53-510: Southern Ocean Observing System ( SOOS ) is an international initiative of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) and the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR). It was officially launched in 2011. Its International Project Office is hosted by the Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies (IMAS), University of Tasmania , Australia. The Southern Ocean comprises
106-629: A Special Committee on Antarctic Research. The 12 nations were Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, United Kingdom, United States, and USSR. The Special Committee held its first meeting in the Hague from 3–6 February 1958 and elected its first Executive Committee - Ing. Gen. Georges Laclavère (French) as president, Professor Keith Edward Bullen (British) as vice president, and Valter Schytt (Swedish) as secretary. A Finance Committee and three working groups were also formed at this meeting. The organisation's name
159-564: A crisis that lasted until the last day of the conference, since the United States, along with other countries, intended to ban only those that were made without prior notice and without prior consultation. The support of the USSR and Chile for the Argentine proposal finally caused the United States to retract its opposition. The signing of the treaty was the first arms control agreement that occurred in
212-657: A fleet of eight warships to Antarctica in February 1948. On 17 January 1953, Argentina reopened the Lieutenant Lasala refuge on Deception Island , leaving a sergeant and a corporal in the Argentine Navy. On 15 February, in the incident on Deception Island, 32 royal marines landed from the British frigate HMS Snipe armed with Sten machine guns, rifles, and tear gas capturing the two Argentine sailors. The Argentine refuge and
265-528: A hypothetical war in the Antarctic. On 2 September 1947, the quadrant of Antarctica in which the United States was interested (between 24° W and 90° W ) was included as part of the security zone of the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance , committing its members to defend it in case of external aggression. In August 1948, the United States proposed that Antarctica be under the guardianship of
318-541: A nearby uninhabited Chilean shelter were destroyed, and the Argentine sailors were delivered to a ship from that country on 18 February near South Georgia . A British detachment remained three months on the island while the frigate patrolled its waters until April. On 4 May 1955, the United Kingdom filed two lawsuits, against Argentina and Chile respectively, before the International Court of Justice to declare
371-520: A plan to suspend all Antarctic claims for five to ten years while negotiating a final solution, but this did not find acceptance. In 1950, the interest of the United States to keep the Soviet Union away from Antarctica was frustrated, when the Soviets informed the claimant states that they would not accept any Antarctic agreement in which they were not represented. The fear that the USSR would react by making
424-570: A territorial claim, bringing the Cold War to Antarctica, led the United States to make none. Various international conflicts motivated the creation of an agreement for the Antarctic. Some incidents had occurred during the Second World War , and a new one occurred in Hope Bay on 1 February 1952, when the Argentine military fired warning shots at a group of Britons. The response of the United Kingdom
477-471: A variety of disciplines and themes through SCAR. SCAR has three permanent science groups: Each science group encompasses scientific research programmes (SRPs) in priority areas. SRPs have a lifetime of about eight years and new programmes can be suggested and developed through programme planning groups (PPGs). In 2018, a permanent Standing Committee on the Humanities and Social Sciences was set up to recognise
530-576: Is a large and growing part of SCAR's policy work. In 2002 SCAR received the prestigious Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation. SCAR provides independent scientific advice to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings via its Standing Committee on the Antarctic Treaty System (SCATS). SCATS brings together global scientists to create papers on the status of particular areas of research, to present at
583-641: Is an interdisciplinary body of the International Science Council (ISC) . SCAR coordinates international scientific research efforts in Antarctica , including the Southern Ocean . SCAR's scientific work is administered through several discipline-themed science groups . The organisation has observer status at, and provides independent advice to Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings, and also provides information to other international bodies such as
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#1732845423423636-581: Is defined as all the land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude . Since September 2004, the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat , which implements the treaty system, is headquartered in Buenos Aires , Argentina. The main treaty was opened for signature on 1 December 1959, and officially entered into force on 23 June 1961. The original signatories were the 12 countries active in Antarctica during
689-527: Is no Antarctic sovereignty. The majority of Antarctica is claimed by one or more countries, but most countries do not explicitly recognize those claims. The area on the mainland between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west is the only major land on Earth not claimed by any country . Until 2015 the interior of the Norwegian Sector, the extent of which had never been officially defined, was considered to be unclaimed. That year, Norway formally laid claim to
742-593: Is often considered to represent an example of the common heritage of mankind principle. Since the designation of the Australian Antarctic Territory pre-dated the signing of the Antarctic Treaty, Australian laws that relate to Antarctica date from more than two decades before the Antarctic Treaty era. In terms of criminal law, the laws that apply to the Jervis Bay Territory (which follows
