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84-416: A stapler is a mechanical device that joins pages of paper or similar material by driving a thin metal staple through the sheets and folding the ends. Staplers are widely used in government, business, offices , workplaces, homes, and schools . The word "stapler" can actually refer to a number of different devices of varying uses. In addition to joining paper sheets together, staplers can also be used in

168-402: A special pattern . Color copying also raises concerns regarding the copying and/or forging of other documents, such as driver's licenses and university degrees and transcripts. Some driver's licenses are made with embedded holograms so that a police officer can detect a fake copy. Some university and college transcripts have special anti-copying watermarks in the background. If a copy is made,

252-420: A base that folds back out of the way, so staples drive directly into an object rather than fold against the anvil. In this position, the staples are driven similar to the way a staple gun works, but with less force driving the staple. Saddle staplers have an inverted V-shaped saddle for stapling pre-fold sheets to make booklets. Stapleless staplers , invented in 1910, are a means of stapling that punches out

336-604: A costly option found primarily in print and design shops. Chester Carlson (1906-1968), the inventor of photocopying, was originally a patent attorney , as well as a part-time researcher and inventor. His job at the patent office in New York required him to make a large number of copies of important papers. Carlson, who was arthritic , found this a painful and tedious process. This motivated him to conduct experiments with photoconductivity. Carlson used his kitchen for his " electrophotography " experiments, and, in 1938, he applied for

420-516: A half pounds and loaded a single 1 ⁄ 2 -inch-wide (13 mm) wire staple, which it could drive through several sheets of paper. The first published use of the word "stapler" to indicate a machine for fastening papers with a thin metal wire was in an advertisement in the American Munsey's Magazine in 1901. In the early 1900s, several devices were developed and patented that punched and folded papers to attach them to each other without

504-468: A metallic clip. The Clipless Stand Machine (made in North Berwick ) was sold from 1909 into the 1920s. It cut a tongue in the paper that it folded back and tucked in. Bump's New Model Paper Fastener used a similar cutting and weaving technology. In 1941, the type of paper stapler that is the most common in use was developed: the four-way paper stapler . With the four-way, the operator could either use

588-615: A more durable material than paper. Photocopier Commercial xerographic office photocopying gradually replaced copies made by verifax , photostat , carbon paper , mimeograph machines , and other duplicating machines . Photocopying is widely used in the business, education, and government sectors. While there have been predictions that photocopiers will eventually become obsolete as information workers increase their use of digital document creation, storage, and distribution and rely less on distributing actual pieces of paper, as of 2015, photocopiers continue to be widely used. During

672-478: A non-profit organization in Columbus, Ohio , contracted with Carlson to refine his new process. Over the next five years, the institute conducted experiments to improve the process of electrophotography. In 1947, Haloid Corporation, a manufacturer of photographic paper, approached Battelle to obtain a license to develop and market a copying machine based on this technology. Haloid felt that the word "electrophotography"

756-651: A number of industrial and construction processes. The oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate precursor to modern paper date to the 2nd century BCE in China . The pulp papermaking process is ascribed to Cai Lun , a 2nd-century CE Han court eunuch . It has been said that knowledge of papermaking was passed to the Islamic world after the Battle of Talas in 751 CE when two Chinese papermakers were captured as prisoners and used to extract 'the secrets' of papermaking. Although

840-410: A patent for the process. He made the first photocopy using a zinc plate covered with sulfur . The words "10-22-38 Astoria" were written on a microscope slide, which was placed on top of more sulfur and under a bright light. After the slide was removed, a mirror image of the words remained. Carlson tried to sell his invention to some companies but failed because the process was still underdeveloped. At

924-522: A rag paper. The aging behaviour of a paper is determined by its manufacture, not the original source of the fibres. Furthermore, tests sponsored by the Library of Congress prove that all paper is at risk of acid decay, because cellulose itself produces formic, acetic, lactic and oxalic acids. Mechanical pulping yields almost a tonne of pulp per tonne of dry wood used, which is why mechanical pulps are sometimes referred to as "high yield" pulps. With almost twice

