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56-798: The history of the Jews in the Soviet Union is inextricably linked to much earlier expansionist policies of the Russian Empire conquering and ruling the eastern half of the European continent already before the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. "For two centuries – wrote Zvi Gitelman – millions of Jews had lived under one entity, the Russian Empire and [ its successor state ] the USSR . They had now come under

112-534: A New Roman Empire , based around the Mediterranean . Italy invaded Ethiopia as early as 1935, Albania in early 1938, and later Greece. Spazio vitale ("living space") was the territorial expansionist concept of Italian Fascism . It was analogous to Nazi Germany's concept of Lebensraum and the United States' concept of "Manifest Destiny". Fascist ideologist Giuseppe Bottai likened this historic mission to

168-497: A 2023 study, important historical instances of territorial expansion have frequently happened because actors on the periphery of a state have acted without authorization from their superiors at the center of the state. Leaders subsequently find it difficult to withdraw from the newly captured areas due to "sunk costs, domestic political pressure, and national honor." Every part of the world has experienced expansionism. The religious imperialism and colonialism of Islam started with

224-531: A citywide fire on 7 September 1921. The population of the city grew rapidly in interwar Poland from 23,497 in 1921 to 33,500 in 1931. Pińsk became a bustling commercial centre, and 70% of the population was Jewish , in spite of considerable migration. Following the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939, Pinsk and the surrounding area was annexed to the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic . It

280-513: A full invasion of Ukraine and annexed its southeastern provinces . Meanwhile, Russia has established domination over Belarus . The Russian state is also accused of neo-colonialism in Africa , mainly through the activities of the Wagner Group and Africa Corps . Turkey's foreign policy is characterized, especially since 2010s by an aggressive expansionism, irredentism and interventionism in

336-584: A large Mannerist complex, whose cathedral was demolished after World War II by communists; and the Butrymowicz Palace (1784–1790), built for Mateusz Butrymowicz, an important political and economical figure of Pinsk and Polesie. The Church of St. Charles Borromeo (1770—1782) and St. Barbara Cathedral of the Monastery of the St. Bernard Order (1786–1787) are placed near historic centre in the former Karolin suburb, which

392-623: A nation. Further expansion far beyond the American continent, in the Philippines , at the turn of the century which was driven by a paternalistic United States as McKinley's objectives, he declared in mid-1899, were fourfold: "Peace first, then a government of law and order honestly administered, full security to life, property, and occupation under the Stars and Stripes." However, the Philippines government

448-504: A religious destiny in the form of a Promised Land ), perhaps tinged with a self-interested pragmatism that targeted lands will eventually belong to the potential invader anyway. Ibn Khaldun wrote that newly established dynasties, because they have social cohesion or Asabiyyah , are able to seek "expansion to the limit." The Soviet economist Nikolai Kondratiev theorized that capitalism advances in 50-year expansion/stagnation cycles, driven by technological innovation. The UK, Germany,

504-588: A riot caused by the Mexican War. Many in the Cheyennes , Comanches, Kiowas, and Pawnees tribes died from smallpox in 1839–1840, measles and whooping cough in 1845, and cholera in 1849, which had been brought by American settlers. The buffalo herds, sparse grasses, and rare waters were also depleted following the war as increased traffic by settlers moving to California during the Gold Rush . The People's Republic of China

560-716: Is accused of expansionism through its operations and claims in the South China Sea , which are concurrently claimed in part by Vietnam , the Philippines , Brunei , Malaysia and the Republic of China . Israel was established on May 14, 1948, following the end of World War II and the Holocaust . Its government has occupied the West Bank , the Gaza Strip , the Golan Heights , and

616-533: The Einsatzgruppen , the mobile killing units, were responsible for the mass murder of up to a million Ukrainian Jews . Following the atrocities of World War II , there was a lot of antisemitic violence in Ukraine, diminishing after the period known as Glasnost . The number of Jews in Ukraine has drastically decreased since the late 20th century. The 2001 census showed that 380,000 Jews left Ukraine since 1989, which

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672-632: The British Mandate of Palestine . During the first years of Soviet occupation of Belarus, Jews were able to get managing positions in the country. In WWII, atrocities against the Jewish population in the German-conquered areas began almost immediately, with the dispatch of Einsatzgruppen (task groups) to round up Jews and shoot them. In the second half of the 20th century, there was a large wave of Belarusian Jews immigrating to Israel (see Aliyah from

