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92-508: South Mountain Park preserves in a natural state a mountainous area of 16,283 acres (65.89 km) or approximately 25.5 sq mi (66 km) of native desert vegetation. Originally called Phoenix Mountain Park, it was formed in 1924 when President Calvin Coolidge sold its initial 13,000 acres (53 km) to the city of Phoenix for $ 17,000. It has since been expanded through bond programs during

184-511: A Congregational mystic who had a neo-Hegelian philosophy. Coolidge explained Garman's ethics forty years later: [T]here is a standard of righteousness that might does not make right, that the end does not justify the means, and that expediency as a working principle is bound to fail. The only hope of perfecting human relationships is in accordance with the law of service under which men are not so solicitous about what they shall get as they are about what they shall give. Yet people are entitled to

276-672: A "carrot tail" phenotype, which is unique to this population. 33°20′10″N 112°4′10″W  /  33.33611°N 112.06944°W  / 33.33611; -112.06944 Calvin Coolidge Calvin Coolidge (born John Calvin Coolidge Jr. / ˈ k uː l ɪ dʒ / KOOL -ij ; July 4, 1872 – January 5, 1933) was the 30th president of the United States , serving from 1923 to 1929. A Republican lawyer from Massachusetts , he previously served as

368-543: A candidate in his state senate district, Coolidge won reelection against his Democratic opponent by an increased margin. In the 1913 session, Coolidge enjoyed renowned success in arduously navigating to passage the Western Trolley Act, which connected Northampton with a dozen similar industrial communities in Western Massachusetts . Coolidge intended to retire after his second term as was the custom, but when

460-469: A federal oath. This second oath-taking remained a secret until it was revealed by Harry M. Daugherty in 1932, and confirmed by Hoehling. When Hoehling confirmed Daugherty's story, he indicated that Daugherty, then serving as United States Attorney General , asked him to administer the oath without fanfare at the Willard Hotel . According to Hoehling, he did not question Daugherty's reason for requesting

552-654: A fourth term, Coolidge announced his intention to run for governor. Coolidge was unopposed for the Republican nomination for Governor of Massachusetts in 1918 . He and his running mate, Channing Cox , a Boston lawyer and Speaker of the Massachusetts House of Representatives , ran on the previous administration's record: fiscal conservatism , a vague opposition to Prohibition , support for women's suffrage, and support for American involvement in World War I . The issue of

644-570: A graduate of the University of Vermont and a teacher at Northampton's Clarke School for the Deaf . They married on October 4, 1905, at 2:30 p.m. in a small ceremony which took place in the parlor of Grace's family's house, having overcome her mother's objections to the marriage. The newlyweds went on a honeymoon trip to Montreal , originally planned for two weeks but cut short by a week at Coolidge's request. After 25 years he wrote of Grace, "for almost

736-529: A heart attack in San Francisco while on a speaking tour of the western United States. Vice President Coolidge was in Vermont visiting his family home , which had neither electricity nor a telephone, when he received word by messenger of Harding's death. Coolidge dressed, said a prayer, and came downstairs to greet the reporters who had assembled. His father, a notary public and justice of the peace , administered

828-499: A little over a week later at the age of 16. The President never forgave himself for Calvin Jr's death. His eldest son John said it "hurt [Coolidge] terribly", and psychiatric biographer Robert E. Gilbert, author of The Tormented President: Calvin Coolidge, Death, and Clinical Depression , said that Coolidge "ceased to function as President after the death of his sixteen-year-old son". Gilbert explains in his book how Coolidge displayed all ten of

920-550: A man without a country, the Indian who has suffered a thousand wrongs considered the white man's burden and from mountains, plains and divides, the Indian threw himself into the struggle to help throttle the unthinkable tyranny of the Hun. The Indian helped to free Belgium , helped to free all the small nations, helped to give victory to the Stars and Stripes. The Indian went to France to help avenge

1012-401: A period of rapid and expansive economic growth known as the " Roaring Twenties ", leaving office with considerable popularity. He was known for his hands-off governing approach and pro-business stance; biographer Claude Fuess wrote: "He embodied the spirit and hopes of the middle class, could interpret their longings and express their opinions. That he did represent the genius of the average is