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1008-450: A recessed stapling base in which the legs are folded. Accordingly, staples do not have sharper edges exposed and lead to flatter stacking of paper – saving on filing and binder space. Some photocopiers feature an integrated stapler allowing copies of documents to be automatically stapled as they are printed. In 2012, $ 80 million worth of staplers were sold in the US. The dominant US manufacturer

1092-423: A small flap of paper and weaves it through a notch. A more recent alternative method avoids the resulting hole by crimping the pages together with serrated metal teeth instead. Surgeons can use surgical staplers in place of sutures to close the skin or during surgical anastomosis . A skin stapler does not resemble a standard stapler, as it has no anvil. Skin staples are commonly preshaped into an "M." Pressing

1176-425: A standard PC scanner coupled to an inkjet or low-end laser printer, which are far slower than their counterparts in high-end copiers. However, low-end scanner-inkjets can provide color copying at a lower upfront purchase-price but a much higher cost per copy. Combined digital scanner/printers sometimes have built-in fax machines and can be classified as one type of multifunction printer . A negative photocopy inverts

1260-447: A staple that is much easier to remove. The use of the second setting is almost never seen, however, due to the prevalence of staple removers and the general lack of knowledge about its use. Some simple modern staplers feature a fixed anvil that lacks the sheer position. Modern staplers continue to evolve and adapt to users' changing habits. Less effort or easy-squeeze/use staplers, for example, use different leverage efficiencies to reduce

1344-404: A surgical setting to join tissue together with surgical staples to close a surgical wound (much in the same way as sutures ). Most staplers are used to join multiple sheets of paper. Paper staplers come in two distinct types: manual and electric. Manual staplers are normally hand-held, although models that are used while set on a desk or other surface are not uncommon. Electric staplers exist in

1428-447: A variety of aluminium sulfate salt that is significantly acidic . Alum was added to paper to assist in sizing , making it somewhat water resistant so that inks did not "run" or spread uncontrollably. Early papermakers did not realize that the alum they added liberally to cure almost every problem encountered in making their product would be eventually detrimental. The cellulose fibres that make up paper are hydrolyzed by acid, and

1512-437: A variety of different designs and models. Their primary operating function is to join large numbers of paper sheets together in rapid succession. Some electric staplers can join up to 20 sheets at a time. Typical staplers are a third-class lever . The growing usage of paper in the 19th century created a demand for an efficient paper fastener. In 1841 Slocum and Jillion invented a "Machine for Sticking Pins into Paper", which

1596-589: A variety of light sources are used. As glass transmits ultraviolet rays between 325 and 400 nanometers, copiers with ultraviolet-producing lights such as fluorescent, tungsten halogen, or xenon flash, expose documents to some ultraviolet. Concerns about emissions from photocopy machines have been expressed by some in connection with the use of selenium and emissions of ozone and fumes from heated toner. Similar to forensic identification of typewriters , computer printers and copiers can be traced by imperfections in their output. The mechanical tolerances of

1680-462: A wide variety of properties, depending on its intended use. It is estimated that paper-based storage solutions captured 0.33% of the total in 1986 and only 0.007% in 2007, even though in absolute terms the world's capacity to store information on paper increased from 8.7 to 19.4 petabytes . It is estimated that in 1986 paper-based postal letters represented less than 0.05% of the world's telecommunication capacity, with sharply decreasing tendency after

1764-412: Is Swingline . Permanent fastening binds items by driving the staple through the material and into an anvil , a small metal plate that bends the ends, usually inward. On most modern staplers, the anvil rotates or slides to change between bending the staple ends inward for permanent stapling or outward for pinning (see below). Clinches can be standard, squiggled, flat, or rounded completely adjacent to