728-730: The Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic . In 1954 it became part of the Brest Voblast . Pinsk has formed part of the Republic of Belarus since Belarusian independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Three main sights of the town are lined along the river: the Assumption Cathedral of the Monastery of the Greyfriars (1712–1730), with a campanile from 1817, the Jesuit collegium (1635–1648);

784-551: The Caucasus region were crushed. A Polish revolt in 1830 was ruthlessly crushed. Russian troops in 1848 crossed into Austria-Hungary to put down the Hungarian Revolt . Russification policies were implemented to weaken minority ethnic groups. Pan-Slavist solidarity led to further war with Turkey (the sick man of Europe ) in 1853 provoked Britain and France into invading Crimea . In Italy, Benito Mussolini sought to create

840-690: The Caucasus . Georgian Jews are one of the oldest communities in Georgia, tracing their migration into the country during the Babylonian captivity in 6th century BC. In 1801, the Russian Empire annexed Eastern Georgia . In the beginning of the 19th century, Ashkenazi Russian Jews were forced to move to Georgia by the Russian government. The Ashkenazi Jews and the Georgian Jews began establishing contact with each other, but relations were strained. Georgian Jews viewed

896-660: The Eastern Mediterranean and the neighboring Cyprus , Greece , Iraq , Syria , as well as in Africa , including Libya , and Nagorno-Karabakh . Turkey has occupied foreign territories and stationed troops in them, following the 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus , the Turkish occupation of northern Syria since 2016 and the Turkish presence in northern Iraq since 2018. In the 19th century, theories of racial unity evolved such as Pan-Germanism , Pan-Slavism , and Pan-Turkism and

952-601: The Japanese Empire , and the Balkans countries of Albania ( Greater Albania ), Bulgaria ( Greater Bulgaria ), Croatia ( Greater Croatia ), Hungary ( Greater Hungary ), Romania ( Greater Romania ) and Serbia ( Greater Serbia ). In American politics after the War of 1812 , Manifest Destiny was the ideological movement during America's expansion West . The movement incorporated expansionist nationalism with continentalism, with

1008-537: The Mexican War in 1846–1848 being attributed to it. Despite championing American settlers and traders as the people whom the government's military would be aiding, the Bent, St. Vrain and Company stated to be the most influential Indian trading company prior to the Mexican War, underwent a decline because of the and of traffic from American settlers by Beyreis. The company also lost the partner Charles Bent on January 19, 1847, to

1064-708: The Sinai Peninsula since the Six-Day War , although the Sinai was later returned to Egypt in 1982 and Israel disengaged from the Gaza Strip in 2005. Israel also occupied southern Lebanon from February 1985 to May 2000. Iran , the largest Shi'ite state, has extended its influence across the entire Middle East, including Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, Yemen and Afghanistan by arming local militias. Russia under Vladimir Putin has been described as expansionist, especially since

1120-619: The Ukrainian People's Republic , both short-lived. Pinsk was taken by the advancing Red Army on 25 January 1919, during the Soviet westward offensive of 1918–19 . It was retaken by Polish troops on 5 March 1919 during the Polish–Soviet War but was retaken by the Red Army on 23 July 1920 and finally retaken by the Polish on 26 September 1920. Pińsk became part of the reborn Poland in 1920 when

1176-807: The early Muslim conquests , was followed by the religious Caliphate expansionisms, and ended with the Partition of the Ottoman Empire . In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a period of expansion . The Ottomans ended the Eastern Roman Empire with the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed the Conqueror . The militarist and nationalistic reign of Russian Czar Nicholas I (1825–1855) led to wars of conquest against Persia (1826–1828) and Turkey (1828–1829) . Various rebel tribes in

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1232-508: The nation state evolved, especially in reference to the inherent rights of the governed, more complex justifications arose. State-collapse anarchy , reunification or pan-nationalism are sometimes used to justify and legitimize expansionism when the explicit goal is to reconquer territories that have been lost or to take over ancestral lands. Lacking a viable historical claim of this nature, would-be expansionists may instead promote ideologies of promised lands (such as manifest destiny or

1288-639: The 19th and early 20th centuries. The centre has become an active place for youths of all ages with summer theme parks and an association football stadium, which houses the city's football club, FC Volna Pinsk . Pinsk was occupied by the German Empire on 15 September 1915, during the First World War . After the German defeat, Pinsk became the subject of dispute between the Belarusian People's Republic and