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1104-404: A pickle." Coolidge and his wife, Grace, who was a great baseball fan, once attended a Washington Senators game and sat through all nine innings without saying a word, except once when he asked her the time. As president, Coolidge's reputation as a quiet man continued. "The words of a President have an enormous weight," he would later write, "and ought not to be used indiscriminately." Coolidge

1196-652: A policeman does not strike. That night and the next, there was sporadic violence and rioting in the unruly city. Peters, concerned about sympathy strikes by the firemen and others, called up some units of the Massachusetts National Guard stationed in the Boston area pursuant to an old and obscure legal authority, and relieved Curtis of duty. Coolidge, sensing the severity of circumstances were then in need of his intervention, conferred with Crane's operative, William Butler, and then acted. He called up more units of

1288-499: A premium upon concise and short speeches. On November 2, 1920, Harding and Coolidge were victorious in a landslide, winning more than 60 percent of the popular vote, including every state outside the South. They also won in Tennessee , the first time a Republican ticket had won a Southern state since Reconstruction . The U.S. vice-presidency did not carry many official duties, but Coolidge

1380-462: A quarter of a century she has borne with my infirmities and I have rejoiced in her graces". The Coolidges had two sons: John (1906–2000) and Calvin Jr. (1908–1924). On June 30, 1924, Calvin Jr. had played tennis with his brother on the White House tennis courts without putting on socks and developed a blister on one of his toes. The blister subsequently degenerated into sepsis . Calvin Jr. died

1472-452: A right to the land, individual Indian people needed to belong to the tribe. Thus, dual citizenship was allowed. Earlier views on granting Indian citizenship had suggested allocating land to individuals. Of such efforts, the Dawes Act was the most prominent. That Act allocated once-tribally-owned land to individual tribal members, and because they were landowners and eventually would pay taxes on

1564-461: A second oath-taking but assumed it was to resolve any doubt about whether the first swearing-in was valid. Defunct Newspapers Journals TV channels Websites Other Economics Gun rights Identity politics Nativist Religion Watchdog groups Youth/student groups Miscellaneous Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 , (43  Stat.   253 , enacted June 2, 1924)

1656-619: A state and of the United States, and if an individual should leave his nation or tribe, and take up his abode among the white population, he would be entitled to all the rights and privileges which would belong to an emigrant from any other foreign people. After the American Civil War, the Civil Rights Act of 1866 (ratified in 1870, after the Fourteenth Amendment came into effect) repeated the exclusion, declaring: In 1868,

1748-519: A statewide reputation as a prosperous farmer, storekeeper, and public servant. He held various local offices, including justice of the peace and tax collector and served in both houses of the Vermont General Assembly . When Coolidge was 12 years old, his chronically ill mother died at the age of 39, perhaps from tuberculosis . His younger sister, Abigail Grace Coolidge (1875–1890), died at the age of 15, probably of appendicitis, when Coolidge

1840-558: Is a variety of flora and fauna within South Mountain Park. One of the most notable flora is the Elephant tree ( Bursera microphylla ), which exhibits multiple contorted trunk architecture. South Mountain Park is also notable for its chuckwalla population. With an average of 65 chuckwallas per hectare, South Mountain has the highest density of chuckwallas that has ever been reported. Further, male chuckwallas at South Mountain exhibit

1932-471: Is without any foundation." Coolidge often seemed uncomfortable among fashionable Washington society; when asked why he continued to attend so many of their dinner parties, he replied, "Got to eat somewhere." Alice Roosevelt Longworth , a leading Republican wit, underscored Coolidge's silence and his dour personality: "When he wished he were elsewhere, he pursed his lips, folded his arms, and said nothing. He looked then precisely as though he had been weaned on

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2024-559: The Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857) decision, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court Roger B. Taney stated that even if a Native American gave up their tribal membership and paid taxes, the only path to citizenship was through naturalization , legislation, or provisions of a treaty: They [the Indian tribes] may without doubt, like the subjects of any foreign government, be naturalized by the authority of Congress and become citizens of

2116-600: The 1920 presidential election , which they won in a landslide . Coolidge served as vice president until Harding's death in 1923, after which he assumed the presidency. During his presidency, Coolidge restored public confidence in the White House after the Harding administration 's many scandals . He signed into law the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 , which granted U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans, and oversaw

