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In Great Britain and Ireland , a county town is usually the location of administrative or judicial functions within a county , and the place where public representatives are elected to parliament . Following the establishment of county councils in England 1889, the headquarters of the new councils were usually established in the county town of each county; however, the concept of a county town pre-dates these councils.

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83-405: Stafford ( / ˈ s t æ f ər d / ) is a market town and the county town of Staffordshire , England. It is located about 15 miles (24 km) south of Stoke-on-Trent , 15 miles (24 km) north of Wolverhampton , and 24 miles (39 km) northwest of Birmingham . The town had a population of 71,673 in 2021 , and is the main settlement within the larger Borough of Stafford , which had

166-441: A bath solution containing vegetable tannins, such as found in gallnuts , the leaves of sumac , the leaves of certain acacia trees, the outer green shells of walnuts , among other plants. The use of vegetable tanning is a process that takes longer than mineral tanning when converting rawhides into leather. Mineral tanned leather is used principally for shoes, car seats, and upholstery in homes (sofas, etc.). Vegetable tanned leather

249-533: A business in 1767 that became the largest shoe company in Stafford, selling worldwide. He had several government contracts through the town's Member of Parliament (MP), the playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan . The shoe industry gradually died out in the late 20th century, with Lotus Shoes the last manufacturer. Its factory in Sandon Road was demolished in 2001 and replaced by housing. A locomotive firm, WG Bagnall ,

332-474: A fixed studio broadcasting from Stafford, to Stafford. Like most of the British Isles , Stafford has a maritime climate with cool summers and mild winters. The nearest Met Office weather station is at Penkridge , about 5 miles to the south. Stafford has a history of shoemaking as far back as 1476, when it was a cottage industry, but a manufacturing process was introduced in the 1700s. William Horton founded

415-507: A hermitage about AD 700, before moving to a more remote area. Others then settled in the area and named it Stafford. There may have been a settlement near the river crossing in 913, when Æthelflæd , Lady of Mercia founded a burh (fortified settlement) at Stafford; one of many founded across Mercia as part of her campaign against the Danes ( Vikings ). A mint was founded at Stafford by King Æthelstan (924-39) which continued in operation until

498-427: A high content of glycine , proline , and hydroxyproline , usually in the repeat -gly-pro-hypro-gly-. These residues give rise to collagen's helical structure. Collagen's high content of hydroxyproline allows cross-linking by hydrogen bonding within the helical structure. Ionized carboxyl groups (RCO 2 ) are formed by the action of hydroxide. This conversion occurs during the liming process, before introduction of

581-480: A large factor in how hazardous wastewater results in contaminating the environment. This is especially prominent in small and medium-sized tanneries in developing countries. The UN Leather Working Group (LWG) "provides an environmental audit protocol, designed to assess the facilities of leather manufacturers," for "traceability, energy conservation, [and] responsible management of waste products." Untanned hides can be dried and made pliable by rubbing and stretching

664-453: A major industrial activity has been heavy electrical engineering , particularly power station transformers . The works have been successively owned by Siemens Brothers , English Electric , GEC and GEC Alsthom . Alstom T&D was sold in 2004 to Areva . At the end of 2009, Areva T&D was split between former owners Alstom and Schneider Electric . At the end of 2015, the works were acquired by General Electric consolidating Stafford as

747-477: A major junction, which helped to attract other industries. In the late 19th century, Stafford's economy began to diversify into engineering, when the locomotive manufacturer W. G. Bagnall opened a large works in the town in 1875. In the early 1900s electrical engineering became a major activity, when Siemens Brothers , opened a large factory in the town, producing such items as electrical motors, generators and transformers . The electrical industry has been under

830-526: A near island, on a gravelly lowland bounded by loop of the River Sow to the south and west (a tributary of the River Trent ). The eastern boundary was formed by Sandyford brook, with a marshy area to the north. Despite many drains being constructed in the 19th century, the area is still prone to flooding. Stafford has been identified as the island of Bethney, or Bethnei where St Bertelin is said to have founded