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1848-443: Is uncoated . Coated paper has a thin layer of material such as calcium carbonate or china clay applied to one or both sides in order to create a surface more suitable for high-resolution halftone screens. (Uncoated papers are rarely suitable for screens above 150 lpi.) Coated or uncoated papers may have their surfaces polished by calendering . Coated papers are divided into matte, semi-matte or silk, and gloss. Gloss papers give

1932-421: Is "automatic digital collation ". For example, when copying a set of 20 pages 20 times, a digital copier scans each page only once, then uses the stored information to produce 20 sets. In an analog copier, either each page is scanned 20 times (a total of 400 scans), making one set at a time, or 20 separate output trays are used for the 20 sets. Low-end copiers also use digital technology, but tend to consist of

2016-491: Is a lamination of natural plant fibre, while paper is manufactured from fibres whose properties have been changed by maceration. To make pulp from wood, a chemical pulping process separates lignin from cellulose fibre. A cooking liquor is used to dissolve the lignin , which is then washed from the cellulose ; this preserves the length of the cellulose fibres. Paper made from chemical pulps are also known as wood-free papers (not to be confused with tree-free paper ); this

2100-450: Is a thick, paper-like material produced from the pith of the Cyperus papyrus plant, which was used in ancient Egypt and other Mediterranean cultures for writing before the introduction of paper. Although the word paper is etymologically derived from papyrus , the two are produced very differently and the development of the first is distinct from the development of the second. Papyrus

2184-426: Is a thin sheet material produced by mechanically or chemically processing cellulose fibres derived from wood , rags , grasses , herbivore dung , or other vegetable sources in water . Once the water is drained through a fine mesh leaving the fibre evenly distributed on the surface, it can be pressed and dried. The papermaking process developed in east Asia, probably China , at least as early as 105 CE , by

2268-571: Is another specialty process used to pulp straws , bagasse and hardwoods with high silicate content. There are two major mechanical pulps: thermomechanical pulp (TMP) and groundwood pulp (GW). In the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into steam-heated refiners, where the chips are squeezed and converted to fibres between two steel discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones to be made into fibres. Mechanical pulping does not remove

2352-451: Is because they do not contain lignin, which deteriorates over time. The pulp can also be bleached to produce white paper, but this consumes 5% of the fibres. Chemical pulping processes are not used to make paper made from cotton, which is already 90% cellulose. There are three main chemical pulping processes: the sulfite process dates back to the 1840s and was the dominant method before the second world war. The kraft process , invented in

2436-504: Is common practice, as the cost of purchasing a book for the sake of one article or a few pages can be excessive. The principle of fair use (in the United States) or fair dealing (in other Berne Convention countries) allows copying for certain specified purposes. In certain countries, such as Canada, some universities pay royalties from each photocopy made at university copy machines and copy centers to copyright collectives out of

2520-468: Is considered card. The weight of a ream therefore depends on the dimensions of the paper and its thickness. Most commercial paper sold in North America is cut to standard paper sizes based on customary units and is defined by the length and width of a sheet of paper. The ISO 216 system used in most other countries is based on the surface area of a sheet of paper, not on a sheet's width and length. It

2604-487: Is cut to width with holes punched at the edges, and folded into stacks. All paper produced by paper machines such as the Fourdrinier Machine are wove paper, i.e. the wire mesh that transports the web leaves a pattern that has the same density along the paper grain and across the grain. Textured finishes, watermarks and wire patterns imitating hand-made laid paper can be created by the use of appropriate rollers in

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2688-417: Is formed as a paper web and the water is removed from it by pressing and drying. Pressing the sheet removes the water by force. Once the water is forced from the sheet, a special kind of felt, which is not to be confused with the traditional one, is used to collect the water. When making paper by hand, a blotter sheet is used instead. Drying involves using air or heat to remove water from the paper sheets. In