2208-525: The American Federation of Labor issued a charter to the Boston Police Union. Curtis declared the union's leaders were guilty of insubordination and would be relieved of duty, but indicated he would cancel their suspension if the union was dissolved by September 4. The mayor of Boston, Andrew Peters , convinced Curtis to delay his action for a few days, but with no results, and Curtis suspended

2300-574: The Burke Act of 1906, withheld US citizenship granted by the Dawes Act until the trust period for an allotment expired (typically 25 years) or the allottee obtained a fee patent from the government administrator. The Burke Act did "not extend to any Indians in the Indian Territory". After World War I ended, Congress decreed in 1919, that all Native people who had been honorably discharged after serving in

2392-625: The Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution . "Opinions and instructions do not outmatch the Constitution," he said in his veto message. "Against it, they are void." At the 1920 Republican National Convention , most of the delegates were selected by state party caucuses, not primaries. As such, the field was divided among many local favorites. Coolidge was one such candidate, and while he placed as high as sixth in

2484-548: The Fourteenth Amendment declared all persons "born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof" were citizens. However, the "jurisdiction" requirement was interpreted to exclude most Native Americans, and in 1870, the Senate Judiciary Committee further clarified the matter: "the 14th amendment to the Constitution has no effect whatever upon the status of the Indian tribes within

2576-924: The Revolutionary War and one of the first selectmen of the town of Plymouth. His grandfather Calvin Galusha Coolidge served in the Vermont House of Representatives. His cousin Park Pollard was a businessman in Cavendish, Vermont and the longtime chair of the Vermont Democratic Party. Coolidge was also a descendant of Samuel Appleton , who settled in Ipswich and led the Massachusetts Bay Colony during King Philip's War . Coolidge's mother

2668-492: The direct election of Senators . While in Boston, Coolidge became an ally, and then a liegeman, of then U.S. Senator Winthrop Murray Crane who controlled the western faction of the Massachusetts Republican Party; Crane's party rival in the east of the commonwealth was U.S. Senator Henry Cabot Lodge . Coolidge forged another key strategic alliance with Guy Currier , who had served in both state houses and had

2760-526: The oath of office in the family's parlor by the light of a kerosene lamp at 2:47 a.m. on August 3, 1923, whereupon the new President of the United States returned to bed. Coolidge returned to Washington the next day, and was sworn in again by Justice Adolph A. Hoehling Jr. of the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia , to forestall any questions about the authority of a state official to administer

2852-486: The president of the state senate , Levi H. Greenwood , considered running for lieutenant governor, Coolidge decided to run again for the Senate in the hopes of being elected as its presiding officer. Although Greenwood later decided to run for reelection to the Senate, he was defeated primarily due to his opposition to women's suffrage; Coolidge was in favor of the women's vote, won his re-election, and with Crane's help, assumed

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2944-451: The "guardianship" status they felt the US government should take to protect Indigenous people. They worried Indians were being taken advantage of by non-Indigenous Americans for their land. They advocated that the government had an obligation to supervise and protect Native citizens. The Indian Rights Association , a key group in the development of this legislation, advocated that federal guardianship

3036-623: The 1970s into the early 1980s. It is located south of central Phoenix, hence the name. Since the naming, suburban growth has nearly surrounded the park. Ahwatukee now borders to the south and Laveen to the west. South Mountain was originally known as the Salt River Mountains . The original mountain park committee consisted of J.C. Dobbins, chairman of the Phoenix city planning commission, Mrs. John Hampton, and H.B. Wilkinson. Dobbins Road, named after J.C. Dobbins, runs east and west just north of

3128-497: The 29th vice president from 1921 to 1923 under President Warren G. Harding , and as the 48th governor of Massachusetts from 1919 to 1921. Coolidge gained a reputation as a small-government conservative with a taciturn personality and dry sense of humor that earned him the nickname "Silent Cal". Coolidge began his career as a member of the Massachusetts State House . He rose up the ranks of Massachusetts policies and

3220-556: The Act because they thought it would reduce corruption and inefficiency in the Department of Interior and the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Such institutions would no longer be in control of citizenship regulations if citizenship were automatically granted to all Indigenous people. They also hoped to empower Indians through citizenship. Other groups for Native American citizenship supported it because of