795-737: Is through meetings. These include biennial Open Science Conferences (OSCs), Delegate Meetings, the SCAR Biology Symposium (every 4 years), the International Symposium on Antarctic Earth Sciences, and the Humanities and Social Science Symposium. SCAR has been organising biennial Open Science Conferences (OSCs) in various member countries including Germany, Australia, Russia, Argentina, US, New Zealand, Malaysia and Switzerland, since 2004. The OSCs give Antarctic scientists opportunities to draw attention to Antarctic issues, hold scientific group meetings, share their work, and network. Due to
848-675: The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings. SCAR is also tasked with providing advice to a number of other bodies, including the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources. In 2019, SCAR's long-standing contribution to the Antarctic Treaty System was recognised by the passing of a resolution calling for the representative countries' Governments to enhance support, collaboration and cooperation in scientific research and protective measures for Antarctica. In 2022
901-475: The Antarctic Treaty System ( ATS ), regulate international relations with respect to Antarctica , Earth's only continent without a native human population. It was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War , designating the continent as a scientific preserve, establishing freedom of scientific investigation, and banning military activity ; for the purposes of the treaty system, Antarctica
954-738: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) . At the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) 's Antarctic meeting held in Stockholm from 9–11 September 1957, it was agreed that a committee should be created to oversee scientific research in Antarctica. At the time there were 12 nations actively conducting Antarctic research and they were each invited to nominate one delegate to join
1007-639: The International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) had discussed the possibility of holding a third International Polar Year . At the suggestion of the World Meteorological Organization , the idea of the International Polar Year was extended to the entire planet, thus creating the International Geophysical Year that took place between 1 July 1957, and 31 December 1958. In this event, 66 countries participated. At
1060-554: The International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957–58: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union , the United Kingdom, and the United States. These countries had established over 55 Antarctic research stations for the IGY, and the subsequent promulgation of the treaty was seen as a diplomatic expression of the operational and scientific cooperation that had been achieved. As of 2024 ,
1113-779: The "Antarctic Climate Change and the Environment" report was published for the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting in Berlin. The report summarises a decade of research on the impact of climate change on Antarctica and the Southern Ocean, and the global effects of these changes. The report's findings were summarised in an animation titled "Our Future Depends on Us". SCAR awards four medals at its biennial Open Science Conferences, in recognition of excellence in Antarctic and Southern Ocean research and outstanding service to
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#17328454234231166-804: The AntArchitecture Action Group, the Expert Group on Birds and Marine Mammals, the Earth Observation Action Group, and the Action Group on Meeting and Managing Antarctic Environments. One aspect of SCAR's work is identifying emerging issues from Antarctic and Southern Ocean research and bringing them to the attention of policymakers, including the Antarctic Treaty , the UNFCCC and IPCC . Environmental and conservation related science
1219-702: The Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to US$ 10,000 in fines and one year in prison. The Departments of the Treasury , Commerce , Transportation , and the Interior share enforcement responsibilities. The Act requires expeditions from the U.S. to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs of the State Department , which reports such plans to other nations as required by
1272-600: The Antarctic Treaty. Further information is provided by the Office of Polar Programs of the National Science Foundation . In 2006, the New Zealand police reported that jurisdictional issues prevented them issuing warrants for potential American witnesses who were reluctant to testify during the Christchurch Coroner's investigation into the death by poisoning of Australian astrophysicist Rodney Marks at
1325-674: The COVID-19 pandemic, the physical 2020 conference and meetings scheduled to take place in Hobart, Australia, were cancelled. SCAR 2020 Online was held online from 3–7 August and delivered the highlights of the conference through a combination of live streaming, recorded presentations, text-based chat and a poster gallery. The 2022 OSC was also held online with live and recorded presentations, virtual networking, and an online poster gallery. Future meetings will use an innovative hybrid format going forwards. Over 30 groups coordinate Antarctic research across
1378-532: The Christchurch Coroner said that it was unlikely that Dr. Marks ingested the methanol knowingly, although there is no certainty that he died as the direct result of the act of another person. During media interviews, the police detective in charge of the investigation criticized the National Science Foundation and contractor Raytheon for failing to cooperate with the investigation. Under
1431-708: The Executive Committee. The role of the Executive Committee is to work with the SCAR Secretariat (based at the Scott Polar Research Institute in Cambridge , England) to carry out decisions made by the Delegates. The Executive Committee is made up of a president, an immediate past-president, four vice-presidents and the executive director of SCAR. One of the ways that SCAR brings researchers together
1484-600: The ICSU meeting in Stockholm from 9 to 11 September 1957, the creation of a Special Committee for Antarctic Research (SCAR) was approved, inviting the twelve countries conducting Antarctic investigations to send delegates to integrate the committee, with the purpose of exchanging scientific information among its members regarding Antarctica. The SCAR was later renamed to the Scientific Committee for Research in Antarctica. Both Argentina and Chile stated that research carried out on