2772-580: Is often believed to be the first stapler. But their patent (September 30, 1841, Patent #2275) is for a device used for packaging pins. In 1866, George McGill received U.S. patent 56,587 for a small, bendable brass paper fastener that was a precursor to the modern staple. In 1867, he received U.S. patent 67,665 for a press to insert the fastener into paper. He showed his invention at the 1876 Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania , and continued to work on these and other various paper fasteners throughout

2856-522: The Color-in-Color copier, which used a dye sublimation process rather than conventional electrostatic technology. Xerox introduced the first electrostatic color-copier (the 6500) in 1973. Color photocopying is a concern to governments , as it facilitates counterfeiting currency and other documents: for more information, see § Counterfeiting . There is an increasing trend for new photocopiers to implement digital technology, thereby replacing

2940-744: The Han court eunuch Cai Lun , although the earliest archaeological fragments of paper derive from the 2nd century BCE in China. Although paper was originally made in single sheets by hand, today it is mass-produced on large machines—some making reels 10 metres wide, running at 2,000 metres per minute and up to 600,000 tonnes a year. It is a versatile material with many uses, including printing , painting, graphics, signage, design, packaging, decorating, writing , and cleaning . It may also be used as filter paper, wallpaper, book endpaper, conservation paper, laminated worktops, toilet tissue, currency, and security paper, or in

3024-578: The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants . Dioxins are highly toxic, and health effects on humans include reproductive, developmental, immune and hormonal problems. They are known to be carcinogenic. Over 90% of human exposure is through food, primarily meat, dairy, fish and shellfish, as dioxins accumulate in the food chain in the fatty tissue of animals. The paper pulp and print industries emitted together about 1% of world greenhouse-gas emissions in 2010 and about 0.9% in 2012. In

3108-491: The hydrogen bonds in the paper can be broken and fibres separated again. Most recycled paper contains a proportion of virgin fibre for the sake of quality; generally speaking, de-inked pulp is of the same quality or lower than the collected paper it was made from. There are three main classifications of recycled fibre: Recycled papers can be made from 100% recycled materials or blended with virgin pulp, although they are (generally) not as strong nor as bright as papers made from

3192-479: The lignin , so the yield is very high, > 95%; however, lignin causes the paper thus produced to turn yellow and become brittle over time. Mechanical pulps have rather short fibres, thus producing weak paper. Although large amounts of electrical energy are required to produce mechanical pulp, it costs less than the chemical kind. Paper recycling processes can use either chemically or mechanically produced pulp; by mixing it with water and applying mechanical action

3276-448: The 1870s and first used in the 1890s, is now the most commonly practised strategy; one of its advantages is the chemical reaction with lignin produces heat, which can be used to run a generator. Most pulping operations using the kraft process are net contributors to the electricity grid or use the electricity to run an adjacent paper mill. Another advantage is that this process recovers and reuses all inorganic chemical reagents. Soda pulping

3360-402: The 1880s. In 1868 an English patent for a stapler was awarded to C. H. Gould, and in the U.S., Albert Kletzker of St. Louis, Missouri, also patented a device. In 1877 Henry R. Heyl filed patent number 195,603 for the first machines to both insert and clinch a staple in one step, and for this reason some consider him the inventor of the modern stapler. In 1876 and 1877, Heyl also filed patents for

3444-489: The 1980s, a convergence began in some high-end machines towards what came to be called a multi-function printer : a device that combined the roles of a photocopier, a fax machine, a scanner , and a computer network-connected printer . Low-end machines that can copy and print in color have increasingly dominated the home-office market as their prices fell steadily during the 1990s. High-end color photocopiers capable of heavy-duty handling cycles and large-format printing remain

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3528-670: The 2022−2024 edition of the annual "Pulp and paper capacites survey", the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) reports that Asia has superseded North America as the top pulp and paper producing continent. FAO figures for 2021 show the production of graphic papers continuing its decline from a mid-2000s peak to hover below 100 million tonnes a year. By contrast, the production of other papers and paperboard – which includes cardboard and sanitary products – has continued to soar, exceeding 320 million tonnes. FAO has documented

