station occupies
3795-425: The same name used for oil drilling ). Two wagons were then pulled to the active dumpsite by a tractor ( Caterpillar D7 , D8 , D9 ) and emptied. The Plant 1 digger was electric , but the Plant 2 one was steam-powered . The diggers were supplemented by other cranes (mostly mounted on barges ). A typical day would unload twelve barges (six at each plant). Operations were carried out from 8 am to midnight six days
3864-414: The size of the 843-acre (341 ha) Central Park . It consists of a variety of public spaces and facilities for a multitude of activity types. The site is large enough to support many sports and programs including nature trails , horseback riding , mountain biking , community events, outdoor dining, sports fields, and canoeing / kayaking . Schmul Park, the first section of Freshkills Park, opened to
3933-531: The troposphere. This transforms the oxidation–reduction potential (ORP) in the leachate toward oxidative processes. The residual organic materials may incrementally be converted to the gas phase, and as organic matter is composted; i.e. the organic matter is converted to humic -like compounds. Landfills have the potential to cause a number of issues. Infrastructure disruption, such as damage to access roads by heavy vehicles, may occur. Pollution of local roads and watercourses from wheels on vehicles when they leave
4002-451: The two plants. Initially, the land where the landfill was located was a salt marsh in which there were tidal wetlands , forests, and freshwater wetlands . The subsoil was made up of clay, with sand and silt as the top layer of soil. The tidal marsh , which helped to clean and oxygenate the water that passed through it, was destroyed by the dump. The fauna were largely replaced by herring gulls . The native plant species were driven out by
4071-432: The use of daily cover . Other potential issues include wildlife disruption due to occupation of habitat and animal health disruption caused by consuming waste from landfills, dust, odor, noise pollution , and reduced local property values. Gases are produced in landfills due to the anaerobic digestion by microbes. In a properly managed landfill, this gas is collected and used. Its uses range from simple flaring to
4140-404: The waste depend on how well microbial populations function in syntrophy , i.e. an interaction of different populations to provide each other's nutritional needs.: The life cycle of a municipal landfill undergoes five distinct phases: As the waste is placed in the landfill, the void spaces contain high volumes of molecular oxygen (O 2 ). With added and compacted wastes, the O 2 content of
4209-435: The waste remaining in solid and liquid phases. During the early phases, little material volume reaches the leachate , as the biodegradable organic matter of the waste undergoes a rapid decrease in volume. Meanwhile, the leachate's chemical oxygen demand increases with increasing concentrations of the more recalcitrant compounds compared to the more reactive compounds in the leachate. Successful conversion and stabilization of
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#17328524286354278-416: The weighbridge for re-weighing without their load. The weighing process can assemble statistics on the daily incoming waste tonnage, which databases can retain for record keeping. In addition to trucks, some landfills may have equipment to handle railroad containers. The use of "rail-haul" permits landfills to be located at more remote sites, without the problems associated with many truck trips. Typically, in
4347-399: The working face, the compacted waste is covered with soil or alternative materials daily. Alternative waste-cover materials include chipped wood or other "green waste", several sprayed-on foam products, chemically "fixed" bio-solids, and temporary blankets. Blankets can be lifted into place at night and then removed the following day prior to waste placement. The space that is occupied daily by
4416-543: Was located at the site of an old factory on the south side of the junction of the Great Fresh Kills, and Little Fresh Kills. It was reachable via Muldoon Avenue. Plant #2 was located a bit upstream on the north side of Fresh Kills near where Richmond Creek branches off. It was reachable from Victory Boulevard . The Brookfield Avenue site was north of the Arthur Kill Road and Brookfield Avenue intersection. Plant 1
4485-443: Was planned to be structured in layers, with a layer of garbage covered by a layer of ash (the remains of burnable trash from the city's incinerators), another layer of garbage, and then a layer of dirt to contain the smell. At the end of the landfill's usable life, new real estate would be created, allowing it to top off at 10–15 feet (3–5 m) above sea level. The plan called for Fresh Kills to be used for 20 years, then developed as
4554-485: Was required to pay $ 1 million for past pollution damages as well as pay for the cleanup. No reparations were paid to the business owners on the Jersey Shore for revenues lost during the months of inactivity. As a result of intense community pressure, a state law was passed in 1996 requiring that the landfill cease accepting solid waste by the end of 2001. By 1997, two of the four landfill mounds were closed and covered with
4623-480: Was retrieved, but only 300 people were identified from these remains. A memorial was built in 2011, which also honors those whose identities were not able to be determined from the debris. The remaining waste was buried in a 40-acre (160,000 m) portion of the landfill; it is highly likely that this debris still contains fragmentary human remains. The Fresh Kills site was transformed into reclaimed wetlands , recreational facilities and landscaped public parkland ,
4692-403: Was the administrative headquarters, and also the leading repair facility. Plant 1 and Plant 2 were for marine unload operations. Barges arrived from the other boroughs (primarily Manhattan and Brooklyn). Refuse was picked up by a crane (called a "digger") using a clamshell bucket and deposited in a caterpillar-tracked side-dump vehicle called an "Athey wagon" (not related to the equipment of
4761-562: Was the closing of nine of the city's incinerators and a sharp reduction in the combustion of waste by 1944. By 1946, only ten incinerators were in operation, with capacity having declined by half since 1937. This meant more solid waste for the city's eight landfills to handle. The two landfills in Brooklyn and the two in the Bronx had, respectively, just one and two years left before reaching capacity. Only one landfill, Edgemere Landfill in Queens, had
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