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125-532: The historic Choctaw had emerged as a tribe and occupied substantial territory in what is now the State of Mississippi. In the early 19th century, they faced increasing pressure from European Americans who sought to acquire their land for agricultural development. President Andrew Jackson gained congressional passage of the Indian Removal Act in 1830 to achieve this goal and eliminate Native American land claims in

250-578: A Freemason since at least 1798, became the Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Tennessee for 1822–1823. Around this time, he also completed negotiations for Tennessee to purchase Chickasaw lands. This became known as the Jackson Purchase . Jackson, Overton, and another colleague had speculated in some of the land and used their portion to form the town of Memphis . In 1822, Jackson agreed to run in

375-562: A U.S. senator in 1797, but he resigned after serving only six months. In the spring of 1798, Governor John Sevier appointed Jackson to be a judge of the Tennessee Superior Court . In 1802, he also became major general, or commander, of the Tennessee militia , a position that was determined by a vote of the militia's officers. The vote was tied between Jackson and Sevier, a popular Revolutionary War veteran and former governor, but

500-739: A bicameral federal legislature , the term Member of Congress is used less often than other terms in the United States . This is because in the United States the word Congress is used as a descriptive term for the collective body of legislators from both of its houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives . While a reference to a member of the Senate is typically referred to quite straightforwardly as Senator (followed by "name" from " state " ),

625-626: A demagogue who ignored the law when it suited him. Scholarly rankings of presidents historically rated Jackson's presidency as above average. Since the late 20th century, his reputation declined, and in the 21st century his placement in rankings of presidents fell. Andrew Jackson was born on March 15, 1767, in the Waxhaws region of the Carolinas . His parents were Scots-Irish colonists Andrew Jackson and Elizabeth Hutchinson, Presbyterians who had emigrated from Ulster , Ireland, in 1765. Jackson's father

750-513: A majority of 131 electoral votes, the House of Representatives held a contingent election under the terms of the Twelfth Amendment . The amendment specifies that only the top three electoral vote-winners are eligible to be elected by the House, so Clay was eliminated from contention. Clay, who was also Speaker of the House and presided over the election's resolution, saw a Jackson presidency as

875-453: A prisoner exchange . Robert died two days after arriving home, but Elizabeth was able to nurse Andrew back to health. Once he recovered, Elizabeth volunteered to nurse American prisoners of war housed in British prison ships in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina . She contracted cholera and died soon afterwards. The war made Jackson an orphan at age 14 and increased his hatred for

1000-569: A British attack. When his forces arrived at Natchez , they were ordered to halt by General Wilkinson, the commander at New Orleans and the man Jackson accused of treason after the Burr adventure. A little later, Jackson received a letter from the Secretary of War , John Armstrong , stating that his volunteers were not needed, and that they were to hand over any supplies to Wilkinson and disband. Jackson refused to disband his troops; instead, he led them on

1125-487: A Crawford relative. A British officer demanded to have his boots polished. Andrew refused, and the officer slashed him with a sword, leaving him with scars on his left hand and head. Robert also refused and was struck a blow on the head. The brothers were taken to a prisoner-of-war camp in Camden, South Carolina , where they became malnourished and contracted smallpox. In late spring, the brothers were released to their mother in

1250-645: A beneficial relationship with the federal government. In 1934, President Franklin Roosevelt signed into law the Indian Reorganization Act . This law proved critical for survival of the Mississippi Choctaw, Alabama Choctaw and other tribal peoples, who also reorganized in that era. Baxter York, Emmett York, and Joe Chitto worked on gaining recognition for the Choctaw. They realized that they needed to adopt

1375-597: A constitution. A rival organization, the Mississippi Choctaw Indian Federation , opposed federal tribal recognition because of fears of dominance by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). The Federation disbanded in 1935 some of its "trouble makers" were moved to another jurisdiction. The first Tribal Council members of the Mississippi Band of Choctaw were Baxter and Emmett York, with Joe Chitto serving as

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1500-472: A disaster for the country. Clay threw his support behind Adams, who won the contingent election on the first ballot. Adams appointed Clay as his Secretary of State, leading supporters of Jackson to accuse Clay and Adams of having struck a " corrupt bargain ". After the Congressional session concluded, Jackson resigned his Senate seat and returned to Tennessee. After the election, Jackson's supporters formed