3612-553: The Late Twentieth Century , notes that during this period (1970s through 1990s) the copy machine played "an especially notable role in the era's punk, street art, and DIY movements." FedEx purchased the Kinko's chain in 2004, and its services were incorporated into the name FedEx Office in 2008. Colored toner became available in the 1940s, although full-color copiers were not commercially available until 1968, when 3M released

3696-574: The Novelty Paper Box Manufacturing Co. of Philadelphia, PA, However, the N. P. B. Manufacturing Co.'s inventions were to be used to staple boxes and books. The first machine to hold a magazine of many pre-formed staples came out in 1878. On February 18, 1879, George McGill received patent 212,316 for the McGill Single-Stroke Staple Press, the first commercially successful stapler. This device weighed over two and

3780-473: The US government has asked these companies to implement such a tracking scheme, so that counterfeiting can be traced. The EFF has filed a Freedom of Information Act request in order to look into privacy implications of this tracking. Photocopying, using liquid developer, was developed by Ken Metcalfe and Bob Wright of Defence Standards Laboratory in Adelaide in 1952. Photocopying, using liquid developer,

3864-502: The United States alone. The average office worker in the US prints 31 pages every day. Americans also use in the order of 16 billion paper cups per year. Conventional bleaching of wood pulp using elemental chlorine produces and releases into the environment large amounts of chlorinated organic compounds , including chlorinated dioxins . Dioxins are recognized as a persistent environmental pollutant, regulated internationally by

3948-550: The United States and in micrometres (μm) in the rest of the world. Paper may be between 0.07 and 0.18 millimetres (0.0028 and 0.0071 in) thick. Paper is often characterized by weight. In the United States, the weight is the weight of a ream (bundle of 500 sheets) of varying "basic sizes" before the paper is cut into the size it is sold to end customers. For example, a ream of 20 lb, 8.5 in × 11 in (216 mm × 279 mm) paper weighs 5 pounds because it has been cut from larger sheets into four pieces. In

4032-499: The United States, printing paper is generally 20 lb, 24 lb, 28 lb, or 32 lb at most. Cover stock is generally 68 lb, and 110 lb or more is considered card stock . In Europe and other regions using the ISO 216 paper-sizing system, the weight is expressed in grams per square metre (g/m or usually gsm) of the paper. Printing paper is generally between 60 gsm and 120 gsm. Anything heavier than 160 gsm

4116-434: The amount of force the user needs to apply. As a result, these staplers tend to be used in work environments where repetitive, large stapling jobs are routine. Some modern desktop staplers make use of Flat Clinch technology. With Flat Clinch staplers, the staple legs first pierce the paper and are then bent over and pressed absolutely flat against the paper – doing away with the two-setting anvil commonly used and making use of

4200-478: The center of the crossbar. It is used to staple papers which are not expected to need separation. If rotated 180° or slid to its second position, the anvil will be set on the sheer setting, also known as the "temporary" or "straight" setting. In this position, the legs of the staple are folded outwards, away from the crossbar, resulting in the legs and crossbar being in more or less a straight line. Stapling with this setting will result in more weakly secured papers but

4284-492: The company. Before the widespread adoption of xerographic copiers, photo-direct copies produced by machines such as Kodak 's Verifax (based on a 1947 patent) were used. A primary obstacle associated with the pre-xerographic copying technologies was the high cost of supplies: a Verifax print required supplies costing US$ 0.15 in 1969, while a Xerox print could be made for $ 0.03, including paper and labor. The coin-operated Photostat machines still found in some public libraries in

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4368-533: The cost of manufacturing paper. In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German inventor Friedrich Gottlob Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres. Before the industrialisation of paper production the most common fibre source was recycled fibres from used textiles, called rags. The rags were from hemp , linen and cotton . A process for removing printing inks from recycled paper

