Sources of methane emissions due to human activity (year 2020 estimates)
133-599: Starrett City (formally known as the Spring Creek Towers ) is a housing development in the Spring Creek section of East New York , in Brooklyn , New York City . It is located on a peninsula on the north shore of Jamaica Bay , bounded by Fresh Creek to the west and Hendrix Creek to the east. Starrett City contains both residential and commercial buildings. The residential portion of the property contains eight "sections" in
266-476: A towers in the park layout. The complex also contains a community and recreation center, as well as two schools. Plans for developing the site of Starrett City date to 1962, when an investment group bought the property with the intention of developing a residential complex called Park Shore Village. The group ultimately withdrew from the project, and another cooperative housing project named Twin Pines Village
399-553: A 4 percent share, while other members of his family owned an additional 16 percent. However, disagreements soon developed between two groups affiliated with Disque Deane, who had died in 2010 and left his estate to his third wife Carol G. Deane and their two children. Carol, who managed Starrett City Associates following Disque's death. became involved in a lawsuit with a collective that included four of Disque's children; one of his former partners; and LIHC Investment Group and Belveron Partners, who were also interested in purchasing
532-495: A detailed study anthropogenic sources on climate change, IPCC researchers found that there was "stronger evidence that most of the observed warming observed over the last 50 years [was] attributable to human activities." Since the Industrial Revolution humans have had a major impact on concentrations of atmospheric methane, increasing atmospheric concentrations roughly 250%. According to the 2021 IPCC report , 30 - 50% of
665-457: A five-story parking garage for residents in that section. These sections are Ardsley, Bethel, Croton, Delmar, Elmira, Freeport, Geneva, and Hornell, which are each named after municipalities in New York State . The residential part of Starrett City includes eight parking garages, a community center, and two public schools. The area contains a shopping center as well. Starrett City is said to be
798-650: A high school, a community college, a shopping center, a branch library, an expansion of Spring Creek Park, and several thousand housing units including 8,000 middle-income condominium-style units. In preparation for the development, in 1968 under the city's Program for Action , it was proposed to extend the IRT New Lots Line and the BMT Canarsie Line of the New York City Subway to the Spring Creek area;
931-538: A mortgage worth $ 145 million towards the development. At the time, the site was referred to as part of Canarsie . On December 1, 1964, the State Housing Finance Agency announced a project called Park Shore Village, which would construct a middle-income apartment complex on the site. The complex would consist of 19 buildings standing 11, 17 and 21 stories high. It would also include a 40-acre (16 ha) shopping center, community center, swimming pools, and
1064-807: A new bid, which included reducing operating expenses and redeveloping part of the land into new housing. Clipper Equity took other steps to garner support, including receiving informal backing from influential ministers Rev. Calvin O. Butts and Rev. A. R. Bernard . On April 7, 2007, the second proposal was also rejected by the U.S. Secretary of Housing and Urban Development , on the basis that Clipper Equity's plan for rents to reach market rate after three years failed to adequately protect residents and would require increased government subsidies to keep housing affordable. Nevertheless, Clipper Equity made another attempt in August 2007. In June 2008, Starrett City Associates reached an agreement with Federal, State and City officials on
1197-470: A new public school facility. The school facility, Spring Creek Educational Campus , opened in fall 2012. Gateway Center II opened in stages beginning in late 2014. Starrett City (also known as Spring Creek Towers) is the largest subsidized rental apartment complex in the United States. Its boundaries, starting from the north and moving clockwise are: Flatlands Avenue to the north, Hendrix Street to
1330-645: A number of specific sources including industrial activity; from extraction of oil and natural gas from underground reserves; transportation via pipeline of oil and natural gas; and thawing permafrost in Arctic regions, due to global warming which is caused by human use of fossil fuels. The primary component of natural gas is methane, which is emitted to the atmosphere in every stage of natural gas "production, processing, storage, transmission, and distribution". A 2005 Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy article identified pipelines that transport natural gas as
1463-433: A part of the methane cycle . Wetland emissions have been declining due to draining for agricultural and building areas. Most ecological emissions of methane relate directly to methanogens generating methane in warm, moist soils as well as in the digestive tracts of certain animals. Methanogens are methane producing microorganisms. In order to produce energy, they use an anaerobic process called methanogenesis. This process
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#17328481096491596-415: A peninsula between Betts and Spring Creeks, took its name from pirates who occupied the waters and " plundered ." In the late 19th century it hosted a small community of wooden houses housing around 50 families who fished and farmed in the area. A hotel was erected along Mill Pond, near the basin of the creeks, at what was called Forbell's Landing. Otherwise, the area remained uninhabited. Beginning in
1729-503: A pool and tennis club, an auditorium, and other recreational facilities. It is now called the Brooklyn Sports Club. Starrett City also has its own boxing gym, Starrett City Boxing. It was also opened in 1978, inside the parking garage at Hornell Loop near the south end of the complex. It is home to many world champion boxers, including Zab Judah , Shannon Briggs , Dmitriy Salita , Luis Collazo , and Will Rosinsky . Starrett City
1862-602: A portion of present-day Spring Creek Park which was then being developed as the Fountain Avenue Landfill (which has now been re-developed as Shirley Chisholm State Park ). It was proclaimed as the "largest co-op ever built in Brooklyn", and would be the second largest in the city behind Co-op City, with a size comparable to that of Rochdale Village . In December 1967, the state gave the UHF $ 15.8 million to start construction on
1995-569: A process called fermentation . Acetoclastic methanogenesis – certain archaea cleave acetate produced during anaerobic fermentation to yield methane and carbon dioxide. Hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis – archaea oxidize hydrogen with carbon dioxide to yield methane and water. While acetoclastic methanogenesis and hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis are the two major source reactions for atmospheric methane, other minor biological methane source reactions also occur. For example, it has been discovered that leaf surface wax exposed to UV radiation in