913-504: A population of 136,837 in 2021. Stafford has Anglo-Saxon roots, being founded in 913, when Æthelflæd , Lady of Mercia founded a defensive burh , it became the county town of Staffordshire soon after. Stafford became an important market town in the Middle Ages, and later grew into an important industrial town due to the proliferation of shoemaking, engineering and electrical industries. Prehistoric finds suggest scattered settlements in

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996-403: A process which permanently alters the protein structure of skin, making it more durable and less susceptible to decomposition and coloring. The place where hides are processed is known as a tannery . The English word for tanning is from medieval Latin tannāre , derivative of tannum ( oak bark ), from French tan (tanbark), from old-Cornish tann (oak). These terms are related to

1079-430: A salt solution. After the hair was loosened, the tanners scraped it off with a knife. Once the hair was removed, the tanners would " bate " (soften) the material by pounding dung into the skin, or soaking the skin in a solution of animal brains. Bating was a fermentative process that relied on enzymes produced by bacteria found in the dung. Among the kinds of dung commonly used were those of dogs or pigeons. Historically

1162-442: A tanning agent. They are then soaked, stretched, dried, and sometimes smoked. Preparing hides begins by curing them with salt to prevent putrefaction of the collagen from bacterial growth during the time lag from procuring the hide to when it is processed. Curing removes water from the hides and skins using a difference in osmotic pressure. The moisture content of hides and skins is greatly reduced, and osmotic pressure increased, to

1245-570: A three-gabled structure with high-pitched roofs. Stafford Gatehouse Theatre is the town's main entertainment and cultural venue. Its Met Studio is a dedicated to stand-up comedy and alternative live music. There is an art gallery in the Shire Hall. Staffordshire County Showground, just outside the town, holds many national and local events. The annual Shakespeare Festival at Stafford Castle has attracted many notable people, including Frank Sidebottom and Ann Widdecombe . Victoria Park, opened in 1908,

1328-514: A transmitter based on top of the County Education building. In commercial radio, Stafford is covered by Greatest Hits Radio programming from London, Manchester or Birmingham for most of the day), broadcasting on 96.1 FM from a transmitter at Pye Green BT Tower , near Hednesford. Stafford can also receive the West Midlands regionals, like Heart West Midlands and Smooth West Midlands , and

1411-413: Is a 13-acre (53 ha) Edwardian riverside park with a play park, bowling green, bird cages and greenhouses. It has a children's play area, a sand-and-water-jet area replacing an open-air paddling pool, and a bmx/skateboard area. Stafford also has a 9-hole golf course near the town centre. Recent developments on Riverside allowed for an expansion of the town, notably with a new Odeon cinema to replace

1494-547: Is a Grade II listed manor house (now apartments), originally built about 1810 as Forebridge Hall, known after 1880 as Green Hall. It was previously used as a girls' school and as council offices. The Shugborough Hall country estate is 4 miles (6.4 km) out of town. It once belonged to the Earls of Lichfield and is now owned by the National Trust . The 19th-century Sandon Hall is 5 miles (8.0 km) north-east of Stafford. It

1577-521: Is at the very north of the Hits Radio Black Country & Shropshire coverage area. BFBS Gurkha Radio broadcasts locally on 1278 kHz medium wave from Beacon Barracks . The town's first community licensed station, Stafford FM , launches in 2015 after a number of restricted service FM licences. The station rebranded in April 2024 to Vibe 1, and remains the only commercial radio station with

1660-419: Is considered one of the most effective tanning compounds. Chromium-tanned leather can contain between 4 and 5% of chromium. This efficiency is characterized by its increased hydrothermal stability of the skin, and its resistance to shrinkage in heated water. Vegetable tanning uses tannins (a class of polyphenol astringent chemicals), which occur naturally in the bark and leaves of many plants. Tannins bind to