1537-590: The South Pole base in May 2000. Dr. Marks died while wintering over at the United States' Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station located at the geographic South Pole. Prior to autopsy, the death was attributed to natural causes by the National Science Foundation and the contractor administering the base. However, an autopsy in New Zealand revealed that Dr. Marks died from methanol poisoning. The New Zealand Police launched an investigation. In 2006, frustrated by lack of progress,
1590-495: The United Nations, as a trust territory administered by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, the United States, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand. This idea was rejected by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, and Norway. Before the rejection, on 28 August 1948, the United States proposed to the claimant countries some form of internationalization of Antarctica, and the United Kingdom supported this. Chile responded by presenting
1643-472: The United States now stations special deputy U.S. Marshals in Antarctica to provide a law enforcement presence. Some U.S. laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic Conservation Act , Public Law 95-541, 16 U.S.C. § 2401 et seq. , provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by regulation or statute : Violation of
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1696-478: The United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand coincided in the establishment of an international administration for Antarctica, proposing that it should be within the framework of the United Nations. Australia and the United Kingdom expressed the need for inspections by observers, and the British also proposed the use of military personnel for logistical functions. Argentina proposed that all atomic explosions be banned in Antarctica, which caused
1749-602: The area between its Queen Maud Land and the South Pole. Governments that are party to the Antarctic Treaty and its Protocol on Environmental Protection implement the articles of these agreements, and decisions taken under them, through national laws. These laws generally apply only to their own citizens, wherever they are in Antarctica, and serve to enforce the consensus decisions of the consultative parties: about which activities are acceptable, which areas require permits to enter, what processes of environmental impact assessment must precede activities, and so on. The Antarctic Treaty
1802-482: The continent and the remaining five being non-claimants. Other nations have joined as consultative members by conducting significant research in Antarctica. Non-consultative parties can also adhere to the treaty. In 1991–1992, the treaty was renegotiated by 33 nations, with the main change being the Madrid Protocol on Environmental Protection, which prohibited mining and oil exploration for 50 years. The positions of
1855-490: The continent during the International Geophysical Year would not give any territorial rights to the participants, and that the facilities that were erected during that year should be dismantled at the end of it. However, in February 1958, the United States proposed that the Antarctic investigations should be extended for another year, and the Soviet Union reported that it would maintain its scientific bases until
1908-545: The framework of the Cold War, and the participating countries managed to avoid the internationalization of Antarctic sovereignty . As of the year 2048, any of the consultative parties to the treaty may request the revision of the treaty and its entire normative system, with the approval of a relative majority. Other agreements – some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments – include: The Antarctic Treaty System's yearly Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCM) are
1961-472: The important and growing contribution of the humanities and social sciences communities to Antarctic research. Antarctica's human history is relatively recent and this important area of study explores how humans interact with the region. Each science group also has action groups (AGs), which have a lifetime of two to four years and are intended to solve short-term issues, and wider-focus expert groups (EGs), which last between six and eight years. Examples include
2014-663: The international Antarctic community, these are: SCAR offers Visiting Scholar Awards, which enable researchers and academics to visit other SCAR member countries. SCAR provides fellowships to early-career researchers to allow them to join research groups in other countries. As one of the principles of its parent organisation, the International Science Council (ISC) , SCAR "promotes equitable opportunities for access to science and its benefits, and opposes discrimination based on such factors as ethnic origin, religion, citizenship, language, political or other opinion, sex, gender identity, sexual orientation, disability, or age." As part of
2067-783: The international forum for the administration and management of the region. Only 29 of the 57 parties to the agreements have the right to participate in decision-making at these meetings, though the other 28 are still allowed to attend. The decision-making participants are the Consultative Parties and, in addition to the 12 original signatories, including 17 countries that have demonstrated their interest in Antarctica by carrying out substantial scientific activity there. The Antarctic Treaty also has Special Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (SATCM) , which are generally summoned to treat more important topics but are less frequents and Meetings of Experts. As of 2024, there are 57 states party to
2120-556: The invalidity of the claims of the sovereignty of the two countries over Antarctic and sub-Antarctic areas. On 15 July 1955, the Chilean government rejected the jurisdiction of the court in that case, and on 1 August, the Argentine government also did so, so on 16 March 1956, the claims were closed. In 1956 and 1958, India tried unsuccessfully to bring the Antarctic issue to the United Nations General Assembly . In 1950,