2128-445: A result of human activity occurred in the 1700s during the industrial revolution. During the 20th century—mainly because of the use of fossil fuels—concentration of methane in the atmosphere increased, then stabilized briefly in the 1990s, only to begin to increase again in 2007. After 2014, the increase accelerated and by 2017, reached 1,850 (parts per billion) ppb. Increases in methane levels due to modern human activities arise from
2261-428: A result of human contamination. Methane emission in waste treatment facilities occurs as a result of anaerobic treatments of organic compounds and anaerobic biodegradation of sludge. Arctic methane emissions contribute to a rise in methane concentrations in the atmosphere . Whilst the Arctic region is one of many natural sources of the greenhouse gas methane, there is nowadays also a human component to this due to
2394-461: A sale process that would ensure that the property remained affordable. This agreement was further buttressed by federal legislation, which made preserving the property as affordable housing easier for a new buyer. In September 2017, The New York Times reported that the complex was being sold to the Brooksville Company and Rockpoint Group for $ 850 million. At the time, Donald Trump owned
2527-621: A skating rink, along with a new elementary school (PS 346) and parking for residents. Funds would be provided by loans under the Mitchell-Lama Housing Program . The development would be built in two phases, eventually housing 25,000 people. The project was approved by the New York City Planning Commission on January 20, 1965, and by the New York City Board of Estimate on February 11, 1965. Construction on
2660-582: A source of methane emissions. The article cited the example of Trans-Siberian natural gas pipeline system to western and Central Europe from the Yamburg and Urengoy exist gas fields in Russia with a methane concentration of 97%. In accordance with the IPCC and other natural gas emissions control groups, measurements had to be taken throughout the pipeline to measure methane emissions from technological discharges and leaks at
2793-518: A street grid was mapped in Spring Creek, though most of the streets had yet to be constructed. In 1930, Spring Creek Park and the Shore Parkway portion of the Belt Parkway were proposed by Robert Moses , along with several other parks and highways. Land for both projects along Jamaica Bay in the area was acquired via eminent domain in 1938, and Shore Parkway opened in 1940, with an interchange to
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#17328481096492926-424: A team of researchers led by Scot M. Miller, said that U.S. greenhouse gas reduction policies in 2013 were based on what appeared to be significant underestimates of anthropogenic methane emissions. The article said, that "greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture and fossil fuel extraction and processing"—oil and/or natural gas—were "likely a factor of two or greater than cited in existing studies." By 2001, following
3059-453: A third major category (18%). Plant agriculture, including both food and biomass production, constitutes a fourth group (15%), with rice production being the largest single contributor. The world's wetlands contribute about three-quarters (75%) of the enduring natural sources of methane. Seepages from near-surface hydrocarbon and clathrate hydrate deposits, volcanic releases , wildfires , and termite emissions account for much of
3192-440: A year oxygen levels are depleted and anaerobic conditions dominate the landfill allowing methanogens to takeover the decomposition process. These methanogens emit methane into the atmosphere and even after the landfill is closed, the mass amount of decaying matter allows the methanogens to continue producing methane for years. Waste water treatment facilities act to remove organic matter, solids, pathogens, and chemical hazards as
3325-482: Is a significant source of methane. With warm weather and water-logged soil, rice paddies act like wetlands, but are generated by humans for the purpose of food production. Due to the swamp-like environment of rice fields, these paddies emitted about 30 of the 400 million metric tons of anthropogenic methane in 2022. Incomplete burning of both living and dead organic matter results in the emission of methane. While natural wildfires can contribute to methane emissions,
3458-479: Is a way of comparing the warming due to other gases to that from carbon dioxide, over a given time period. Methane's GWP 20 of 85 means that a ton of CH 4 emitted into the atmosphere creates approximately 85 times the atmospheric warming as a ton of CO 2 over a period of 20 years. On a 100-year timescale, methane's GWP 100 is in the range of 28–34. Methane emissions are important as reducing them can buy time to tackle carbon emissions . Biogenic methane
3591-415: Is actively produced by microorganisms in a process called methanogenesis . Under certain conditions, the process mix responsible for a sample of methane may be deduced from the ratio of the isotopes of carbon , and through analysis methods similar to carbon dating . As of 2020 , emission volumes from some sources remain more uncertain than others; due in part to localized emission spikes not captured by
3724-481: Is also produced. Including both the direct and indirect forcings, the increase in atmospheric methane is responsible for about one-third of near-term global heating. Though methane causes far more heat to be trapped than the same mass of carbon dioxide, less than half of the emitted CH 4 remains in the atmosphere after a decade. On average, carbon dioxide warms for much longer, assuming no change in rates of carbon sequestration. The global warming potential (GWP)
3857-531: Is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources (both natural and human) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass. The concentrations vary seasonally, with, for example, a minimum in the northern tropics during April−May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . For example, plants that produce methane can emit as much as two to four times more methane during
3990-610: Is increasing and exceeded 1860 parts per billion in 2019, equal to two-and-a-half times the pre-industrial level. The methane itself causes direct radiative forcing that is second only to that of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). Due to interactions with oxygen compounds stimulated by sunlight, CH 4 can also increase the atmospheric presence of shorter-lived ozone and water vapour, themselves potent warming gases: atmospheric researchers call this amplification of methane's near-term warming influence indirect radiative forcing . When such interactions occur, longer-lived and less-potent CO 2
4123-633: Is patrolled by the New York City Police Department 's 75th Precinct, though primary security is assumed by its own private security force, called the Spring Creek Towers Department of Public Safety. The Spring Creek Towers security force was created because, when Starrett City opened in the 1970s, the 75th Precinct had one of the highest crime rates in New York City. In the five years after Starrett City opened, it had one of
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4256-484: Is physically separated by Hendrix Creek), the neighborhood extends west to Louisiana Avenue and Fresh Creek at the boundary with Canarsie . Several areas north to Linden Boulevard , between Fountain Avenue to the west and 78th Street to the east, are also considered part of Spring Creek; this area was formerly known as Plunders Neck . Linden Boulevard was previously considered the northern boundary of Spring Creek. To