4452-424: The document's colors when creating a photocopy, resulting in letters that appear white on a black background instead of black on a white background. Negative photocopies of old or faded documents sometimes produce documents that have better focus and are easier to read and study. Photocopying material that is subject to copyright (such as books or scientific papers) is subject to restrictions in most countries. This

4536-560: The earliest days of papermaking, this was done by hanging the sheets like laundry; in more modern times, various forms of heated drying mechanisms are used. On the paper machine, the most common is the steam-heated can dryer. These can reach temperatures above 93 °C (200 °F) and are used in long sequences of more than forty cans where the heat produced by these can easily dry the paper to less than six percent moisture. The paper may then undergo sizing to alter its physical properties for use in various applications. Paper at this point

4620-444: The expanding production of cardboard in paper and paperboard, which has been increasing in response to the spread of e-commerce since the 2010s. Data from FAO suggest that it has been even further boosted by COVID-19-related lockdowns. Some manufacturers have started using a new, significantly more environmentally friendly alternative to expanded plastic packaging. Made out of paper, and known commercially as PaperFoam,

4704-531: The first xerographic copier, called the Model A. Seeing off computing-leader IBM in the office-copying market, Xerox became so successful that, in North America, photocopying came to be popularly known as "xeroxing". Xerox has actively fought to prevent Xerox from becoming a genericized trademark . While the word Xerox has appeared in some dictionaries as a synonym for photocopying, Xerox Corporation typically requests such entries be modified, and discourages use of

4788-417: The highest optical density in the printed image. The paper is then fed onto reels if it is to be used on web printing presses, or cut into sheets for other printing processes or other purposes. The fibres in the paper basically run in the machine direction. Sheets are usually cut "long-grain", i.e. with the grain parallel to the longer dimension of the sheet. Continuous form paper (or continuous stationery)

4872-484: The late 1960s made letter-size copies for $ 0.25 each, when the minimum wage for a US worker was $ 1.65 per hour; the Xerox machines that replaced them typically charged $ 0.10. Xerographic-copier manufacturers took advantage of the high perceived value copying had in the 1960s and early 1970s and marketed "specially designed" paper for xerographic output. By the end of the 1970s, paper producers made xerographic "runability" one of

4956-414: The later stages of the machine. Wove paper does not exhibit "laidlines", which are small regular lines left behind on paper when it was handmade in a mould made from rows of metal wires or bamboo. Laidlines are very close together. They run perpendicular to the "chainlines", which are further apart. Handmade paper similarly exhibits "deckle edges", or rough and feathery borders. Paper can be produced with

5040-424: The latter. Besides the fibres, pulps may contain fillers such as chalk or china clay , which improve its characteristics for printing or writing. Additives for sizing purposes may be mixed with it or applied to the paper web later in the manufacturing process; the purpose of such sizing is to establish the correct level of surface absorbency to suit ink or paint. The pulp is fed to a paper machine, where it

5124-424: The massive introduction of digital technologies. Paper has a major role in the visual arts. It is used by itself to form two- and three-dimensional shapes and collages . It has also evolved to being a structural material used in furniture design. Watercolor paper has a long history of production and use. The thickness of paper is often measured by caliper, which is typically given in thousandths of an inch in

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5208-519: The new packaging has mechanical properties very similar to those of some expanded plastic packaging, but is biodegradable and can also be recycled with ordinary paper. With increasing environmental concerns about synthetic coatings (such as PFOA ) and the higher prices of hydrocarbon based petrochemicals, there is a focus on zein (corn protein) as a coating for paper in high grease applications such as popcorn bags. Also, synthetics such as Tyvek and Teslin have been introduced as printing media as