1743-403: Is consistent with cross-linking by polychromium species, of the sort arising from olation and oxolation. Before the introduction of the basic chromium species in tanning, several steps are required to produce a tannable hide. The pH must be very acidic when the chromium is introduced to ensure that the chromium complexes are small enough to fit between the fibers and residues of the collagen. Once

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1826-416: Is excellent for use in handbags and garments. After application of the chromium agent, the bath is treated with sodium bicarbonate in the basification process to increase the pH to 3.8–4.0, inducing cross-linking between the chromium and the collagen. The pH increase is normally accompanied by a gradual temperature increase up to 40 °C. Chromium's ability to form such stable bridged bonds explains why it

1909-419: Is not very flexible. It is used for luggage, furniture, footwear, belts, and other clothing accessories. Wet white is a term used for leathers produced using alternative tanning methods that produce an off-white colored leather. Like wet blue, wet white is also a semifinished stage. Wet white can be produced using aldehydes , aluminum, zirconium, titanium, or iron salts, or a combination thereof. Concerns with

1992-428: Is preferred. Once bating is complete, the hides and skins are treated by first soaking them in a bath containing common salt (sodium chloride), usually 1 quart of salt to 1 gallon of hot water. When the water cools, one fluid ounce of sulfuric acid is added. Small skins are left in this liquor for 2 days, while larger skins between 1 week and as much as 2 months. In vegetable tanning, the hides are made to soak in

2075-557: Is set in 400 acres (1.6 km) of parkland, as the seat of the Earl of Harrowby . Weston Hall stands 5 miles (8.0 km) east of Stafford, in the Trent valley with a large park and was once part of the Chartley estate. It is thought that the main part of the hall was built about 1550 as a small dower house, but the architectural evidence suggests it is Jacobean . Weston Hall was extended in 1660 into

2158-421: Is tawed by soaking in a warm potash alum and salts solution, between 20 and 30 °C (68 and 86 °F). The process increases the hide's pliability, stretchability, softness, and quality. Then, the hide is air dried (crusted) for several weeks, which allows it to stabilize. The use of alum alone for tanning rawhides is not recommended, as it shrinks the surface area of the skin, making it thicker and hard to

2241-480: Is the capital of Northern Ireland, it is not the county town of any county. Greater Belfast straddles two counties – Antrim and Down. Jamaica's three counties were established in 1758 to facilitate the holding of courts along the lines of the British county court system, with each county having a county town. The counties have no current administrative relevance. Tanning (leather) Tanning , or hide tanning ,

2324-420: Is the characteristic of the keratin class of proteins that gives strength to hair and wools (keratin typically makes up 90% of the dry weight of hair). The hydrogen atoms supplied by the sharpening agent weaken the cystine molecular link whereby the covalent disulfide bond links are ultimately ruptured, weakening the keratin. To some extent, sharpening also contributes to unhairing, as it tends to break down

2407-621: Is the county town of Lancashire , but the county council is in Preston . Due to the creation of unitary authorities , some county towns in Great Britain are administratively separate from the county. For example, Nottingham is separated from the rest of Nottinghamshire , and Brighton and Hove is separate from East Sussex . On a ceremonial level, both are in their own respective counties geographically. This list shows towns or cities which held county functions at various points in time. Following

2490-455: Is the process of treating skins and hides of animals to produce leather . A tannery is the place where the skins are processed. Historically, vegetable based tanning used tannin , an acidic chemical compound derived from the bark of certain trees, in the production of leather. An alternative method, developed in the 1800s, is chrome tanning, where chromium salts are used instead of natural tannins. Tanning hide into leather involves

2573-439: Is used as a leather tanning agent, can cause problems in the kidneys and liver and is also considered a carcinogen . Formaldehyde and arsenic, which are used for leather finishing, cause health problems in the eyes, lungs, liver, kidneys, skin, and lymphatic system and are also considered carcinogens. The waste from leather tanneries is detrimental to the environment and the people who live in it. The use of old technologies plays