3312-749: The Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Franklin D. Roosevelt , for vice president. The question of the United States joining the League of Nations was a major issue in the campaign, as was the unfinished legacy of Progressivism . Harding ran a " front-porch" campaign from his home in Marion, Ohio , but Coolidge took to the campaign trail in the Upper South , New York, and New England – his audiences carefully limited to those familiar with Coolidge and those placing

3404-686: The Bill, Snyder became the representative of some of these Indians. On December 30, 1924, the Chiefs of the Onondaga sent a letter to President Calvin Coolidge : With little lobbying effort from Native Americans themselves, two primarily white groups shaped the law: Progressive senators and activists, like the "Friends of the Indians." Progressive senators on the Senate Indian Affairs Committee were for

3496-578: The Hampshire County area retired and successfully encouraged Coolidge to run for his seat for the 1912 session; Coolidge defeated his Democratic opponent by a large margin. At the start of that term, he became chairman of a committee to arbitrate the " Bread and Roses " strike by the workers of the American Woolen Company in Lawrence, Massachusetts . After two tense months, the company agreed to

3588-575: The National Guard, restored Curtis to office, and took personal control of the police force. Curtis proclaimed that all of the strikers were fired from their jobs, and Coolidge called for a new police force to be recruited. That night Coolidge received a telegram from AFL leader Samuel Gompers . "Whatever disorder has occurred", Gompers wrote, "is due to Curtis's order in which the right of the policemen has been denied…" Coolidge publicly answered Gompers's telegram, denying any justification whatsoever for

3680-539: The Native American community at the time, like Charles Santee, a Santee Sioux, were interested in Native American integration into the larger society but adamant about preserving the Native American identity. Many were also reluctant to trust the government that had taken their land and violently discriminated against them. One group who opposed the bill was the Onondaga Nation . They believed acceptance of this act

3772-431: The Senate by an increased margin in the 1914 elections, Coolidge was reelected unanimously to be President of the Senate. Coolidge's supporters, led by fellow Amherst alumnus Frank Stearns , encouraged him again to run for lieutenant governor. Stearns, an executive with the Boston department store R. H. Stearns, became another key ally, and began a publicity campaign on Coolidge's behalf before he announced his candidacy at

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3864-462: The Supreme Court held that a Native person born a citizen of a recognized tribal nation was not born an American citizen and did not become one simply by voluntarily leaving his tribe and settling among whites. The syllabus of the decision explained that a Native person "who has not been naturalized, or taxed, or recognized as a citizen either by the United States or by the state, is not a citizen of

3956-790: The United States Code at Title 8, Sec. 1401(b). At the time of the adoption of the US Constitution under Article One , Native Americans, who were classified as "Indians not taxed", were not considered to be eligible for US citizenship because they were governed by distinct tribes, which functioned in a political capacity. Native persons who were members of a tribe were specifically excluded from representation and taxation. The case of Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), according to historian Brad Tennant, established that tribal members "who maintained their tribal ties and resided on tribal land would technically be considered foreigners" living in

4048-596: The United States as wards of the federal government. The earliest recorded date of Native people becoming US citizens was in 1831, when the Mississippi Choctaw became citizens after the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek of 1830 was ratified. Under Article XIV of that treaty, any Choctaw who elected not to move to Native American territory could become an American citizen when he registered, and if he stayed on designated lands for five years after treaty ratification. In

4140-940: The United States within the meaning of the first section of the Fourteenth Article of Amendment of the Constitution". Although the Dawes Act did not apply to citizens of the Five Civilized Tribes , the Osage , Miami , the Peoria , nor the Sac and Fox Nations of Indian Territory, the Curtis Act of 1898 extended its provisions to their citizens, requiring allotment of their lands and making their tribal members eligible to vote in local elections. A federal act (31 Stat. 1447) of March 3, 1901, granted United States citizenship to all Native people residing in Indian Territory. Subsequent passage of

4232-509: The United States: Provided That the granting of such citizenship shall not in any manner impair or otherwise affect the right of any Indian to tribal or other property. Approved, June 2, 1924. June 2, 1924. [H. R. 6355.] [Public, No. 175.] SIXTY-EIGHTH CONGRESS. Sess. I. CHS. 233. 1924. See House Report No. 222, Certificates of Citizenship to Indians, 68th Congress, 1st Session, Feb. 22, 1924. The act has been codified in