4389-559: Is used in lieu of aerobic, or with oxygen, processes because methanogens are unable to metabolise in the presence of even small concentrations of oxygen. When acetate is broken down in methanogenesis, the result is the release of methane into the surrounding environment. Methanogenesis , the scientific term for methane production, occurs primarily in anaerobic conditions because of the lack of availability of other oxidants. In these conditions, microscopic organisms called archaea use acetate and hydrogen to break down essential resources in
4522-527: The A and C trains on Pitkin Avenue at the north end of East New York (connected by the B13 and Q8). Methane emissions Increasing methane emissions are a major contributor to the rising concentration of greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere , and are responsible for up to one-third of near-term global heating . During 2019, about 60% (360 million tons) of methane released globally
4655-480: The L train. In 1962, a California -based investment group purchased 130 acres (53 ha) of land along Pennsylvania Avenue between Flatlands Avenue and the Belt Parkway, intending to construct apartments on the property. The Thompson–Starrett Co. was retained to construct the buildings. In March 1964, the investment group applied to the New York State Housing Finance Agency for
4788-755: The Gateway Center shopping mall on November 16, 2000, and it opened on October 1, 2002. Restoration of the Pennsylvania and Fountain Avenue Landfills meanwhile began in March 2002. In early 2007, the second phase of the Gateway Estates project (Gateway Estates II) was proposed, which included a 605,000 square feet (56,200 m ) expansion of the Gateway Center, 2,385 additional affordable housing units, and
4921-578: The Gateway National Recreation Area . On June 25, 1996, the New York City Council amended the original Fresh Creek Urban Renewal Plan to facilitate the Gateway Estates plan, a massive mixed-use proposal to redevelop 227 acres of landfill south of Flatlands Avenue. Expanding on the 1967 plan, it proposed to construct a 640,000-square-foot (59,000 m ) retail development and 2,385 units of affordable housing. Ground broke on
5054-409: The New York City Police Department . Politically it is represented by the New York City Council 's 42nd District. The Spring Creek Towers site (commonly known as Starrett City) is located on a peninsula on the north shore of Jamaica Bay , bounded by Fresh Creek to the west and Hendrix Creek to the east. The development is bound to the north by Flatlands Avenue and to the south by Seaview Avenue and
5187-582: The Snowy Mountains region of Australia showed 8 tonnes of methane oxidized by methanotrophic bacteria per year on a 1,000 hectare farm. 200 cows on the same farm emitted 5.4 tonnes of methane per year. Hence, one cow emitted 27 kg of methane per year, while the bacteria oxidized 8 kg per hectare. The emissions of one cow were oxidized by 27/8 ≈ 3.4 hectare. Termites also contain methanogenic microorganisms in their gut. However, some of these microorganisms are so unique that they live nowhere else in
5320-703: The Spring Creek Sun . Nehemiah Spring Creek, or Spring Creek Nehemiah, is one of two affordable housing developments built under the Gateway Estates plan (along with Gateway Elton). Located south of Flatlands Avenue and north of Gateway Center II between Elton and Erskine Streets, the neighborhood consists of modular prefabricated one-to-three family rowhouses assembled at the Brooklyn Navy Yard . The houses were designed by Soho -based architect Alexander Gorlin. Nehemiah, operated by East Brooklyn Congregations (EBC), previously constructed other developments in
5453-489: The Spring Creek branch of the Brooklyn Public Library opened in the summer of 1977. The area was officially given the name Spring Creek in 1973 by Brooklyn borough president Sebastian Leone . Following community protests, and seepage of contaminated oil into Jamaica Bay, the Pennsylvania and Fountain landfills ceased municipal waste operations in 1979 and 1985 respectively, after which they were absorbed into
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5586-504: The Starrett City apartment complex, the Gateway Center shopping complex, several affordable housing communities, and Spring Creek Park . Spring Creek had the largest net gain in population in Brooklyn between 1940 and 2010, an increase of 330%. Spring Creek is part of Brooklyn Community District 5 , and its primary ZIP Codes are 11207, 11208, and 11239. Spring Creek comprises the southeastern section of East New York , located to
5719-744: The U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of New York in April 1985, but the ruling did not affect the Reagan administration's lawsuit. In 1987, Neaher ruled on the federal government's lawsuit, stating that the quotas violated the Civil Rights Act of 1968 and thereby invalidating the quotas. In March 1988, a panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit ruled two to one that
5852-605: The effects of climate change . In the Arctic, the main human-influenced sources of methane are thawing permafrost , Arctic sea ice melting , clathrate breakdown and Greenland ice sheet melting . This methane release results in a positive climate change feedback (meaning one that amplifies warming), as methane is a powerful greenhouse gas. When permafrost thaws due to global warming, large amounts of organic material can become available for methanogenesis and may therefore be released as methane. Since around 2018, there has been consistent increases in global levels of methane in
5985-480: The rumen of livestock and mitigation of methane emissions. Nicholas Stern, the author of the 2006 Stern Review on climate change has stated "people will need to turn vegetarian if the world is to conquer climate change". In 2003, the National Academy of Sciences 's president, Ralph Cicerone —an atmospheric scientist—raised concerns about the increase in the number of methane-producing dairy and beef cattle
6118-489: The 11239 ZIP Code , but some portions of Spring Creek north of Flatlands Avenue, as well as the Brooklyn Developmental Center, fall under the 11207, and 11208 ZIP Codes. Prior to European colonization, what is now Spring Creek consisted of salt marshes and several creeks, which drained into Jamaica Bay . The namesake creek itself ran north as far as Atlantic Avenue and Eldert Lane, near Highland Park (at
6251-595: The 145-acre (59 ha) site in what was then part of Canarsie . The development would house 6,000 families. The project was now sponsored by the United Housing Foundation (UHF), who were also developing Co-op City. Twin Pines would consist of 43 buildings, rising 11, 15, or 21 stories. Like the Park Shore plan, the development would also contain a shopping complex, community center and schools, and would sit across
6384-465: The 1800s, atmospheric methane concentrations increased annually at a rate of about 0.9%. The AR6 of the IPCC said, "It is unequivocal that the increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH 4 ), and nitrous oxide (N 2 O) since the pre-industrial period are overwhelmingly caused by human activities." Atmospheric methane accounted for 20% of the total radiative forcing (RF) from all of
6517-545: The 1920s, the city planned to develop a large ship and rail terminal along Jamaica Bay, particularly along the Paerdegat Basin in nearby Canarsie, to relieve port operations in the greater New York Harbor . The project would have included construction of new rail facilities to connect with the Long Island Rail Road , New York Connecting Railroad , and a proposed rail tunnel to Staten Island . Around this time,