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2656-461: Is used in leather crafting and in making small leather items, such as wallets, handbags and clothes. Chromium(III) sulfate ( [Cr(H 2 O) 6 ] 2 (SO 4 ) 3 ) has long been regarded as the most efficient and effective tanning agent. Chromium(III) compounds of the sort used in tanning are significantly less toxic than hexavalent chromium , although the latter arises in inadequate waste treatment. Chromium(III) sulfate dissolves to give

2739-460: The Middle Ages , which had a particular focus of trading cloth and wool. By the 1280s there were various trades such as tanning , glove making and shoe making being practised in the town. A guild of shoemakers was founded in 1476. Medieval Stafford was served by two churches; St Chad's , which is the oldest building in Stafford, dating from the mid- 12th century , and St Mary's which dates from

2822-597: The Norman invasion of Wales , the Cambro-Normans created the historic shire system (also known as ancient counties). Many of these counties were named for the centre of Norman power within the new county (Caernarfonshire named for Caernarfon, Monmouthshire named for Monmouth) others were named after the previous medieval Welsh kingdoms (Ceredigon becomes Cardigan, Morgannwg becomes Glamorgan). The 1535 Laws in Wales Act established

2905-497: The Sumerians began using leather, affixed by copper studs , on chariot wheels . The process of tanning was also used for boats and fishing vessels: ropes, nets, and sails were tanned using tree bark. Formerly, tanning was considered a noxious or "odoriferous trade" and relegated to the outskirts of town, among the poor. Tanning by ancient methods is so foul-smelling that tanneries are still isolated from those towns today where

2988-536: The 1880s, there were 39 manufacturers in the town. The industry went into steady decline from thereon, and by 1958 there was just one manufacturer, Lotus remaining. The last shoe factory was demolished in 1998. In 1814, Stafford was linked to the canal network by the River Sow Navigation ; a short navigation which linked Stafford to the Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal . The navigation fell into disuse in

3071-546: The 1930s. The railways arrived in Stafford in 1837 when the Grand Junction Railway was opened, linking the Liverpool and Manchester Railway to Birmingham , which provided the first rail connection to London. The Trent Valley Railway to Rugby and then direct to London, was opened in 1847. Two more lines, both now closed then followed, from Stafford to Shrewsbury in 1849, and to Uttoxeter in 1867. Stafford became

3154-565: The Battle of Stafford. Two years later another rebellion, led by Edwin, Earl of Mercia , ended in Edwin's assassination and distribution of his lands among the followers of William the Conqueror , who granted Robert de Tonei (later known as Robert de Stafford) the manor of Bradley and one third of the king's rents in Stafford. The estate became the seat of the powerful Stafford family . Stafford Castle ,

3237-509: The Centre of Excellence for HVDC, AC Substations and Converter Transformers. Each transformer weighs several hundred tons and a road train is used for transport. In the 1968 Hixon rail crash , one such road train was struck by an express train on a level crossing . County town The concept of a county town is ill-defined and unofficial. Some counties in Great Britain have their administrative bodies housed elsewhere. For example, Lancaster

3320-411: The actual tanning process used vegetable tanning. In some variations of the process, cedar oil , alum , or tannin was applied to the skin as a tanning agent. As the skin was stretched, it would lose moisture and absorb the agent. Following the adoption in medicine of soaking gut sutures in a chromium (III) solution after 1840, it was discovered that this method could also be used with leather and thus

3403-617: The administrative headquarters in some cases moved away from the traditional county town. Furthermore, in 1965 and 1974 there were major boundary changes in England and Wales and administrative counties were replaced with new metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties . The boundaries underwent further alterations between 1995 and 1998 to create unitary authorities , and some of the ancient counties and county towns were restored. (Note: not all headquarters are or were called County Halls or Shire Halls e.g.: Cumbria County Council's HQ up until 2016