1344-451: The 2010s. Putin said that the dissolution of the Soviet Union had "robbed" Russia of territories and made Russians "the biggest ethnic group in the world to be divided by borders", calling this an "outrageous historical injustice". Russia occupies parts of three neighboring countries . In 2008 Russia invaded Georgia and occupied Abkhazia and South Ossetia . In 2014 it occupied and then annexed Crimea from Ukraine. In 2022 it launched

1400-563: The Ashkenazim as godless and secular, while the Ashkenazim looked down on the Georgian Jews. Zionism was a uniting cause for the two groups. Beginning in 1863, groups of Jews began making aliyah , mostly for religious reasons. The Red Army invaded Georgia in February 1921, prompting a mass exodus from the region. Jews living in the Ukrainian SSR underwent Sovietization , together with

1456-666: The Polish-Soviet War ended with the Peace of Riga , signed in March 1921. Like many other cities in Eastern Europe, Pinsk had a significant Jewish population before World War II. According to the Russian census of 1897 , out of the total number of 28,400 inhabitants, Jews were approximately 74% of the population (21,100 persons), making it one of the most Jewish cities under tsarist rule. During

1512-675: The Polish-Soviet War, 35 Jewish civilians from Pinsk were executed by the Polish Army in April 1919 after being accused of collaborating with Russian Bolsheviks . The incident, known as the Pinsk massacre , created a diplomatic crisis noted at the Versailles Conference . Pińsk was the initial capital of the Polesie Voivodeship , but it moved to Brześć-nad-Bugiem (now Brest, Belarus ) after

1568-568: The Sands portrays the threatening nature of the German Empire. Elspeth Huxley 's novel Red Strangers shows the effects on local culture of colonial expansion into Sub-Saharan Africa . Pinsk Pinsk ( Belarusian : Пінск ; Russian : Пинск , IPA: [pʲinsk] ; Polish : Pińsk ; Ukrainian : Пінськ ; Yiddish : פינסק ) is a city in Brest Region , Belarus . It serves as

1624-472: The Soviet Union in 1941. Expansionist nationalism is an aggressive and radical form of nationalism that incorporates autonomous patriotic sentiments with a belief in expansionism. The term was coined during the late 19th century as European powers indulged in the Scramble for Africa , but it has been most associated with militarist governments during the 20th century including Fascist Italy , Nazi Germany ,

1680-494: The Soviet Union in the 1970s ), as well as to the United States. In 1979, there were 135,400 Jews in Belarus; a decade later, 112,000 were left. The collapse of the Soviet Union and Belarusian independence saw most of the community, along with the majority of the former Soviet Union's Jewish population, leave for Israel (see Russian immigration to Israel in the 1990s ). The 1999 census estimated that there were only 29,000 Jews left in

1736-482: The Soviet authorities on 14 June 1941. In WWII, more than 75% of Estonia's Jewish community, aware of the fate that otherwise awaited them, managed to escape to the Soviet Union; virtually all the remainder (between 950 and 1000 men, women and children) had been killed by the end of 1941. The four Estonians held most responsible for the murders at Kalevi-Liiva were accused at war crimes trials in 1961 . Two were later executed;

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1792-652: The US, Japan and now China have been at the forefront of successive waves. Crane Brinton in The Anatomy of Revolution saw the revolution as a driver of expansionism in, for example, Stalinist Russia, the United States and the Napoleonic Empire. Christopher Booker believed that wishful thinking can generate a "dream phase" of expansionism such as in the European Union , which is short-lived and unreliable. According to

1848-581: The administrative center of Pinsk District , though it is administratively separated from the district. It is located in the historical region of Polesia , at the confluence of the Pina River and the Pripyat River . The region was known as the Pinsk Marshes and is southwest of Minsk . As of 2024, it has a population of 124,295. The historic city has a restored city centre, with two-storey buildings from

1904-704: The census, 41,288 Jews resided in Azerbaijan that year. Many Jewish émigrés from Azerbaijan settled in Tel-Aviv and Haifa . There are relatively large communities of Mountain Jewish expatriates from Azerbaijan in New York City and Toronto . Similar to many immigrant communities of the Czarist and Soviet eras in Azerbaijan , Ashkenazi Jews appear to be linguistically Russified . The majority of Ashkenazi Jews speak Russian as their first language with Azeri sometimes being spoken as