4324-399: The armed forces, giving up tribal affiliations, and assimilating into mainstream American life. Citizenship was granted in a piecemeal fashion before the Act, which was the first more inclusive method of granting Native American citizenship. Even Native Americans who were granted citizenship rights under the 1924 Act may not have had full citizenship and suffrage rights until 1948 because

4416-626: The country's economic boom to help struggling farmers and workers in other flailing industries, and there is still much debate among historians about the extent to which Coolidge's economic policies contributed to the onset of the Great Depression , which began shortly after he left office. Scholars have ranked Coolidge in the lower half of U.S. presidents. John Calvin Coolidge Jr. was born on July 4, 1872, in Plymouth Notch , Vermont —the only U.S. president to be born on Independence Day . He

4508-638: The county seat of Hampshire County, Massachusetts . In 1897, Coolidge was admitted to the Massachusetts bar , becoming a country lawyer . With his savings and a small inheritance from his grandfather, Coolidge opened his own law office in Northampton in 1898. He practiced commercial law, believing that he served his clients best by staying out of court. As his reputation as a hard-working and diligent attorney grew, local banks and other businesses began to retain his services. In 1903, Coolidge met Grace Goodhue ,

4600-517: The end of the 1915 legislative session. Coolidge entered the primary election for lieutenant governor and was nominated to run alongside gubernatorial candidate Samuel W. McCall . Coolidge was the leading vote-getter in the Republican primary, and balanced the Republican ticket by adding a western presence to McCall's eastern base of support. McCall and Coolidge won the 1915 election to their respective one-year terms, with Coolidge defeating his opponent by more than 50,000 votes. In Massachusetts,

4692-460: The incumbent Democrat retired. He was well liked in the town, and defeated his challenger by a vote of 1,597 to 1,409. During his first term (1910 to 1911), he increased teachers' salaries and retired some of the city's debt while still managing to effect a slight tax decrease. He was renominated in 1911, and defeated the same opponent by a slightly larger margin. In 1911, the State Senator for

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4784-452: The land and become "proficient members of society", they could be granted citizenship. This idea was presented by a group of white American citizens, called "Friends of the Indian", who lobbied for the assimilation of Indigenous people into American society. They specifically hoped to do that by elevating Indigenous people to the status of US citizens. Though the Dawes Act allocated land, the notion that this should be directly tied to citizenship

4876-579: The lieutenant governor does not preside over the state Senate, as is the case in many other states; nevertheless, as lieutenant governor, Coolidge was a deputy governor functioning as an administrative inspector and was a member of the governor's council. He was also chairman of the finance committee and the pardons committee. As a full-time elected official, Coolidge discontinued his law practice in 1916, though his family continued to live in Northampton. McCall and Coolidge were both reelected in 1916 and again in 1917. When McCall decided that he would not stand for

4968-452: The limits of the United States". About 8% of the Native population at the time qualified for US citizenship because they were "taxed". Others obtained citizenship by serving in the military, marrying whites, or accepting land allotments such as those granted under the Dawes Act . The exclusion of Native Americans from US citizenship was further established by Elk v. Wilkins (1884), when

5060-522: The local Republican committee nominated Coolidge for election to the Massachusetts House of Representatives . He won a close victory over the incumbent Democrat, and reported to Boston for the 1907 session of the Massachusetts General Court . In his freshman term, Coolidge served on minor committees and, although he usually voted with the party, was known as a Progressive Republican , voting in favor of such measures as women's suffrage and

5152-521: The most convincing proof of his strength." Coolidge chose not to run again in 1928 , remarking that ten years as president would be "longer than any other man has had it—too long!" Coolidge is widely admired for his stalwart support of racial equality during a period of heightened racial tension, and is highly regarded by advocates of smaller government and laissez-faire economics; supporters of an active central government generally view him far less favorably. His critics argue that he failed to use

5244-408: The nation and some of Coolidge's speeches were published in book form. He faced the same opponent as in 1918, Richard Long, but this time Coolidge defeated him by 125,101 votes, more than seven times his margin of victory from a year earlier. His actions in the police strike, combined with the massive electoral victory, led to suggestions that Coolidge run for president in 1920. By the time Coolidge

5336-402: The nation had seen a rising star. Although he usually acted with deliberation, the Boston police strike gave him a national reputation as a decisive leader, and as a strict enforcer of law and order. Coolidge and Cox were renominated for their respective offices in 1919 . By this time Coolidge's supporters (especially Stearns) had publicized his actions in the Police Strike around the state and