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3486-608: The ageing one at the end of the high street. Stafford Film Theatre is based at the Gatehouse Theatre and shows independent and alternative films. There is a tenpin bowling alley at Greyfriars Place. The new Stafford Leisure Centre opened in 2008 on Lammascote Road. Night life consists of smaller bar and club venues such as Casa, the Grapes, the Picture House , neighbouring night clubs Couture and Poptastic, Hogarths, and rock gigs at

3569-448: The area, whilst 2.5 miles (4.0 km) south-west of the town lies an Iron Age hill fort at Berry Ring . There is also evidence of Roman activity in the area, with finds around Clark and Eastgate Street. However it is thought that the Romans reclaimed the marsh for agriculture rather than settlement. Stafford means " ford " by a staithe (landing place). The original settlement was on

3652-485: The case of Bangladesh, chickens (the nation's most common source of protein). Up to 25% of the chickens in Bangladesh contained harmful levels of hexavalent chromium, adding to the national health problem load. Chromium is not solely responsible for these diseases. Methylisothiazolinone , which is used for microbiological protection (fungal or bacterial growth), causes problems with the eyes and skin. Anthracene , which

3735-565: The castle grounds each summer. The castle forms a landmark for drivers, as it is visible from the M6 motorway . The oldest building now in Stafford is St Chad's Church , dating back to the 12th century. The main part of the church is richly decorated. Carvings in its archways and on its pillars may have been made by a group of stonemasons from the Middle East who came to England during the Crusades. Much of

3818-459: The collagen proteins in the hide and coat them, causing them to become less water-soluble and more resistant to bacterial attack. The process also causes the hide to become more flexible. The primary barks processed in bark mills and used in modern times are chestnut , oak , redoul , tanoak , hemlock , quebracho , mangrove , wattle (acacia; see catechol ), and myrobalans from Terminalia spp., such as Terminalia chebula . In Ethiopia ,

3901-416: The collagen's carboxyl groups, amine groups from the side chains of the amino acids , and masking agents. Masking agents are carboxylic acids , such as acetic acid , used to suppress formation of polychromium(III) chains. Masking agents allow the tanner to further increase the pH to increase collagen's reactivity without inhibiting the penetration of the chromium(III) complexes. Collagen is characterized by

3984-540: The combined vegetable oils of Niger seed ( Guizotia abyssinica ) and flaxseeds were used in treating the flesh side of the leather, as a means of tawing, rather than of tanning. In Yemen and Egypt , hides were tanned by soaking them in a bath containing the crushed leaves and bark of the Salam acacia (Acacia etbaica; A. nilotica kraussiana). Hides that have been stretched on frames are immersed for several weeks in vats of increasing concentrations of tannin. Vegetable-tanned hide

4067-409: The desired level of penetration of chrome into the substance is achieved, the pH of the material is raised again to facilitate the process. This step is known as basification. In the raw state, chrome-tanned skins are greyish-blue, so are referred to as wet blue . Chrome tanning is faster than vegetable tanning (taking less than a day for this part of the process) and produces a stretchable leather which

4150-470: The early- 13th century . King Richard II was paraded through the town's streets as a prisoner in 1399, by troops loyal to Henry Bolingbroke (the future Henry IV ). In 1521, Stafford was described as 'a proper and fair town', although it went into decline during the Tudor period , and in 1540, many of the houses were described as being in a state of disrepair. Elizabeth I visited Stafford in 1575, at this time

4233-425: The end use of the leather, hides may be treated with enzymes to soften them, a process called bating . In modern tanning, these enzymes are purified agents, and the process no longer requires bacterial fermentation (as from dung-water soaking) to produce them. Pickling is another term for tanning, or what is the modern equivalent of turning rawhide into leather by the use of modern chemical agents, if mineral tanning

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4316-562: The fibers with a hide stretcher, and fatting. However the hide will revert to rawhide if not periodically replenished with fat or oil, especially if it gets wet. Many Native Americans of the arid western regions wore clothing made by this process. Smoke tanning is listed among the conventional methods like chrome tanning and vegetable tanning. Impregnation of the hide's cells with formaldehyde (from smoke) offers some microbial and water resistance. Leftover leather would historically be turned into glue . Tanners would place scraps of hides in