5292-468: The office and the home are A4 and A3 (A3 is the size of two A4 sheets). The density of paper ranges from 250 kg/m (16 lb/cu ft) for tissue paper to 1 500  kg/m (94 lb/cu ft) for some specialty paper. Printing paper is about 800 kg/m (50 lb/cu ft). Paper may be classified into seven categories: Some paper types include: Much of the early paper made from wood pulp contained significant amounts of alum ,

5376-531: The older analog technology. With digital copying, the copier effectively consists of an integrated scanner and laser printer . This design has several advantages, such as automatic image-quality enhancement and the ability to "build jobs" (that is, to scan page images independently of printing them). Some digital copiers can function as high-speed scanners; such models typically offer the ability to send documents via email or make them available on file servers. A significant advantage of digital copier technology

5460-455: The paper to facilitate neater document stacking. Pinning temporarily binds documents or other items. To pin, the anvil slides or rotates so that the staple bends outwards instead of inwards. Some staplers pin by bending one leg of the staple inwards and the other outwards. The staple binds the item with relative security but is easily removed. Tacking fastens objects to surfaces, such as bulletin boards or walls. A stapler that can tack has

5544-461: The past 40 years leading to increase in deforestation , with 35% of harvested trees being used for paper manufacture. Most paper companies also plant trees to help regrow forests. Logging of old growth forests accounts for less than 10% of wood pulp, but is one of the most controversial issues. Paper waste accounts for up to 40% of total waste produced in the United States each year, which adds up to 71.6 million tons of paper waste per year in

5628-428: The presence of alum eventually degrades the fibres until the acidic paper disintegrates in a process known as " slow fire ". Documents written on rag paper are significantly more stable. The use of non-acidic additives to make paper is becoming more prevalent, and the stability of these papers is less of an issue. Paper made from mechanical pulp contains significant amounts of lignin , a major component in wood. In

5712-428: The presence of light and oxygen, lignin reacts to give yellow materials, which is why newsprint and other mechanical paper yellows with age. Paper made from bleached kraft or sulfite pulps does not contain significant amounts of lignin and is therefore better suited for books, documents and other applications where whiteness of the paper is essential. Paper made from wood pulp is not necessarily less durable than

5796-533: The printed pages, as fine and almost invisible patterns of yellow dots. Some sources identify Xerox and Canon as companies doing this. The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) has investigated this issue and documented how the Xerox DocuColor printer's serial number, as well as the date and time of the printout, are encoded in a repeating 8×15 dot pattern in the yellow channel. EFF is working to reverse engineer additional printers. The EFF also reports that

5880-487: The reader. To counter the risk of people using color copiers to create counterfeit copies of paper currency, some countries have incorporated anti-counterfeiting technologies into their currency. These include watermarks, microprinting, holograms , tiny security strips made of plastic (or other material), and ink that appears to change color as the currency is viewed at an angle. Some photocopying machines contain special software that can prevent copying currency that has

5964-515: The requirements for most of their office-paper brands . Some devices sold as photocopiers have replaced the drum-based process with inkjet or transfer-film technology. Among the key advantages of photocopiers over earlier copying technologies is their ability: In 1970, Paul Orfalea founded Kinko's retail chain, in Isla Vista, California. Starting with a single copier that year, this copy service chain would expand to over 1,000 locations around

6048-445: The revenues from the photocopying, and these collectives distribute resulting funds to various scholarly publishers. In the United States, photocopied compilations of articles, handouts, graphics, and other information called readers often require texts for college classes. Either the instructor or the copy center is responsible for clearing copyright for every article in the reader, and attribution information must be clearly included in

6132-539: The stapler into the skin and applying pressure onto the handle bends the staple through the skin and into the fascia until the two ends almost meet in the middle to form a rectangle. Staplers are commonly used intra-operatively during bowel resections in colorectal surgery . Often these staplers have an integral knife which, as the staples deploy, cuts through the bowel and maintains the aseptic field. The staples, made from surgical steel , are typically supplied in disposable sterilized cartridges. Paper Paper

