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45-537: The Spirit Lake Massacre (March 8–12, 1857) was an attack by a Wahpekute band of Santee Sioux on scattered Iowa frontier settlements during a severe winter. Suffering a shortage of food, the renegade chief Inkpaduta (Scarlet Point) led 14 Sioux against the settlements near Okoboji and Spirit lakes in the northwestern territory of Iowa near the Minnesota border, in revenge of the murder of Inkpaduta's brother, Sidominadotah, and Sidominadotah's family by Henry Lott,

90-574: A drunken white whiskey trader. The Sioux killed 35-40 settlers in their scattered holdings, took four young women captive, and headed north. The youngest captive, Abbie Gardner , was kept a few months before being ransomed in early summer. It was the last Native American attack on settlers in Iowa, but the events increased tensions between the Sioux and settlers in the Minnesota Territory. Nearly 30 years after

135-427: A man of integrity, he worked at improving conditions, but had much ground to make up. Many Sioux in addition to Inkpaduta's band were living off the reservation because of the government's failures. Suffering food shortages during the severe winter of 1856–1857, which saw heavy snows, Inkpaduta and his band begged for food at European-American settlements in northwestern Iowa. Also struggling that winter, whites rebuffed

180-611: A ransom, and a few days later two Wahpeton men brought in the third matron, Mrs. Margaret Ann Marble, for ransom. By the summer, Gov. Samuel Medary of the Minnesota Territory and the Indian agent at Lac qui Parle , completed negotiations for the ransom of Abbie Gardner, who was taken by two Sisseton to the Upper Sioux Agency on the Minnesota River. From there she was taken to Fort Ridgely and then to St. Paul, Minnesota . During

225-462: A tourist site until her death in 1921, and sold her book, postcards and souvenirs there. In 1895 the state erected a memorial monument to the settlers at Arnolds Park near the site. The area of the Spirit Lake settlement was later redeveloped as Camp Foster, a YMCA youth summer camp, where legends and ghost stories related to the events are recounted. The Abbie Gardner Sharp Cabin , also known as

270-498: Is referred to as a common language, Dakota-Lakota, or Sioux . The Dakota include the following bands: The Dakota language is a Mississippi Valley Siouan language, belonging to the greater Siouan-Catawban language family. It is closely related to and mutually intelligible with the Lakota language , and both are also more distantly related to the Stoney and Assiniboine languages. Dakota

315-690: Is written in the Latin script and has a dictionary and grammar. Before the 17th century, the Santee Dakota ( Isáŋyathi ; "Knife" also known as the Eastern Dakota) lived around Lake Superior with territories in present-day northern Minnesota and Wisconsin. They gathered wild rice, hunted woodland animals and used canoes to fish. Wars with the Ojibwe throughout the 1700s pushed the Dakota into southern Minnesota, where

360-588: The Spirit Lake Massacre Log Cabin , where Gardner lived as a girl and which she later ran as a tourist attraction, still stands at Arnolds Park, Iowa . The state Conservation Commission purchased the cabin in 1941 and transferred it to the State Historical Society of Iowa in 1974. Under the guidance of architects and archeologists , it has been restored to its 1856 appearance. The park's visitor center features artifacts relating to

405-551: The Indian Wars were over, the book was very popular and had several editions; it was reprinted in 1892 and 1910. This was one of the last works in the United States in the literary genre known as captivity narratives , dealing with the holding of European Americans by Native Americans. After years of marriage and living elsewhere, Gardner-Sharp returned to Spirit Lake in 1891 and bought her former family cabin. She operated it as

450-617: The Western Dakota . The four bands of Eastern Dakota are the Bdewákaŋthuŋwaŋ , Waȟpéthuŋwaŋ , Waȟpékhute , and Sisíthuŋwaŋ and are sometimes referred to as the Santee ( Isáŋyathi or Isáŋ-athi ; 'knife' + 'encampment', 'dwells at the place of knife flint'), who reside in the eastern Dakotas , central Minnesota and northern Iowa . They have federally recognized tribes established in several places. The Western Dakota are

495-736: The Yankton , and the Yanktonai ( Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋ and Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna ; "Village-at-the-end" and "Little village-at-the-end"), who reside in the Upper Missouri River area. The Yankton-Yanktonai are collectively also referred to by the endonym Wičhíyena ('Those Who Speak Like Men'). They also have distinct federally recognized tribes. In the past the Western Dakota have been erroneously classified as Nakota , who are located in Montana and across