1960-872: The country's Jewish population has shrunk to 750. Despite small numbers, a high intermarriage rate, and relative isolation, a great deal of enthusiasm exists to help the community meet its needs. There are about 100 Jews presently living in Armenia , mainly in the capital Yerevan . They are mostly of Ashkenazi origin and some are Mizrahi Georgian Jews . The History of the Jews in Azerbaijan ( Judeo-Tat : çuhuro / жугьуро / ז'אוּהאוּרו ; Yiddish : אַזערבייַדזאַניש יִידן ; Azerbaijani : cuhudlar, yəhudilər ; Russian: Азербайджанские евреи ) dates back to Late Antiquity . Historically Jews in Azerbaijan have been represented by various subgroups, mainly Mountain Jews , Ashkenazi Jews and Georgian Jews . After Sovietization all Zionism -related activities including those of cultural nature that were carried out in Hebrew were banned. In

2016-404: The country. However, local Jewish organizations put the number at 50,000, and the Jewish Agency believes that there are 70,000. About half of the country's Jews live in Minsk . Despite anti-semitic government policies, national Jewish organizations, local cultural groups, religious schools, charitable organizations, and organizations for war veterans and Holocaust survivors have been formed. Since

2072-446: The decisive role of American expansionism. The free land enabled economic independence (as opposed to political dominance by landlords in Europe) and popular democracy in America. The success of expansionism led to a deep belief in the superiority of the "American way of life," as shown by how it attracted tens of millions of immigrants. Economic success was supplemented by the confidence that Anglo Saxons were simply better at governing

2128-420: The deeds of the ancient Romans . After 1937, Nazi Germany under Hitler laid claim to Sudetenland , unification ( Anschluss ) with Austria in 1938 and the occupation of the whole of the Czech lands the following year. After war broke out, Hitler and Stalin divided Poland between Germany and the Soviet Union . In a Drang nach Osten aimed at achieving Lebensraum for the German people, Germany invaded

2184-420: The early 1920s, a few hundred Mountain Jewish families from Azerbaijan and Dagestan left for Palestine and settled in Tel Aviv . The next aliyah did not take place until the 1970s, after the ban on Jewish immigration to Israel was lifted (see Refusenik ). Between 1972 and 1978 around 3,000 people left Azerbaijan for Israel. 1970 was the demographic peak for Azerbaijani Jews after World War II ; according to

2240-436: The early 19th century, Jews began arriving from Poland and Iran , creating Ashkenazic and Mizrahi communities in Yerevan . More Jews moved to Armenia during its period as a Soviet republic finding more tolerance in the area than in Russia or Ukraine . After World War II , the Jewish population rose to approximately 5,000. However, with the dissolution of the Soviet Union , many left due to inadequate services and today

2296-404: The end of the 19th century, many Belarusian Jews were part of the general flight of Jews from Eastern Europe to the New World due to conflicts and pogroms engulfing the Russian Empire and the anti-Semitism of the Russian czars . Millions of Jews, including tens of thousands of Jews from Belarus, emigrated to the United States of America and South Africa. A small number also emigrated to

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2352-511: The fact that in the late nineteenth century, men saw supporting the military as the ultimate test of being a man. As a result, expansionism was a way of projecting manliness onto the electorate and in to society. George Orwell 's satirical novel Animal Farm is a fictional depiction, based on Stalin 's Soviet Union, of a new elite seizing power, establishing new rules and hierarchies, and expanding economically while they compromise their ideals. Robert Erskine Childers 's novel The Riddle of

2408-450: The jurisdiction of fifteen states, some of which had never existed and others that had passed out of existence in 1939." Before the revolutions of 1989 which resulted in the end of communist rule in Central and Eastern Europe, a number of these now sovereign countries constituted the component republics of the Soviet Union . The history of the Jews in Armenia dates back more than 2,000 years. After Eastern Armenia came under Russian rule in

2464-446: The mass immigration of the 1990s, there has been some continuous immigration to Israel. In 2002, 974 Belarusians moved to Israel, and between 2003 and 2005, 4,854 followed suit. The history of the Jews in Estonian SSR starts with individual reports of Jews in what is now Estonia from as early as the 14th century. However, the process of permanent Jewish settlement in Estonia began in the 19th century, especially after they were granted

2520-438: The official right to enter the region by a statute of Russian Tsar Alexander II in 1865. This allowed the so-called Jewish 'Nicholas soldiers' (often former cantonists ) and their descendants, First Guild merchants, artisans , and Jews with higher education to settle in Estonia and other parts of the Russian Empire outside their Pale of Settlement . The "Nicholas soldiers" and their descendants, and artisans were, basically,