6216-400: The stapler to staple papers to wood or cardboard, use pliers for bags, or use the normal way with the head positioned a small distance above the stapling plate. The stapling plate is known as the anvil . The anvil often has two settings: the first, and by far most common, is the reflexive setting, also known as the "permanent" setting. In this position, the legs of the staple are folded toward

6300-478: The term Xerox in this way. In the early 1950s, Radio Corporation of America (RCA) introduced a variation on the process called Electrofax , whereby images are formed directly on specially coated paper and rendered with a toner dispersed in a liquid. During the 1960s and through the 1980s, Savin Corporation developed and sold a line of liquid-toner copiers that implemented a technology based on patents held by

6384-492: The time, multiple copies were most commonly made at the point of document origination, using carbon paper or manual duplicating machines . People did not see the need for an electronic copier. Between 1939 and 1944, Carlson was turned down by over 20 companies, including IBM and General Electric —neither of which believed there was a significant market for copiers. In 1944, the Battelle Memorial Institute ,

6468-419: The toner and paper feed mechanisms cause banding , which can reveal information about the individual device's mechanical properties. It is often possible to identify the manufacturer and brand, and, in some cases, the individual printer can be identified from a set of known printers by comparing their outputs. Some high-quality color printers and copiers steganographically embed their identification code into

6552-568: The veracity of this story is uncertain, paper started to be made in Samarkand soon after. In the 13th century, the knowledge and uses of paper spread from the Middle East to medieval Europe , where the first water-powered paper mills were built. Because paper was introduced to the West through the city of Baghdad , it was first called bagdatikos . In the 19th century, industrialization greatly reduced

6636-408: The watermarks will become highly visible, which allows the recipient to determine that they have a copy rather than a genuine original transcript. Exposure to ultraviolet light is a concern. In the early days of photocopiers, the sensitizing light source was filtered green to match the optimal sensitivity of the photoconductive surface. This filtering conveniently removed all ultraviolet. Currently,

6720-653: The world. By the 1980s, Kinko's operated 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, with customers using the copy center for academic and business work as well as personal publishing and advertising. By the 1990s, Kinko's had 700 locations around the United States, with 5 in Manhattan. In such urban areas, Kinko's became a place where a multitude of users could make their ideas "typed, designed and xeroxed, then transmitted by fax, computer disk and Federal Express." Kate Eichhorn, in Adjusted Margin: Xerography, Art, and Activism in

6804-410: The yield as chemical pulping, mechanical pulps is often cheaper. Mass-market paperback books and newspapers tend to use mechanical papers. Book publishers tend to use acid-free paper , made from fully bleached chemical pulps for hardback and trade paperback books. The production and use of paper has a number of adverse effects on the environment. Worldwide consumption of paper has risen by 400% in

6888-472: Was first adopted in Germany in 1922 and generally spread as nations adopted the metric system. The largest standard size paper is A0 (A zero), measuring one square metre (approx. 1189 × 841 mm). A1 is half the size of a sheet of A0 (i.e., 594 mm × 841 mm), such that two sheets of A1 placed side by side are equal to one sheet of A0. A2 is half the size of a sheet of A1, and so forth. Common sizes used in

6972-470: Was invented by German jurist Justus Claproth in 1774. Today this method is called deinking . It was not until the introduction of wood pulp in 1843 that paper production was not dependent on recycled materials from ragpickers . The word paper is etymologically derived from Latin papyrus , which comes from the Greek πᾰ́πῡρος ( pápūros ), the word for the Cyperus papyrus plant. Papyrus

7056-469: Was too complicated and did not have good recall value. After consulting a professor of classical language at Ohio State University , Haloid and Carlson changed the name of the process to xerography , a term, coined from Greek roots, that meant "dry writing." Haloid called the new copier machines "Xerox Machines" and, in 1948, the term Xerox was trademarked . Haloid eventually became Xerox Corporation in 1961. In 1949, Xerox Corporation introduced

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