6650-553: The 2001 value was significantly less than that of 1996. A 2012 Climatic Change article and 2014 publication by a team of scientists led by Robert W. Howarth said that there was strong evidence that "shale gas has a larger GHG footprint than conventional gas, considered over any time scale. The GHG footprint of shale gas also exceeds that of oil or coal when considered at decadal time scales." Howarth called for policy changes to regulate methane emissions resulting from hydraulic fracturing and shale gas development. A 2013 study by
6783-414: The 80 percent African-American waiting list to fill vacancies. Instead, they left apartments empty and attempted to rent them at market rate to those who would not qualify for subsidies. In July 1990, Starrett City Associates proposed to make apartments available to Soviet Jews who came to the United States in order to maintain racial diversity. However, critics stated that this was a move to circumvent
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#17328481096496916-565: The Arctic's role in global methane trends is considered very likely to increase in the future. There is evidence for increasing methane emissions since 2004 from a Siberian permafrost site into the atmosphere linked to warming. Natural and anthropogenic methane emissions from aquatic ecosystems are estimated to contribute about half of total global emissions. Urbanization and eutrophication are expected to lead to increased methane emissions from aquatic ecosystems. Conversion of forests and natural environments into agricultural plots increases
7049-710: The Brooklyn Postal Facility. The closest New York City Subway stations to the area are New Lots Avenue in East New York, served by the 2 , 3 , 4 , and 5 trains (connected to Spring Creek by the B6 and B84 buses), and Rockaway Parkway in Canarsie, served by the L train (connected by the B6 and B82/B82 SBS). Residents also use the Euclid Avenue station served by
7182-481: The East New York and Brownsville areas in the 1980s. The land was originally assigned by the city to the Starrett Housing Corporation for development in 1989; the project was known as Spring Creek Estates. EBC began competing with Starrett for the site in 1992. The name was changed to Gateway Estates in 1994. By the project's groundbreaking in August 2006, Starrett Housing had backed out of
7315-480: The Global Methane Assessment published in 2021, methane emissions from livestock (including cattle) are the largest sources of agricultural emissions worldwide A single cow can make up to 99 kg of methane gas per year. Ruminant livestock can produce 250 to 500 L of methane per day. Human consumer waste flows, especially those passing through landfills and wastewater treatment , have grown to become
7448-630: The Jamaica Bay Shore, and the former Pennsylvania and Fountain Avenue Landfills. Shirley Chisholm State Park , a 407-acre (165 ha) state park , is located atop the Pennsylvania and Fountain Avenue Landfills south of the Belt Parkway. The Pennsylvania Avenue section opened in July 2019, and the Fountain Avenue expansion is expected to open in 2021. There are two major shopping malls in
7581-528: The New Lots Line would have been extended to Flatlands Avenue near Elton and Linwood Streets. These extensions were canceled in the mid-1970s, largely due to the city's fiscal crisis at the time. Under the 1967 FCURA plan, the mental health facility (called the Brooklyn Developmental Center) was opened in 1973, the rental complex (the Starrett City apartment complex) opened in 1974, and
7714-475: The Shore Parkway section of the Belt Parkway system. Pennsylvania Avenue runs north-to-south through the complex, with Louisiana Avenue at the west end and Van Siclen Avenue at the east end. The development originally spanned 153 acres (0.62 km) before being subdivided in 2009 as part of a refinancing. It now occupies 140 acres (57 ha), after several parcels of undeveloped land were separated out from
7847-807: The Spring Creek Landfill) served as one of five major city facilities for regular refuse during its operation, along with the Fresh Kills and Brookefield Landfills in Staten Island ; a facility in Pelham Bay Park in the Bronx ; and another one in Edgemere, Queens . The landfills closed around 1985. The two sites have since undergone restoration and are now part of Shirley Chisholm State Park and Spring Creek Park. Most of Spring Creek and Starrett City fall under
7980-536: The Twin Pines Village complex. The UHF abandoned the project in March 1971 after running out of money. At the time, construction had begun at the north end of the complex. Following the exit of the UHF, the project was sold to a new group of investors, including Disque Deane and Lazard Frères along with around 200 other individuals. This group would become the Starrett City Associates . The complex
8113-418: The acetate from the plant material to produce methane, and because these bacteria live in the stomachs and intestines of ruminants, whenever the animal "burps" or defecates, it emits methane as well. Based upon a 2012 study in the Snowy Mountains region, the amount of methane emitted by one cow is equivalent to the amount of methane that around 3.4 hectares of methanotrophic bacteria can consume. research in
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#17328481096498246-514: The adjacent Canarsie neighborhood. There are four elementary and middle schools within Starrett City's boundaries: The Brooklyn Public Library 's Spring Creek Branch is located just outside Starrett City's northern boundary, at the northwest corner of Flatlands and New Jersey Avenues. The single-story, 7,500 square feet (700 m) structure opened in 1977. When it opened, Starrett City was advertised as having convenient transportation links to
8379-425: The amount of nitrogen in the soil, which inhibits methane oxidation , weakening the ability of the methanotrophic bacteria in the soil to act as sinks. Additionally, by changing the level of the water table, humans can directly affect the soil's ability to act as a source or sink. The relationship between water table levels and methane emission is explained in the wetlands section of natural sources. Rice agriculture
8512-475: The area around Gateway Mall and the Brooklyn Developmental Center; the B13, B83 and Q8 were extended to the area following the opening of Gateway in 2002, while the B84 was created in 2013 to serve as a connector to local subway service. The B82, B82 SBS, B83, BM2, and BM5 serve the Starrett City neighborhood along Pennsylvania Avenue, while the B13, B14, B15, B20, and BM5 serve the area around Spring Creek Gardens and
8645-538: The area south of Flatlands Avenue between Schenck and Fountain Avenues (on the peninsula between Hendrix and Spring Creeks) was designated as the Fresh Creek Urban Renewal Area (FCURA). During this time, the remaining 19th-century buildings in this vicinity were demolished. That year, a major development project was proposed, which would include a state mental health facility, several intermediate schools,
8778-420: The area's population, White and Hispanic Americans each comprised around 20%, and Asian residents consisted of about 2-3% of the area's population. Since its opening in 1974, Starrett City filled vacancies under an alleged affirmative action racial formula in which 70 percent of vacant apartments went to non-Hispanic white families, and the remaining 30 percent went to minority families. In 1977,