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540-517: The Yellowstone River , including the Powder River country. (Formerly Devil's Lake Reservation) (Mni Wakan Oyate) (Pejuhutazizi Oyate) (Formerly Prior Lake Indian Reservation) (* Reserves shared with other First Nations ) Contemporary Sioux people are also listed under the tribes to which they belong: Indian Agent In United States history, an Indian agent

585-622: The anglicized spelling Yankton (Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ: "End village") and Yanktonai (Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna: "Little end village") divisions consist of two bands or two of the seven council fires. According to Nasunatanka and Matononpa in 1880, the Yanktonai are divided into two sub-groups known as the Upper Yanktonai and the Lower Yanktonai (Húŋkpathina). They were involved in quarrying pipestone . The Yankton-Yanktonai moved into northern Minnesota. In

630-566: The 1870s, due to president Grant's Peace Policy , the average Indian agent was primarily nominated by various Christian denominations due to the increase in civilization reforms to Indian-white affairs, especially over land. Part of the Christian message of reform, carried out by the Indian agents, demonstrated the pervasive thought of Indian land ownership of the late 19th century: civilization can only be possible when Indians cease communal living in favor of private ownership. Many citizens still held

675-716: The 18th century, they were recorded as living in the Mankato ( Maka To – Earth Blue/Blue Earth) region of southwestern Minnesota along the Blue Earth River . Most of the Yankton live on the Yankton Indian Reservation in southeastern South Dakota. Some Yankton live on the Lower Brule Indian Reservation and Crow Creek Reservation , which is also occupied by the Lower Yanktonai. The Upper Yanktonai live in

720-498: The Dakota people began to return to Minnesota, creating the present-day reservations in the state. The Yankton and Yanktonai Dakota ( Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋ and Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna ; "Village-at-the-end" and "Little village-at-the-end"), collectively also referred to by the endonym Wičhíyena , resided in the Minnesota River area before ceding their land and moving to South Dakota in 1858. Despite ceding their lands, their treaty with

765-655: The Dakotas, Minnesota, Nebraska, and Montana in the United States; and in Manitoba , southern Saskatchewan in Canada. The earliest known European record of the Dakota identified them in Minnesota, Iowa, and Wisconsin. After the introduction of the horse in the early 18th century, the Sioux dominated larger areas of land—from present day Central Canada to the Platte River , from Minnesota to

810-484: The Indians with violence and a posse disarmed Inkpaduta's band after they killed a settler's dog that had bitten one of the band. They managed to acquire arms and retaliated by attacking settlements there and at Spirit Lake . In another account, the tribe was camped near current day Smithland, Iowa . Native people were sometimes beaten and chased for stealing livestock and scavenging grain in harvested fields; thus, weary of

855-761: The Missouri River in what is now South Dakota. In 1864 some from the Crow Creek Reservation were sent to St. Louis and then traveled by boat up the Missouri River, ultimately to the Santee Sioux Reservation . In the 21st century, the majority of the Santee live on reservations and reserves, and many in small and larger cities in Minnesota, Nebraska, South Dakota, North Dakota, and Canada. They went to cities for more work opportunities and improved living conditions. The Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ-Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna, also known by

900-456: The President to "appoint such persons, from time to time, as temporary agents to reside among the Indians," and guide them into acculturation of American society by changing their agricultural practices and domestic activities. Eventually, the U.S. government ceased using the word "temporary" in the Indian agent's job title. From the close of the 18th century to nearly 1869, Congress maintained

945-523: The Sioux and settlers in the territory, with mistrust and fear higher on both sides. Whites reacted by attacking some innocent Sioux who were hunting near settlements. Because of competition over the lands, white settlers feared that the remaining free Indians would attack them, so they called for their removal by the US government. The Sioux resented the failure of the government to fulfill treaty obligations; they were starving due to inadequate rations and annuities at

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990-403: The Sioux could not survive on them. By 1856, many Mdewakantons and Wahpekutes still came to the reservation just to get annuity payments, and returned to old hunting grounds to survive, especially during the winter. As they encountered more new settlers, conflicts arose. In a reorganization, in the summer of 1856 Charles A. Flandrau was appointed US Indian agent. Said to be an experienced trader and