2173-816: The laws of the Australian Capital Territory ) apply to the Australian Antarctic Territory. Key Australian legislation applying Antarctic Treaty System decisions include the Antarctic Treaty Act 1960 , the Antarctic Treaty (Environment Protection) Act 1980 and the Antarctic Marine Living Resources Conservation Act 1981 . The law of the United States , including certain criminal offences by or against U.S. nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries. To this end,
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2226-449: The marine ecosystem. SOOS is designed to aid the collection and delivery of essential observations on dynamics and change of Southern Ocean systems to all international stakeholders (researchers, governments, industries). It seeks to enable the design, advocacy and implementation of cost-effective observing and data delivery systems. Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR)
2279-588: The mid-1960s. The central ideas with full acceptance were the freedom of scientific research in Antarctica and the peaceful use of the continent. There was also a consensus for demilitarization and the maintenance of the status quo. The treaty prohibits nuclear testing, military operations, economic exploitation, and territorial claims in Antarctica. It is monitored through on-site inspections. The only permanent structures allowed are scientific research stations. The original signatory countries hold voting rights on Antarctic governance, with seven of them claiming portions of
2332-532: The push to improve the representation of women on Misplaced Pages, the SCAR community has already included more than 70 new biographies for notable women in Antarctic research. In 2022 SCAR established an Equality, Diversity and Inclusion ( EDI ) Action Group tasked with identifying how EDI issues can be effectively dealt with within SCAR, and what practical actions can be taken. Antarctic Treaty System The Antarctic Treaty and related agreements, collectively known as
2385-566: The right to make a claim. The Antarctic Treaty Secretariat was established in Buenos Aires, Argentina in September 2004 by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM). Jan Huber (the Netherlands) served as the first Executive Secretary for five years until 31 August 2009. He was succeeded on 1 September 2009, by Manfred Reinke (Germany). Reinke was succeeded by Albert Lluberas (Uruguay), who
2438-564: The southernmost waters of the World Ocean, generally taken to be south of 60° S latitude and encircling Antarctica. As such, it is regarded as the second-smallest of the five principal oceanic divisions: smaller than the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans but larger than the Arctic Ocean. Over the past 30 years, the Southern Ocean has been subject to rapid climate change, which has led to changes in
2491-478: The studies being carried out had been completed. Scientific bases increased international tension concerning Antarctica. The danger of the Cold War spreading to that continent caused the President of the United States, Dwight D. Eisenhower , to convene an Antarctic Conference of the twelve countries active in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year, to sign a treaty. In the first phase, representatives of
2544-454: The treaty has 57 parties. After World War II , the U.S. considered establishing a claim in Antarctica. From 26 August 1946, and until the beginning of 1947, it carried out Operation Highjump , the largest military expeditionary force that the United States had ever sent to Antarctica, consisting of 13 ships, 4,700 men, and numerous aerial devices. Its goals were to train military personnel and to test material in conditions of extreme cold for
2597-658: The treaty, 29 of which, including all 12 original signatories to the treaty, have consultative (voting) status. The consultative members include the 7 countries that claim portions of Antarctica as their territory. The 49 non-claimant countries do not recognize the claims of others. 42 parties to the Antarctic Treaty have also ratified the "Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty". [REDACTED] East Germany also acceded on 19 November 1974, and received consultative status on 5 October 1987, prior to its reunification with West Germany . Has an overlapping claim with another one or two claimants. Reserved
2650-518: The twelve nations met in Washington, who met in sixty sessions between June 1958 and October 1959 to define a basic negotiating framework. However, no consensus was reached on a preliminary draft. In the second phase, a conference at the highest diplomatic level was held from 15 October to 1 December 1959, when the Treaty was signed. The Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 by 12 nations and came into effect in
2703-579: Was elected in June 2017 at the 40th Antarctic Consultative Treaty Meeting in Beijing, China. The tasks of the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat can be divided into the following areas: Antarctica currently has no permanent population and therefore it has no citizenship nor government. Personnel present on Antarctica at any time are always citizens or nationals of some sovereignty outside Antarctica, as there
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#17328454234232756-405: Was later changed to the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research. SCAR is currently made up of 32 full member countries and 12 associate member countries. Each full member country appoints a permanent delegate and an alternate delegate; associate member countries appoint just one delegate. The delegates meet every two years to decide on SCAR's strategic direction and which delegates to elect to
2809-418: Was to send a warship that landed marines at the scene on 4 February. In 1949, Argentina, Chile, and the United Kingdom signed a Tripartite Naval Declaration committing not to send warships south of the 60th parallel south , which was renewed annually until 1961 when it was deemed unnecessary when the treaty entered into force. This tripartite declaration was signed after the tension generated when Argentina sent
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