2576-413: The ones who founded the first Jewish congregations in Estonia. The Tallinn congregation, the largest in Estonia, was founded in 1830. The Tartu congregation was established in 1866 when the first fifty families settled there. Synagogues were built, the largest of which were constructed in Tallinn in 1883 and Tartu in 1901. Both of these were subsequently destroyed by fire in World War II . The life of

2632-438: The others avoided sentencing by having gone to exile. From 1944 until 1988 the Estonian Jewish community had no organisations, associations, or clubs. In March 1988, as the process towards regaining Estonia's independence was beginning, the Jewish Cultural Society was established in Tallinn. It was the first of its kind in the late Soviet Union. Unlike in other parts of the Soviet Union, there were no problems with registering either

2688-409: The related Turanism . In each case, the dominant nation (respectively, Prussia ; the Russian Empire ; and the Ottoman Empire , especially under Enver Pasha ) used those theories to legitimise their expansionist policies. In terms of explaining the results of American expansion, this goes back to the 19th century when Frederick Jackson Turner produced his Frontier Thesis which made the case for

2744-449: The rest of the population of the Soviet Union . The Ukrainian Jews were targeted and murdered during the Holocaust when the Nazis occupied Ukraine. During the war, a total of 1.5 million Ukrainian Jews were killed, leaving only 40% of the Jewish population prior to the war. In 1941, when Western Ukraine was taken over by Germany , the Jews were put into ghettos and later sent to death camps where they were murdered. Additionally,

2800-444: The second. The number of Yiddish-speakers is unknown. The Jews in Belarus, then known as Byelorussian SSR were the third largest ethnic group in the country in the first half of the 20th century. Before World War II, Jews were the third among the ethnic groups in Belarus and comprised more than 40% of the population in cities and towns. The population of cities such as Minsk , Pinsk , Mahiliou , Babrujsk , Viciebsk , and Homiel

2856-463: The small Jewish community in Estonia was disrupted in 1940 with the Soviet occupation of Estonia . Cultural autonomy together with all its institutions was liquidated in July 1940. In July and August of the same year all organisations, associations, societies and corporations were closed. Jewish businesses were nationalized. A relatively large number of Jews (350–450, about 10% of the total Jewish population) were deported into prison camps in Russia by

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2912-457: The society or its symbols. The Society began by organising concerts and lectures. Soon the question of founding a Jewish school arose. As a start, a Sunday school was established in 1989. The Tallinn Jewish Gymnasium on Karu Street was being used by a vocational school. In 1990, a Jewish School with grades 1 through 9 was established. The Georgian Jews ( Georgian : ქართველი ებრაელები , romanized : kartveli ebraelebi ) are from Georgia , in

2968-421: Was 3 ⁄ 4 of the entire Jewish population. Expansionism In the classical age of conquest moral justification for territorial expansion at the direct expense of another established polity (who often faced displacement, subjugation, slavery, rape and execution) was often as unapologetic as "because we can" treading on the philosophical grounds of might makes right . As political conceptions of

3024-463: Was more than 50% Jewish. In 1897 there were 724,548 Jews in Belarus, or 13.6% of the total population. Some 800,000 Jews—90% of the Jewish population—were killed in Belarus during the Holocaust . According to the 2009 census, there were 12,926 Jews in Belarus (0.1% of the population). The Jewish Agency estimates the community of Jews in Belarus at 70,000. Marc Chagall , Mendele Mocher Sforim , Chaim Weizmann and Menachem Begin were born in Belarus. By

3080-507: Was shared with the local political elite, which called for independence. In Washington Democrats rejected McKinley-style expansionism and in 1934 set the Philippines on the path to independence, which was achieved in 1946. It has also been posited that American leaders were pressured under traditional gender roles, which in turn made expansionism more likely. By the end of the 19th century President McKinley had been accustomed to being evaluated in terms of his manliness. This also played in to

3136-459: Was the seat of the Pinsk Oblast from 1940. After Operation Barbarossa , Germany occupied Pinsk from 4 July 1941 to 14 July 1944, as part of the Reichskommissariat Ukraine . Most Jews were killed in late October 1942 during the liquidation of the Pińsk Ghetto by the German Ordnungspolizei and the Byelorussian Auxiliary Police , 10,000 being murdered in one day. In 1945, after postwar border adjustments of Poland, Pinsk again became part of

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