8911-461: The area: A branch of the New York School of Career and Applied Studies, part of Touro College , is located in Starrett City. There are four elementary schools located in the neighborhood: Other schools in the area include:. The William H. Maxwell Vocational High School and Thomas Jefferson Educational Campus (formerly Thomas Jefferson High School) are located on Pennsylvania Avenue in
9044-472: The atmosphere, with the 2020 increase of 15.06 parts per billion breaking the previous record increase of 14.05 ppb set in 1991, and 2021 setting an even larger increase of 18.34 ppb. However, there is currently no evidence connecting the Arctic to this recent acceleration. In fact, a 2021 study indicated that the methane contributions from the Arctic were generally overestimated, while the contributions of tropical regions were underestimated. Nevertheless,
9177-413: The atmosphere—acting like inverted lightning rods as they direct the gas up through the soil and into the air. They are also suspected to produce methane themselves, but because the plants would have to use aerobic conditions to produce methane, the process itself is still unidentified, according to a 2014 Biogeochemistry article. A 1994 article on methane emissions from northern wetlands said that since
9310-408: The city government began giving the treatment plant's methane emissions and thousands of gallons of treated cold water to the cogeneration facility, in exchange for hot water from the cogen facility. At the southeast corner of the complex on Van Siclen Avenue is the complex's community and recreation center, which opened in 1978 and is located across the street from the treatment plant. It features
9443-682: The city's 421a tax-abatement certificates. It was sold to the Domain Companies and the Arker Companies in 2006. Several industrial and commercial structures are located in the northeastern portion of the area east of Fountain Avenue and south of Linden Boulevard, the former Plunders Neck area. At 803 Forbell Street in this part of the neighborhood, the South Shore Incinerator, also known as the Forbell Street Incinerator,
9576-481: The city's focal points (such as Manhattan and Downtown Brooklyn ), its distance away from the nearest rapid transit lines, the presence of the landfills, incinerator, and water treatment plant in the area, and noise from the nearby Idlewild Airport (since renamed as John F. Kennedy International Airport ). A 1943 city profile called the area "Brooklyn's least populated district", with many paper streets remaining as mapped but not constructed. Smoke and odor from
9709-541: The city's lowest crime rates, mainly because of the existence of the security force. The Spring Creek Towers Department of Public Safety has been used as a case study in the advantages of private security over public policing. Edwin Donovan and William Walsh write that "Statistically, Starrett City must be considered one of the safest communities in the United States." The Spring Creek Towers Department of Public Safety employs public safety officers, armed while on duty, to preserve
9842-454: The complex after acquiring Belveron Partners' 13 percent stake. Starrett City is a racially diverse neighborhood. Based on data from the 2010 United States Census , the population of Starrett City was 13,354, a change of −1,267 (−9.5%) from the 14,621 counted in 2000 . Covering an area of 291.08 acres (117.80 ha), the neighborhood had a population density of 45.9 inhabitants per acre (29,400/sq mi; 11,300/km). The racial makeup of
9975-527: The complex was able to provide its own power. There is a sewage treatment plant next to the cogeneration facility, called the 26th Ward Wastewater Treatment Plant. The treatment plant, located on a 57.3-acre (23.2 ha) plot, can filter up to 170,000,000 US gallons (640,000,000 L) per day from the sewage systems in Brownsville, Canarsie, and East New York. The treatment plant and cogeneration facility were formerly operationally separate. However, in 1982,
10108-544: The complex's 5,881 apartments were fully occupied, and three-fourths of the 6,000 families on Starrett City's waiting list were minorities. In 1979, the NAACP initiated a class-action suit against Starrett City Associates. The plaintiffs stated that the complex attempted to maintain racial quotas by selective approval of tenants based on racial and ethnic profiles. An agreement was made in May 1984. Starrett City Associates agreed to increase
10241-489: The complex. That year, real estate developer Fred Trump acquired a 20 percent interest in the development. The Starrett Associates invested $ 22 million into the construction of the complex, while the remaining $ 360 million was covered by state housing loans under the Mitchell-Lama program. The complex was dedicated on October 13, 1974, in a ceremony attended by Governor Malcolm Wilson and Mayor Abraham Beame . As part of
10374-575: The complex. The two groups sued each other in New York Supreme Court over allegations that Carol's sale of Starrett City to Brooksville and Rockpoint did not maximize profits for shareholders. The lawsuit was later dismissed, and the sale of Starrett City was finalized on May 8, 2018, at a cost of $ 905 million. A group of anonymous investors sold a 71 percent stake to Brooksville and Rockpoint for $ 1.8 billion in August 2021. The next month, Brooksville and Rockpoint acquired full ownership of
10507-948: The current rise in temperatures is caused by emissions of methane, and reducing methane is a fast way of climate change mitigation . An alliance of 107 countries, including Brazil, the EU and the US, have joined the pact known as the Global Methane Pledge, committing to a collective goal of reducing global methane emissions by at least 30% from 2020 levels by 2030. The European Union adopted methane regulations in 2024. The law requires oil and gas developers to monitor, measure, and report methane emissions. Producers must stop flaring unused natural gas and use satellite imagery to detect leaks. Ruminant animals, particularly cows and sheep, contain bacteria in their gastrointestinal systems that help to break down plant material. Some of these microorganisms use
10640-460: The day than during the night. This is directly related to the fact that plants tend to rely on solar energy to enact chemical processes. Additionally, methane emissions are affected by the level of water sources. Seasonal flooding during the spring and summer naturally increases the amount of methane released into the air. Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands of concern consist primarily of methane and nitrous oxide emissions. Wetlands are
10773-436: The development did allow residents to use state and federal housing programs to pay off part of their rent. The first 300 families were scheduled to move into the complex that November. In January 1975, community leaders and officials proposed rerouting five bus routes and creating two new routes to serve the complex. Pennsylvania Avenue was reopened to traffic that December, sparking protests by residents who had previously used
10906-558: The east, Jamaica Bay to the south and the Fresh Creek Basin. Opened in 1974, the Starrett City site spanned over 153 acres (0.62 km ) before being subdivided in 2009 as part of a refinancing. The housing development contains 5,881 apartment units in 46 buildings. The residential site also includes eight parking garages and a community center. The area contains a shopping center as well. A number of parcels of undeveloped land totaling 13 acres (5.3 ha) were separated out from