4399-418: The hair proteins. The isoelectric point of the collagen (a tissue-strengthening protein unrelated to keratin) in the hide is also shifted to around pH 4.7 due to liming. Any hairs remaining after liming are removed mechanically by scraping the skin with a dull knife, a process known as scudding. The pH of the collagen is then reduced so the enzymes may act on it in a process known as deliming. Depending on

4482-406: The hexaaquachromium(III) cation, [Cr(H 2 O) 6 ] , which at higher pH undergoes processes called olation to give polychromium(III) compounds that are active in tanning, being the cross-linking of the collagen subunits. The chemistry of [Cr(H 2 O) 6 ] is more complex in the tanning bath rather than in water due to the presence of a variety of ligands. Some ligands include the sulfate anion,

4565-406: The hides are soaked in clean water to remove the salt left over from curing and increase the moisture so that the hide or skin can be further treated. To prevent damage of the skin by bacterial growth during the soaking period, biocides , typically dithiocarbamates , may be used. Fungicides such as TCMTB may also be added later in the process, to protect wet leathers from mold growth. After 1980,

4648-534: The historic counties in English law , but in Wales they were later replaced with eight preserved counties for ceremonial purposes and the twenty two principal areas are used for administrative purposes. Neither of these subdivisions use official county towns, although their administrative headquarters and ceremonial centres are often located in the historic county town. With the creation of elected county councils in 1889,

4731-512: The hypothetical Proto-Indo-European * dʰonu meaning ' fir tree'. (The same word is source for Old High German tanna meaning 'fir', related to modern German Tannenbaum ). Ancient civilizations used leather for waterskins , bags, harnesses and tack, boats, armour , quivers , scabbards , boots , and sandals . Tanning was being carried out by the inhabitants of Mehrgarh in Pakistan between 7000 and 3300 BCE. Around 2500 BCE ,

4814-505: The live music venue Redrum. Most of these are in walking distance of each other. There is a big student patronage, with coaches bringing them from Stoke-on-Trent , Cannock , and Wolverhampton . A new shopping centre was completed in 2017, housing major stores and a number of restaurants, The guildhall shopping centre no longer is open Stafford is covered by the Express and Star and Staffordshire Newsletter , neither of which have offices in

4897-470: The nearby hilltop to the west in about 1090, replacing the post-Conquest fort in the town. It was first made of wood, and later rebuilt of stone. It has been rebuilt twice since, and the ruins of the 19th-century Gothic revival castle crowning the earthworks incorporate much of the original stonework. The castle has a visitor centre with audio-visual displays and hands-on items. There is also a recreated medieval herb garden. Shakespeare productions take place in

4980-447: The old methods are used. Skins typically arrived at the tannery dried stiff and dirty with soil and gore. First, the ancient tanners would soak the skins in water to clean and soften them. Then they would pound and scour the skin to remove any remaining flesh and fat . Hair was removed by soaking the skin in urine , painting it with an alkaline lime mixture, or simply allowing the skin to putrefy for several months then dipping it in

5063-479: The ownership of several companies since, including English Electric and GEC . The Friars' Walk drill hall was completed in 1913, just in time for the First World War . The M6 motorway was opened to the west of Stafford in 1962. In 2013 Stafford celebrated its 1,100th anniversary year with a number of history-based exhibitions, while local historian Nick Thomas and writer Roger Butters were set to produce

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5146-462: The parliamentary county committee. Stafford Castle was defended by a garrison led by Lady Isabel Stafford, but the Parliamentarians finally won control in 1643. A few months later an order was given for the demolition of the castle. However, Stafford's famous son Izaak Walton , author of The Compleat Angler , was a staunch Royalist. In 1658 Stafford elected John Bradshaw , who had been judge at