1035-399: The Sioux. While settlers demanded vengeance and rumors proliferated, the territorial authorities decided not to act against the Sioux until the captives had been returned. Settlers killed innocent Sioux who were caught hunting near them. When contact was made with Inkpaduta's group, the officials found that two of the captive women had been killed. In May the territorial legislature authorized

1080-607: The U.S. government allowed them to maintain their traditional role in the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ as the caretakers of the Pipestone Quarry , which is the cultural center of the Sioux people. They are considered to be the Western Dakota (also called middle Sioux), and have in the past been erroneously classified as Nakota . The actual Nakota are the Assiniboine and Stoney of Western Canada and Montana . Migrations of Ojibwe people from

1125-548: The Western Dakota (Yankton, Yanktonai) and Teton (Lakota) were residing. In the 1800s, the Dakota signed treaties with the United States, ceding much of their land in Minnesota. Failure of the United States to make treaty payments on time, as well as low food supplies, led to the Dakota War of 1862 , which resulted in the Dakota being exiled from Minnesota to numerous reservations in Nebraska, North and South Dakota and Canada. After 1870,

1170-500: The agents in the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Their wish had been granted when in 1869 the bureau created the civilian-controlled Board of Indian Commissioners . The board "never more deeply felt, that Indian agents should be appointed solely for merit and fitness for their work   ... and should be retained in the service when they prove themselves to be efficient and helpful by their character and moral influence." This civilian run board

1215-531: The attacks, and the U.S. Indian Agent organized an armed militia of white citizens. Because of the heavy snows, a relief expedition from Fort Dodge failed to arrive in time. Another expedition from Fort Ridgely in Minnesota pursued Inkpaduta and his band but failed to catch them. Abbie states in her memories that Lt. Murray and his men were within eyesight the second day after the Springfield, Minnesota, raid, but were unaware of how close they came to encountering

1260-465: The authority to both issue and revoke commercial trading licenses. In 1849, the Bureau of Indian Affairs decided to place the position of Indian agent under civilian jurisdiction. This came at a time when many white Americans saw the role of Indian agent as largely inefficient and dishonest in monetary and severalty dealings with various Indian tribes. By 1850, many citizens had been calling for reform of

1305-601: The border in Canada, where they are known as Stoney . The word Dakota means "ally or friend" in the Dakota language , and their autonyms include Ikčé Wičhášta ("Indian people") and Dakhóta Oyáte ("Dakota people"). The Eastern and Western Dakota are two of the three groupings belonging to the Sioux nation (also called Dakota in a broad sense), the third being the Lakota (Thítȟuŋwaŋ or Teton). The three groupings speak dialects that are still relatively mutually intelligible . This

1350-641: The east in the 17th and 18th centuries, who were armed with muskets supplied by the French and British, pushed the Dakota further into Minnesota and west and southward. The US gave the name " Dakota Territory " to the northern expanse west of the Mississippi River and up to its headwaters. After the Dakota War of 1862 , the federal government expelled the Santee (who included the Mdewakanton ) from Minnesota. Many were sent to Crow Creek Indian Reservation east of

1395-491: The events, in 1885 Abbie Gardner-Sharp published her memoir, History of the Spirit Lake Massacre and Captivity of Miss Abbie Gardner, which was reprinted seven times in small editions. It was one of the last captivity narratives written of European Americans' being held by Native Americans. In 1891, Gardner-Sharp purchased the primitive family cabin and returned home. For the last 30 years of her life, she subsisted on

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1440-467: The federal government repeatedly failed to make adequate and timely annuity payments, even failing to authorize adequate budgets for the Department of Interior for this purpose. Provisions for education were not started for several years; only a few missionaries taught the Sioux bands. Lands were not adequately plowed for cultivation. Supplies were shipped too late and in inadequate amounts, to the point where

1485-579: The game and lived by hunting, whose yield was decreasing under pressure of new settlement. They also received some annuities under the Traverse des Sioux and Mendota 1851 treaties but never received the rightful amount owed by the United States for lands the Sioux were forced to cede. By the terms of the Traverse des Sioux treaty, a reservation was set up along the Minnesota River, about 15 miles above Fort Ridgely . Promised improvements were not made on time and