11039-498: The entire property. Since the property had met its 20-year requirement under Mitchell-Lama by the late 1990s, this raised fears that a new owner would increase rents and squeeze out current tenants. CB Richard Ellis , which brokered the Stuyvesant Town–Peter Cooper Village deal earlier in 2006, served as the listing agent. Upon finding out about the sale, tenants at Starrett City began organizing in response to
11172-403: The first phase was projected to start in the spring of that year and be complete by 1967, at which point the second phase would begin. However, the original investment group withdrew due to financial concerns and the project did not commence. On June 27, 1967, Governor Nelson Rockefeller announced modified version of the project called Twin Pines Village, which would construct a cooperative on
11305-478: The gas. About one-third (33%) of anthropogenic emissions are from gas release during the extraction and delivery of fossil fuels ; mostly due to gas venting and gas leaks from both active fossil fuel infrastructure and orphan wells . Russia is the world's top methane emitter from oil and gas. Animal agriculture is a similarly large source (30%); primarily because of enteric fermentation by ruminant livestock such as cattle and sheep. According to
11438-435: The ground level. The buildings utilize electricity from solar panels affixed to the roofing. The first phase of the project, featuring 197 rental units, was completed in 2012. The second phase broke ground on May 2, 2013. Construction on the third phase started on January 15, 2015. and a housing lottery for the project was held upon its completion in July 2016. Spring Creek Gardens is a third low-income housing complex in
11571-565: The incinerator and landfills, meanwhile, were reported to extend to the Queens neighborhoods of Howard Beach and Ozone Park . The remoteness of the area led it to be used as an illegal dumping ground for waste. The territory, particularly the landfills, is also said to have been used for dumping corpses, most notably by Murder, Inc. and the Gambino crime family ; human remains from modern incidents have been unearthed as recently as 2013. In 1967,
11704-424: The incinerator was used as additional fill for the marshes. A sewage treatment plant adjacent to Hendrix Creek was also opened around this time, while refuse was used to landfill the future Spring Creek Park. In spite of the new highway, Spring Creek Basin, as the area was then called, continued to remain undeveloped while other local areas were extensively built up. This was in part due to its remoteness from
11837-648: The judicial ruling. Starrett City Associates rescinded their proposal to rent to Soviet Jews after heavy criticism. New York State instead housed the Soviet Jewish families in Co-op City , a similar development in the Bronx. Spring Creek, Brooklyn Spring Creek , previously called Spring Creek Basin , is a neighborhood within the East New York section of Brooklyn in New York City . It roughly comprises
11970-413: The large collections of organic matter and availability of anaerobic conditions, landfills are the third largest source of atmospheric methane in the United States, accounting for roughly 18.2% of methane emissions globally in 2014. When waste is first added to a landfill, oxygen is abundant and thus undergoes aerobic decomposition; during which time very little methane is produced. However, generally within
12103-490: The largest federally assisted rental property in the United States. Starrett City has its own power plant, the Starrett City Cogeneration Facility, located at 165 Elmira Loop on the east side of Starrett City. The power plant opened in 1973 and provides electricity, heating, cooling, and hot water to all residents of Starrett City. It is self-sufficient enough that during the 1977 New York City blackout ,
12236-436: The largest natural source of atmospheric methane in the world, and are therefore a major area of concern with respect to climate change . Wetlands account for approximately 20–30% of atmospheric methane through emissions from soils and plants, and contribute an approximate average of 161 Tg of methane to the atmosphere per year. In wetlands, where the rate of methane production is high, plants help methane travel into
12369-438: The late 1970s, leading to fears that existing middle-class residents might leave and be replaced by low-income residents. At the same time, Starrett City was facing financial troubles because it had been built in the aftermath of the 1975 New York City fiscal crisis . In 1980, a New York State Comptroller 's report found that Starrett City would have a nearly $ 30 million deficit by 1984, and that rents would have to be doubled from
12502-589: The life and property of the residents of the complex. Officers enforce New York state laws as well as New York City laws. Starrett City is patrolled by officers 24 hours a day on foot, bicycles , or in vehicles. The complex is owned by Starrett City Associates , which was originally headed by Disque Deane . Former U.S. president Donald Trump owns four percent of the complex, inherited from his father, Fred Trump . Between January 2016 and April 15, 2017, Trump received more than $ 5 million in revenue from Starrett City. There are no high schools within Starrett City;
12635-507: The limited global measurement capability. The time required for a methane emission to become well-mixed throughout earth's troposphere is about 1–2 years. Satellite data indicate over 80% of the growth of methane emissions during 2010–2019 are tropical terrestrial emissions. There is accumulating research and data showing that oil and gas industry methane emissions – or from fossil fuel extraction, distribution and use – are much larger than thought. Natural sources have always been
12768-744: The long-lived and globally mixed greenhouse gases. According to the 2021 assessment by the Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) over 50% of global methane emissions are caused by human activities in fossil fuels (35%), waste (20%), and agriculture (40%). The oil and gas industry accounts for 23%, and coal mining for 12%. Twenty percent of global anthropogenic emissions stem from landfills and wastewater. Manure and enteric fermentation represent 32%, and rice cultivation represents 8%. The most clearly identified rise in atmospheric methane as
12901-515: The lower court's order to prevent quotas must stand. The Supreme Court declined to review the case in 1988. By then, under Starrett City Associates' quota system, 62 percent of apartments were rented to whites, 23 percent to blacks, 9 percent to Hispanics and 6 percent to other minority groups. The group agreed to stop using quotas in November 1988. After losing the court case, Starrett City did not immediately start taking families from
13034-457: The minority makeup was 19 percent black, 9 percent Hispanic, and 2 percent Asian. By 1979, the proportion of white residents had declined to 64%. At the time, most of the advertisements for Starrett City featured white applicants, but much of the resulting applicant pool was black or Hispanic. As a result of the quotas, black applicants who wanted apartments in Starrett City waited almost eight times as long as white applicants. By 1983,