5229-611: The point that bacteria are unable to grow. In wet-salting, the hides are heavily salted, then pressed into packs for about 30 days. In brine -curing, the hides are agitated in a saltwater bath for about 16 hours. Curing can also be accomplished by preserving the hides and skins at very low temperatures. The steps in the production of leather between curing and tanning are collectively referred to as beamhouse operations. They include, in order, soaking, liming , removal of extraneous tissues (unhairing, scudding and fleshing), deliming , bating or puering, drenching, and pickling. In soaking,

5312-508: The process. Chemicals used in tanned leather production increase the levels of chemical oxygen demand and total dissolved solids in water when not disposed of responsibly. These processes also use large quantities of water and produce large amounts of pollutants. Boiling and sun drying can oxidize and convert the various chromium(III) compounds used in tanning into carcinogenic hexavalent chromium , or chromium(VI). This hexavalent chromium runoff and scraps are then consumed by animals, in

5395-529: The reign of Henry II (1154–89). Stafford also provided an industrial area for centralised production of Roman-style pottery (Stafford Ware), which was supplied to a chain of West Midlands burhs . The county of Staffordshire was formed at about this time, with Stafford as its county town . Stafford lay within the Pirehill hundred . In 1069, a rebellion by Eadric the Wild against the Norman conquest culminated in

5478-486: The stonework was covered up in the 17th and 18th centuries and the church took on a neo-classical style. In the early 19th-century restoration , work was carried out on the church and the Norman decoration rediscovered. The church hosts "Timewalk", a computer-generated display that relates the journey of history and mystery within the walls of the church. St Mary's, the collegiate church formerly linked to St Bertelin's chapel,

5561-403: The tanning agent (chromium salts). Later during pickling, collagen carboxyl groups are temporarily protonated for ready transport of chromium ions. During basification step of tanning, the carboxyl groups are ionized and coordinate as ligands to the chromium(III) centers of the oxo-hydroxide clusters. Tanning increases the spacing between protein chains in collagen from 10 to 17 Å. The difference

5644-407: The touch. If alum is applied to the fur, it makes the fur dull and harsh. Depending on the finish desired, the leather may be waxed, rolled, lubricated, injected with oil, split, shaved, or dyed. The tanning process involves chemical and organic compounds that can have a detrimental effect on the environment. Agents such as chromium, vegetable tannins, and aldehydes are used in the tanning step of

5727-691: The town itself, and was created in 1974, when the old municipal borough of Stafford was merged with the Stafford Rural District , the Stone Rural District and the Stone Urban District . The Elizabethan Ancient High House in the town centre is the largest timber-framed town house in England. It is now a museum with temporary exhibitions. Stafford Castle was built by the Normans on

5810-462: The town was still in a state of decay. The Ancient High House , believed to be the largest timber-framed town house in England, was built in 1595 by John Dorrington; it was extensively restored during 1976-86. When James I visited Stafford in 1617, he was said to be so impressed by the Shire Hall and other buildings that he called it "Little London". During the English Civil War , Stafford

5893-474: The town. Stafford is covered by BBC West Midlands and ITV Central , both broadcasting from Birmingham to the wider West Midlands region. Stafford is mainly served by the Sutton Coldfield transmitting station , just north of Birmingham, but some residents get a better picture from The Wrekin transmitting station , near Telford . In terms of BBC Local Radio, Stafford is covered by BBC Radio Stoke , with

5976-492: The toxicity and environmental impact of any chromium (VI) that may form during the tanning process have led to increased research into more efficient wet white methods. The conditions present in bogs, including highly acidic water, low temperature, and a lack of oxygen, combine to preserve but severely tan the skin of bog bodies . Tawing is a method that uses alum and other aluminium salts , generally in conjunction with binders such as egg yolk, flour, or other salts. The hide