5428-578: The notion that Indians were under guardianship or lived on lands controlled by federal trusteeship. By 1947, all states with large Indian populations, except Arizona and New Mexico , had extended voting rights to Native Americans who qualified under the 1924 Act. Finally, in 1948, the states withdrew their prohibition on Indian voting because of a judicial decision. Under the 1924 Act, Indigenous people did not have to apply for citizenship, nor did they have to give up their tribal citizenship to become US citizens. Most tribes had communal property, and to have

5520-418: The park. The park's lookout point rises over 1000 feet (305 m) above the desert floor. Beyond the roads leading to ramadas and the summit, the park features 58 miles (93 km) of trails for cycling, hiking and horseback riding. Much of the original park infrastructure was constructed by the Civilian Conservation Corps in the early 1930s. The landmark Mystery Castle is located within its foothills. There

5612-448: The presidency of a closely divided Senate. After his election in January 1914, Coolidge delivered a published and frequently quoted speech entitled Have Faith in Massachusetts , which summarized his philosophy of government. Coolidge's speech was well received, and he attracted some admirers on its account; towards the end of the term, many of them were proposing his name for nomination to lieutenant governor. After winning reelection to

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5704-441: The ravages of autocracy. Now, shall we not redeem ourselves by redeeming all the tribes? Nipo T. Strongheart , a performer-lecturer on Native American topics at Lyceum and Chautauqua and similar activities across the United States from 1917 thru the 1920s, gathered signatures on petitions supporting Indian enfranchisement into the tens of thousands. Some of his trips into Pennsylvania were in support of Melville Clyde Kelly ,

5796-518: The rewards of their industry. What they earn is theirs, no matter how small or how great. But the possession of property carries the obligation to use it in a larger service... At his father's urging after graduation, Coolidge moved to Northampton, Massachusetts , to become a lawyer. Coolidge followed the common practice of apprenticing with a local law firm, Hammond & Field, and reading law with them. John C. Hammond and Henry P. Field, both Amherst graduates, introduced Coolidge to practicing law in

5888-468: The right to vote was governed by state law. According to a survey by the Department of Interior , seven states still refused to grant Indians voting rights in 1938. Discrepancies between federal and state control provided loopholes in the Act's enforcement. States justified discrimination based on state statutes and constitutions. Three main arguments for Indian voting exclusion were Indian exemption from real estate taxes, maintenance of tribal affiliation, and

5980-435: The social distinction, wealth, personal charm and broad circle of friends which Coolidge lacked, and which would have a lasting impact on his political career. In 1907, he was elected to a second term, and in the 1908 session Coolidge was more outspoken, though not in a leadership position. Instead of vying for another term in the State House , Coolidge returned home to his growing family and ran for mayor of Northampton when

6072-467: The strike – and his response launched him into the national consciousness. Newspapers across the nation picked up on Coolidge's statement and he became the newest hero to opponents of the strike. Amid of the First Red Scare , many Americans were terrified of the spread of communist revolutions, like those that had taken place in Russia , Hungary , and Germany . While Coolidge had lost some friends among organized labor, conservatives across

6164-526: The symptoms listed by the American Psychiatric Association as evidence of major depressive disorder following Calvin Jr.'s sudden death. John later became a railroad executive, helped to start the Coolidge Foundation, and was instrumental in creating the President Calvin Coolidge State Historic Site . Coolidge was frugal, and when it came to securing a home, he insisted upon renting. He and his wife attended Northampton's Edwards Congregational Church before and after his presidency. The Republican Party

6256-437: The tax rates the same, while trimming $ 4 million from expenditures, thus allowing the state to retire some of its debt. Coolidge also wielded the veto pen as governor. His most publicized veto prevented an increase in legislators' pay by 50%. Although he was personally opposed to Prohibition, he vetoed a bill in May 1920 that would have allowed the sale of beer or wine of 2.75% alcohol or less , in Massachusetts in violation of

6348-434: The union leaders on September 8. The following day, about three-quarters of the policemen in Boston went on strike. Coolidge, tacitly but fully in support of Curtis' position, closely monitored the situation but initially deferred to the local authorities. He anticipated that only a resulting measure of lawlessness could sufficiently prompt the public to understand and appreciate the controlling principle – that