13167-495: The minority quota by 5 percent, so that the ratio of non-Hispanic white to minority families was 65 to 35 percent. The formula was supported by many black and Hispanic residents and some civil rights groups. In June 1984, the Reagan administration sued Starrett City over the racial quota system, stating that it violated federal anti-discrimination laws. The original accord was approved by federal judge Edward Raymond Neaher of
13300-691: The nearest high schools are the Academy for Young Writers and Spring Creek Community School (within the Spring Creek Educational Campus) just east on Flatlands Avenue, and the William H. Maxwell Vocational High School and Thomas Jefferson Educational Campus (formerly Thomas Jefferson High School) on Pennsylvania Avenue in the northern portions of East New York. Additionally, the Canarsie and South Shore Campuses (also formerly high schools) are located in
13433-483: The neighborhood of Spring Creek was considered the place where "the city came to an end", consisting of undeveloped marshland used as illegal dumping grounds, and hosting several large landfills and an incinerator during the 20th century. Much of the area was designated as the Fresh Creek Urban Renewal Area in 1967. The area has since seen several major development and restoration projects, including
13566-411: The neighborhood was 24.7% (3,293) White , 52.7% (7,036) African American , 0.2% (29) Native American , 2.9% (389) Asian , 0% (2) Pacific Islander , 0.3% (37) from other races , and 1.4% (184) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 17.9% (2,384) of the population. As of the 2020 United States census , Black Americans (primarily African Americans ) were about 60% of
13699-523: The north end of Brooklyn) and Forest Park , forming the border of Brooklyn and Queens. The northern shores of Jamaica Bay were inhabited by the Jameco, Canarsee, and Rockaway Native American groups (for whom the Jamaica , Canarsie , and Rockaway areas would be named). In the 1650s, Dutch colonists began settling in the eastern sections of Brooklyn, forming the towns of Flatbush and New Lots (the latter
13832-520: The northeast corner of Spring Creek near the border with Lindenwood, Queens , one block south of Linden Boulevard . Located at 902 Drew Street, it is bound by Loring Avenue to the north, Stanley Avenue and the remnants of Spring Creek to the south, Forbell Street to the west, and Emerald Street to the east. The community is gated , with the primary entrance situated at Drew Street. It was opened in 1989, developed by General Atlantic Realty Corporation, and paid for by Federal Low Income Housing Tax Credits and
13965-462: The northern portions of East New York. Additionally, the Canarsie and South Shore Campuses (also formerly high schools) are located in the adjacent Canarsie neighborhood. The B6 , B13 , B14 , B15 , B20 , B82 , B82 SBS , B83 , B84 and Q8 local buses serve the Spring Creek area, while the BM2 and BM5 provide express service to Midtown and Lower Manhattan . The B13, B83, B84 and Q8 serve
14098-418: The opening, a minibus service was created to transport local residents within the development, and to shopping centers in other parts of Brooklyn. In addition, the BM2 express bus service to Manhattan was extended from Canarsie to Starrett City. At the time of opening, none of the complex's proposed 18,000 trees had been planted. Although lower-income families were not given subsidies to live in Starrett City,
14231-407: The pipeline fittings and vents. Although the majority of the natural gas leaks were carbon dioxide, a significant amount of methane was also being consistently released from the pipeline as a result of leaks and breakdowns. In 2001, natural gas emissions from the pipeline and natural gas transportation system accounted for 1% of the natural gas produced. Between 2001 and 2005, this was reduced to 0.7%,
14364-503: The plan, and the name was changed to Nehemiah Spring Creek Houses at Gateway Estates. The first phase of the development was completed in 2008. Residents of the community apply for housing via a lottery; some applied during the project's planning in the 1990s. Gateway Elton Street sits at the west end of Nehemiah Spring Creek, on Elton Street between Flatlands Avenue and the Gateway Center. The three-phase affordable-housing project features six-story apartment buildings with retail space on
14497-548: The predecessor to East New York). The area, along with the rest of Brooklyn and modern New York City, was ceded to the British Empire in 1664. The first development in the Spring Creek area took place in the 1890s, a 30-acre (12 ha) farm built by the Cozine family, the likely namesake of Cozine Avenue. This farm included a house and stable at the modern-day intersection of Elton Street and Vandalia Avenue. Plunders Neck, then
14630-409: The presence of oxygen is an aerobic source of methane. Emissions of methane into the atmosphere are directly related to temperature and moisture. Thus, the natural environmental changes that occur during seasonal change act as a major control of methane emission. Additionally, even changes in temperature during the day can affect the amount of methane that is produced and consumed. Its concentration
14763-400: The remainder. Contributions from the surviving wild populations of ruminant mammals are vastly overwhelmed by those of cattle, humans, and other livestock animals. The Economist recommended setting methane emissions targets as a reduction in methane emissions would allow for more time to tackle the more challenging carbon emissions ". The atmospheric methane (CH 4 ) concentration
14896-646: The residential site as part of the refinancing. The development was designed by Herman Jessor , organized in the towers in the park layout. The buildings utilize a simple " foursquare " design. The residential portion of the property has eight "sections" each including several buildings, its own field, recreational area ( jungle gym , park, handball court, basketball court) and a five-story parking garage for residents in that section. These sections are Ardsley, Bethel, Croton, Delmar, Elmira, Freeport, Geneva, and Hornell; each named after municipalities in New York State . The community had its own newspaper, known as
15029-475: The residential site. The housing development contains 5,881 apartment units in 46 buildings, which range from 11 to 20 stories high. The development was designed by Herman Jessor , organized in the towers in the park layout. The buildings utilize a simple " foursquare " design. The residential portion of the property has eight "sections" each including several buildings, its own field, recreational area ( jungle gym , park, handball court, basketball court) and
15162-644: The rest of the city via bus and subway. Starrett City is served by the B82 and B83 local buses, the B82 Select Bus Service , and the BM2 and BM5 express buses, all operated by MTA Regional Bus Operations . Additionally, the B6 , B60 and B103 buses, also operated by the MTA, stop just north of the development. The nearest New York City Subway stations are at East 105th Street and Canarsie-Rockaway Parkway , both served by
15295-402: The sale of their homes. On February 8, 2007, Starrett City Associates agreed to sell the sprawling complex to David Bistricer 's Clipper Equity LLC for $ 1.3 billion. Although Clipper Equity insisted that the complex would remain affordable, housing advocates and politicians expressed concerns about Clipper Equity's intentions. In response to HUD 's rejection of the deal, Clipper Equity proposed