6059-513: The trial of King Charles I , to represent the town in Parliament. During the reign of Charles II , William Howard, 1st Viscount Stafford became implicated in the Popish Plot , in which Titus Oates whipped up anti-Catholic feeling with claims of a plot to have the king killed. Lord Stafford was among those accused; he was unfortunate to be the first to be tried and was beheaded in 1680. The charge

6142-464: The two-volume A Compleat [ sic ] History of Stafford . Stafford was already an ancient borough by the time of the Domesday Book of 1086. Its borough status was confirmed in 1206, when King John issued a charter. Stafford was reconstituted as a municipal borough in 1835. The borough boundaries were expanded in 1876, 1917 and 1934. The modern Borough of Stafford covers a much larger area then

6225-418: The use of pentachlorophenol and mercury -based biocides and their derivatives was forbidden. After soaking, the hides are treated with milk of lime (a basic agent) typically supplemented by "sharpening agents" (disulfide reducing agents) such as sodium sulfide , cyanides , amines , etc. This: The weakening of hair is dependent on the breakdown of the disulfide link of the amino acid cystine , which

6308-487: Was adopted by tanners. The tanning process begins with obtaining an animal skin. When an animal skin is to be tanned, the animal is killed and skinned before the body heat leaves the tissues. This can be done by the tanner, or by obtaining a skin at a slaughterhouse, farm, or local fur trader. Before tanning, the skins are often dehaired, then have fat, meat and connective tissue removed. They are then washed and soaked in water with various compounds, and prepared to receive

6391-541: Was built in 1798 as a court house and office of the Mayor and Clerk of Stafford. The Shire Hall used to be the town's court house, and is a Grade II listed building . In recent times, the building was used as an art gallery and library, before a new facility was built within the new council buildings, The Market Square has recently gone under a £2 million redevelopment which was completed in November 2023. Green Hall on Lichfield Road

6474-471: Was called The Courts and has since moved to Cumbria House.) Before 1974, many of the county halls were in towns and cities that had the status of a county borough i.e. a borough outside the county council's jurisdiction. The follow lists the location of the administration of each of the 31 local authorities in the Republic of Ireland, with 26 of the traditional counties. Note – Despite the fact that Belfast

6557-406: Was false and on 4 June 1685, the bill of attainder against him was reversed. The town was represented in Parliament from 1780 by the playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan . During that period, the town's mechanised shoe industry was founded, the best-known factory owner being William Horton. The shoemaking industry flourished over the next century, and became Stafford's staple trade, at its height in

6640-513: Was first built by Robert de Stafford on a nearby hilltop to the west around 1070. It was first made of wood and later rebuilt in stone around 1348. It has been rebuilt since. Stafford was a walled town by 1086. The town walls were probably wooden originally, but later rebuilt in stone. There were four gates on the roads into the town from the north, south, east and west. By around 1670 the walls were in ruin, and their remnants were gradually demolished. Stafford became an important market town during

6723-721: Was initially held by the Royalists ; King Charles I visited Stafford shortly after the outbreak of the war in September 1642, staying for three days at the Ancient High House . The town resisted two assaults by the Parliamentarians in February 1643, but was later taken by them in May 1643, when a force led by Sir William Brereton captured the town by stealth. Stafford then became the seat of

6806-505: Was rebuilt in the early 13th century on a cruciform plan, with an aisled nave and chancel typical of the period. It has an impressive octagonal tower, once topped by a tall steeple, which can be picked out in Gough's plan shown above. The church was effectively two churches in one, divided by a screen, with the parish using the nave and the collegiate canons the chancel. St Mary's was restored in 1842 by Giles Gilbert Scott . The Shire Hall

6889-728: Was set up in 1875 to manufacture steam engines for the London, Midland & Scottish Railway and the Great Western Railway . Between 1875 and 1962, the Castle Engine Works in Castle Town produced 1,869 locomotives, including steam, diesel and electric. It was taken over in 1961 by English Electric , which also bought the Stafford-based engine manufacturer WH Dorman & Company . This had merged with Bagnall's by then. Since 1901,

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