6440-508: The voting, the powerful party bosses running the convention, primarily the party's U.S. Senators, never considered him seriously. After ten ballots, the bosses and then the delegates settled on Senator Warren G. Harding of Ohio as their nominee for president. When the time came to select a vice presidential nominee, the bosses also made and announced their decision on whom they wanted – Sen. Irvine Lenroot of Wisconsin – and then prematurely departed after his name

6532-402: The war could become US citizens, if they applied for it. The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 declared: This grant of citizenship applied to about 125,000 of the 300,000 Indigenous people in the United States, the total population of which was between 106 million and 123 million at that time. The Indigenous people not included had already become citizens by other means, such as by entering

6624-522: The war proved divisive, especially among Irish and German Americans . Coolidge was elected by a margin of 16,773 votes over his opponent, Richard H. Long , in the smallest margin of victory of any of his statewide campaigns. In 1919, in reaction to a plan of the policemen of the Boston Police Department to register with a union , Police Commissioner Edwin U. Curtis announced that such an act would not be tolerated. In August of that year,

6716-450: The word "full" from " full citizenship " in the text of the original bill was used as a reason why some Native Americans were not granted the immediate right to vote with the bill. On May 19, 1924, Snyder said on the House floor, "The New York Indians are very much opposed to this, but I am perfectly willing to take the responsibility if the committee sees fit to agree to this." After passage of

6808-422: The workers' demands, in a settlement proposed by the committee. A major issue affecting Massachusetts Republicans that year was the party split between the progressive wing, which favored Theodore Roosevelt , and the conservative wing, which favored William Howard Taft . Although he favored some progressive measures, Coolidge refused to leave the Republican party. When the new Progressive Party declined to run

6900-594: Was "treason" because the United States Senate was forcing citizenship on all Indians without their consent. According to the Iroquois, the bill disregarded previous treaties between the Indian Tribes and the United States, specifically the 1784 Treaty of Fort Stanwix , the 1789 Treaty of Fort Harmor , and the 1794 Treaty of Canandaigua in which the Iroquois were recognized as "separate and sovereign". The removal of

6992-511: Was 18. Coolidge's father married a Plymouth schoolteacher in 1891, and lived to the age of 80. Coolidge's family had deep roots in New England . His earliest American ancestor, John Coolidge emigrated from Cottenham , Cambridgeshire , England , around 1630 and settled in Watertown, Massachusetts . Coolidge's great-great-grandfather, also named John Coolidge, was an American military officer in

7084-617: Was a necessary component of citizenship. They pushed for the clause "tribal rights and property" in the Indian Citizenship Act to preserve Indian identity but gain citizenship rights and protection. One advocate for American Indians during the early 20th century, Joseph K. Dixon , who had previously advocated for segregated Indian units during World War I in an effort to prevent their assimilation, wrote (referring to soldiers who served in World War I): The Indian, though

7176-417: Was abandoned in the early 20th century in favor of a more direct path to American citizenship. Although some white citizen groups were supportive of Indian citizenship, Native Americans themselves were divided on the debate. Those who supported it considered the Act a way to secure a long-standing political identity. Those who rejected it were concerned about tribal sovereignty and citizenship. Many leaders in

7268-647: Was an Act of the United States Congress that declared Indigenous persons born within the United States are US citizens . Although the Fourteenth Amendment to the US Constitution says that any person born in the United States and subject to its laws and jurisdiction is a citizen, the amendment had previously been interpreted by the courts as not applicable to Native peoples. The act was proposed by US Representative Homer P. Snyder (R-NY), and signed into law by President Calvin Coolidge on June 2, 1924. It

7360-620: Was aware of his stiff reputation; indeed, he cultivated it. "I think the American people want a solemn ass as a President," he once told Ethel Barrymore , "and I think I will go along with them." Some historians suggest that Coolidge's image was created deliberately as a campaign tactic, while others believe his withdrawn and quiet behavior to be natural, deepening after the death of his son in 1924. Dorothy Parker , upon learning that Coolidge had died, reportedly remarked, "How can they tell?" On August 2, 1923, President Harding died unexpectedly from