15428-481: The south end of Pennsylvania Avenue . This put an end to the proposed Jamaica Bay seaport. Later plans by Robert Moses in the 1950s called for Spring Creek Park to extend to Cross Bay Boulevard in Howard Beach, Queens and include a new beach and boat basin. The Milford Street Landfill began operations in the 1930s, occupying much of the area where the Gateway Center now sits. The Milford Street Landfill
15561-516: The south end of the site by the Belt Parkway, in an effort to attract potential tenants who were exiting from the Belt Parkway. This added one million dollars to the cost of construction, since utilities had been laid at the north end. The initial work included the filling of the swampland with sand from Jamaica Bay, and the construction of the power plant. In 1973, a contract was awarded to the Otis Elevator Company to install 100 elevators in
15694-490: The south of New Lots . It is bounded to the north by Flatlands Avenue , to the east by Fountain Avenue (at the former drainage basin of Spring Creek and Betts Creek on the Brooklyn- Queens border), and to the west by Schenck Avenue, Gateway Drive and Hendrix Creek. To the south is the Shore Parkway portion of the Belt Parkway , the Gateway National Recreation Area , and Jamaica Bay . Including Starrett City (which
15827-545: The south of the Belt Parkway are the Pennsylvania Avenue and Fountain Avenue Landfills (PAL/FAL). The two landfills were 130-foot (40 m) high man-made peninsulas created from former marshland and open water. The 110-acre (45 ha) Pennsylvania Avenue Landfill opened in 1956 while the 297-acre (120 ha) Fountain Avenue Landfill was opened in 1961 respectively. The Fountain Avenue Landfill (also simply called
15960-467: The southern portions of East New York between Flatlands Avenue to the north, and Jamaica Bay and the Gateway National Recreation Area to the south, with the Brooklyn neighborhood of Canarsie to the west and the Queens neighborhood of Howard Beach to the east. It is named after Spring Creek, one of several creeks that formerly ran through the area and drained into Jamaica Bay. For most of its history,
16093-479: The street to play. By 1976, two thousand families had moved into Starrett City. A swimming and tennis club on Van Siclen Avenue was dedicated in July 1978. Families who lived in the complex had to pay $ 250 per year to use the swimming and tennis club. The swimming and tennis club was dedicated alongside a recreation center at the same location, which was open to the public. The same month, Starrett City celebrated its five thousandth resident. At this point, Starrett City
16226-469: The then-current rates in order to make up for the deficit. By 1992, Starrett City Associates was developing additional housing around the Starrett City complex. The new housing units were condominiums , targeted toward Starrett City residents and others who wanted ownership of their homes. In 1993, the Amalgamated Bank of New York loaned $ 1.5 million for repairs to Starrett at Spring Creek. The complex
16359-492: The vital role of enteric fermentation in livestock on global warming. A 2006 UN FAO report reported that livestock generate more greenhouse gases as measured in CO 2 equivalents than the entire transportation sector. Livestock accounts for 9% of anthropogenic CO 2 , 65%t of anthropogenic nitrous oxide and 37% of anthropogenic methane. Since then, animal science and biotechnology researchers have focused research on methanogens in
16492-480: The world except in the third gut of termites. These microorganisms also break down biotic components to produce ethanol , as well as methane byproduct. However, unlike ruminants who lose 20% of the energy from the plants they eat, termites only lose 2% of their energy in the process. Thus comparatively, termites do not have to eat as much food as ruminants to obtain the same amount of energy, and give off proportionally less methane. In 2001, NASA researchers confirmed
16625-433: Was 85 percent rented. By 1981, the presence of Starrett City was credited with spurring six other developments in the neighborhood, including a shopping mall at Flatlands and Louisiana Avenues, as well as five housing developments. Crime in the complex was lower than in the surrounding neighborhoods, primarily because of the presence of a private security force. On the other hand, rents at Starrett City started to rise by
16758-409: Was a "serious topic" as methane was the "second-most-important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere". Approximately 5% of the methane is released via the flatus , whereas the other 95% is released via eructation . Vaccines are under development to reduce the amount introduced through eructation. Asparagopsis seaweed as a livestock feed additive has reduced methane emissions by more than 80%. Due to
16891-593: Was active from 1954 to the 1980s. Other structures in this area include: Other structures in the rest of Spring Creek include: Moe Finklestein Athletic Complex (also known as the Thomas Jefferson High School Field), located on Flatlands Avenue between Essex Street and Erskine Street, is used by the schools of Thomas Jefferson Educational Campus and other schools in PSAL competition. The complex
17024-537: Was closed in 1950. This area later became known as the Vandalia Dunes due to its sandy landscape, and became a habitat for the Henslow's sparrow and other bird species. The South Shore Incinerator at Forbell Street and Wortman Avenue was dedicated on June 30, 1954, and the Pennsylvania and Fountain Avenue Landfills were opened in 1956 and 1961 respectively, on land previously earmarked for Spring Creek Park. Ash from
17157-468: Was created as part of the Fresh Creek Renewal Plan. Berriman Playground, a .96-acre (0.39 ha) park on Berriman Street between Vandalia Avenue and Schroeders Avenue, opened in 2019. Its design allows rain water from the playground to collect in a rain garden . Spring Creek Park is operated by both the city and the federal government. It consists of man-made parkland, marshland along
17290-472: Was from human activities, while natural sources contributed about 40% (230 million tons). Reducing methane emissions by capturing and utilizing the gas can produce simultaneous environmental and economic benefits. Since the Industrial Revolution, concentrations of methane in the atmosphere have more than doubled, and about 20 percent of the warming the planet has experienced can be attributed to
17423-414: Was proposed by the United Housing Foundation in 1967. Control of the complex was handed to Starrett City Associates in 1971, and Starrett City opened in 1974. The complex assumed the name of Spring Creek Towers in 2002, though it is still popularly known as Starrett City. Starrett City is part of Brooklyn Community District 5 , and its primary ZIP Code is 11239. It is patrolled by the 75th Precinct of
17556-424: Was renamed "Starrett at Spring Creek" around 1989. On September 25, 2002, the complex was again renamed "Spring Creek Towers". The second renaming was part of a $ 70 million capital program to renovate the complex. The plans called for Spring Creek Towers to receive two new parks, as well as new elevators, laundry rooms, windows, and lighting. On November 30, 2006, Starrett City Associates announced an offering to sell
17689-530: Was renamed Starrett City and would be developed as a joint venture by the Starrett Corporation and the National Kinney Corporation . In addition, the development was changed from a co-op to rental apartments in part to make the development more profitable. Construction resumed in mid-1972, and Pennsylvania Avenue was closed to accommodate construction. Workers started constructing towers at
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