1530-589: The group, who approached the Gillett cabin, was allegedly shot after repeated visits to the cabin believed to fancy Mrs. Gillett while also looking for food and rifles. As the tribe destroyed homes and lives on their journey, they came across Jowl Howe, who was also decapitated. The warriors killed 35-40 settlers, regardless of age or gender. Most of the victims were scalped. The Sioux took four young women as captives, 14-year-old Abbie Gardner and three who were married, and headed back to Minnesota territory. Word spread about

1575-421: The group, who in turn "borrowed" community items freely if they could, a vigilante group from Smithland went out to their encampment. The group, including John Howe, Eli Floyd and Jonathan Leach, appropriated guns and told the tribe they would be back in the morning. The Indians broke camp that night. Defenseless and hungry, the band moved north. Perhaps the first raid came near Gillet Grove, Iowa. A warrior of

1620-438: The job of Indian agent. Despite its deeply felt convictions that its Indian agents were appointed and removed on merit, the civilian Board of Commissioners was frequently deemed corrupt, portrayed derogatorily in print and propaganda, and inadvertently assumed the scapegoat for the perceived inefficiency of Indian-White affairs: the Indian agent. By the late 19th century, the job title of Indian agent began to change slightly in

1665-514: The modest earnings from her book and souvenir sales. The town erected a historical monument to commemorate the attack. The State of Iowa now maintains the park and Abbie Gardner Sharp home site. Inkpaduta led a small band of Wahpekutes who had been expelled from the main band in dissension following the murder of a chief in 1840. (Other major bands of Sioux in the region were the Wahpeton and Sisseton .) Including some women and children, his band followed

1710-667: The northern part of Standing Rock Reservation , and on the Spirit Lake Reservation , in areas within central North Dakota. Others live in the eastern half of the Fort Peck Indian Reservation in northeastern Montana. In addition, they reside at several Canadian reserves, including Birdtail , Oak Lake , and Whitecap (formerly Moose Woods). The Dakota maintain many separate tribal governments scattered across several reservations and communities in North America: in

1755-588: The period, and to the cultures of both the Sioux and the European-American settlers. Santee Sioux The Dakota (pronounced [daˈkˣota] , Dakota : Dakȟóta or Dakhóta ) are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government in North America. They compose two of the three main subcultures of the Sioux people, and are typically divided into the Eastern Dakota and

1800-472: The position that it was legally responsible for the protection of Indians from non-Indians, and in establishing this responsibility it "continue[d] to deal with Indian tribes by utilizing agents to negotiate treaties under the jurisdiction of the Department of War ." In the 1830s, the primary role of Indian agents was to assist in commercial trading supervision between traders and Indians, while agents possessed

1845-450: The reservations. By 1862, seeing thousands of children and elders die from starvation while whites broke the laws by seizing prime Sioux lands, the Sioux rebelled in what historians called the Sioux "Uprising." Nearly 30 years later in 1885, Abbie Gardner-Sharp, by then married, published her short memoir of the 1856 attack and her captivity, entitled History of the Spirit Lake Massacre and Captivity of Miss Abbie Gardner . Perhaps because

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1890-461: The summer, after struggling to marshal troops and attract allied Sioux warriors, the Indian Agency pursued Inkpaduta and his band, but most evaded capture. The Sioux refused to join another expedition. This was the last attack of Native Americans against settlers in Iowa. Historians have considered it a foreshadowing of the Sioux uprising in Minnesota in 1862. The events worsened relations between

1935-475: The wake of the recent attempts to 'civilize' Indians, assimilating them into American culture. Despite the public scorn for the agents, the Indian Office stated that the "chief duty of an agent is to induce his Indian to labor in civilized pursuits. To attain this end every possible influence should be brought to bear, and in proportion as it is attained   ... an agent is successful or unsuccessful." By

1980-480: Was an individual authorized to interact with American Indian tribes on behalf of the U.S. government. The federal regulation of Indian affairs in the United States first included development of the position of Indian agent in the Nonintercourse Act of 1793, a revision of the original 1790 law. This required land sales by or from Indians to be federally licensed and permitted. The legislation also authorized

2025-524: Was charged "with responsibility for supervising the disbursement of Indian appropriations" from state and federal governments. However, the United States Army command was extremely dissatisfied of the transfer of the Bureau of Indian Affairs from the Department of War to the Department of the Interior by 1849, so they began to make public complaints about the corruptive nature of the civilian presence in

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