7452-480: Was chosen City Solicitor by the City Council. He was elected for a one-year term in 1900, and reelected in 1901. This position gave Coolidge more experience as a lawyer and paid a salary of $ 600 (equivalent to $ 21,974 in 2023). In 1902, the city council selected a Democrat for city solicitor, and Coolidge returned to private practice. Soon thereafter, however, the clerk of courts for the county died, and Coolidge

7544-438: Was chosen to replace him. The position paid well, but it barred him from practicing law, so he remained at the job for only one year. In 1904, Coolidge suffered his sole defeat at the ballot box, losing an election to the Northampton school board . When told that some of his neighbors voted against him because he had no children in the schools he would govern, the recently married Coolidge replied, "Might give me time!" In 1906,

7636-714: Was dominant in New England at the time, and Coolidge followed the example of Hammond and Field by becoming active in local politics. In 1896, Coolidge campaigned for Republican presidential candidate William McKinley , and was selected to be a member of the Republican City Committee the next year. In 1898, he won election to the City Council of Northampton, placing second in a ward where the top three candidates were elected. The position offered no salary but provided Coolidge with valuable political experience. In 1899, he

7728-537: Was elected governor in 1918 . As governor, Coolidge ran on the record of fiscal conservatism , strong support for women's suffrage , and vague opposition to Prohibition . His prompt and effective response to the Boston police strike of 1919 thrust him into the national spotlight as a man of decisive action. The following year, the Republican Party nominated Coolidge as the running mate to Senator Warren G. Harding in

7820-557: Was enacted partially in recognition of the thousands of Native Americans who served in the US Armed Forces during World War I . The text of the 1924 Indian Citizenship Act reads as follows: Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled , That all non citizen Indians born within the territorial limits of the United States be, and they are hereby, declared to be citizens of

7912-462: Was inaugurated on January 2, 1919, the First World War had ended, and Coolidge pushed the legislature to give a $ 100 bonus (equivalent to $ 1,757 in 2023) to Massachusetts veterans. He also signed a bill reducing the work week for women and children from fifty-four hours to forty-eight, saying, "We must humanize the industry, or the system will break down." He signed into law a budget that kept

8004-469: Was invited by President Harding to attend cabinet meetings, making him the first vice president to do so. He gave a number of unremarkable speeches around the country. As vice president, Coolidge and his vivacious wife Grace were invited to quite a few parties, where the legend of "Silent Cal" was born. It is from this time that most of the jokes and anecdotes involving Coolidge originate, such as Coolidge being "silent in five languages". Although Coolidge

8096-433: Was known to be a skilled and effective public speaker, in private he was a man of few words and was commonly referred to as "Silent Cal". An apocryphal story has it that a person seated next to him at a dinner said to him, "I made a bet today that I could get more than two words out of you." He replied, "You lose." However, on April 22, 1924, Coolidge himself said that the "You lose" quotation never occurred. The story about it

8188-488: Was put forth, relying on the rank and file to confirm their decision. A delegate from Oregon , Wallace McCamant , having read Have Faith in Massachusetts , proposed Coolidge for vice president instead. The suggestion caught on quickly with the masses starving for an act of independence from the absent bosses, and Coolidge was unexpectedly nominated. The Democrats nominated another Ohioan, James M. Cox , for president and

8280-599: Was related by Frank B. Noyes, President of the Associated Press , to their membership at their annual luncheon at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel, when toasting and introducing Coolidge, who was the invited speaker. After the introduction and before his prepared remarks, Coolidge said to the membership, "Your President [referring to Noyes] has given you a perfect example of one of those rumors now current in Washington which

8372-563: Was the daughter of Hiram Dunlap Moor, a Plymouth Notch farmer, and Abigail Franklin. Coolidge attended the Black River Academy and then St. Johnsbury Academy before enrolling at Amherst College , where he distinguished himself in the debating class. As a senior, he joined the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity and graduated cum laude . While at Amherst, Coolidge was profoundly influenced by philosophy professor Charles Edward Garman ,

8464-534: Was the elder of the two children of John Calvin Coolidge Sr. (1845–1926) and Victoria Josephine Moor (1846–1885). Although named for his father, from early childhood Coolidge was addressed by his middle name. The name Calvin was used in multiple generations of the Coolidge family, apparently selected in honor of John Calvin , the Protestant Reformer . Coolidge Senior engaged in many occupations and developed

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