1625-491: A fair policy toward Native Americans. Jackson invited the public to the White House , which was promptly overrun by well-wishers who caused minor damage to its furnishings. The spectacle earned him the nickname "King Mob". Jackson believed that Adams's administration had been corrupt and he initiated investigations into all executive departments. These investigations revealed that $ 280,000 (equivalent to $ 8,000,000 in 2023)

1750-642: A force of about 5,000 men when the British arrived. The British arrived in New Orleans in mid-December. Admiral Alexander Cochrane was the overall commander of the operation; General Edward Pakenham commanded the army of 10,000 soldiers, many of whom had served in the Napoleonic Wars. As the British advanced up the east bank of the Mississippi River, Jackson constructed a fortified position to block them. The climactic battle took place on January 8 when

1875-411: A local store meant she could only order white, or vanilla, ice cream. It was a small story, but one that shows how a third race can easily get left out of the attempts for understanding." The end of legalized racial segregation permitted the Choctaw to participate in public institutions and facilities that had been reserved exclusively for white patrons. In another major change for state governments and

2000-519: A member of the House of Representatives is typically idiomatically referred to as Congressman or Congresswoman (followed by "name" from the "number" district of "state" ); or, removing any ambiguity, Representative ( "name" from the "number" district of "state" ). Although senators are members of Congress, they are not normally referred to or addressed as "Congressman" or "Congresswoman". Members of Congress in both houses are elected by direct popular vote . Senators are elected via

2125-605: A national hero, and on February 27, 1815, he was given the Thanks of Congress and awarded a Congressional Gold Medal . Though the Treaty of Ghent had been signed in December 1814 before the Battle of New Orleans was fought, Jackson's victory assured that the United States control of the region between Mobile and New Orleans would not be effectively contested by European powers. This control allowed

2250-418: A new official cabinet. Member of congress A member of congress ( MOC ), also known as a congressman or congresswoman , is a person who has been appointed or elected and inducted into an official body called a congress , typically to represent a particular constituency in a legislature . The term member of parliament (MP) is an equivalent term within a parliamentary system of government. In

2375-408: A new party to undermine Adams and ensure he served only one term. Adams's presidency went poorly, and Adams's behavior undermined it. He was perceived as an intellectual elite who ignored the needs of the populace. He was unable to accomplish anything because Congress blocked his proposals. In his First Annual Message to Congress, Adams stated that "we are palsied by the will of our constituents", which

2500-457: A partnership with fellow lawyer John Overton . Their partnership mainly dealt with claims made under a "land grab" act of 1783 that opened Cherokee and Chickasaw territory to North Carolina's white residents. Jackson also became a slave trader , transporting enslaved people for the interregional slave market between Nashville and the Natchez District of Spanish West Florida via

2625-513: A regular army unit, the 39th U.S. Infantry Regiment . The combined force of 3,000 men—including Cherokee, Choctaw, and Creek allies—attacked a Red Stick fort at Horseshoe Bend on the Tallapoosa River , which was manned by about 1,000 men. The Red Sticks were overwhelmed and massacred. Almost all their warriors were killed, and nearly 300 women and children were taken prisoner and distributed to Jackson's Native American allies. The victory broke

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2750-607: A sitting president. In one of his final presidential acts, he recognized the Republic of Texas . After leaving office, Jackson supported the presidencies of Martin Van Buren and James K. Polk , as well as the annexation of Texas . Jackson's legacy remains controversial, and opinions on his legacy are frequently polarized. Supporters characterize him as a defender of democracy and the Constitution , while critics point to his reputation as

2875-452: A statewide vote and representatives by votes in each congressional district . Congressional districts are apportioned to the states , once every ten years, based on population figures from the most recent nationwide census . Each of the 435 members of the House of Representatives is elected to serve a two-year term representing the people of that person's district. Each state, regardless of its size, has at least one representative. Each of

3000-502: A thousand former soldiers of the British Royal and Colonial Marines, escaped slaves , and various indigenous peoples. It had become a magnet for escapees and was seen as a threat to the property rights of American enslavers, even a potential source of insurrection by enslaved people. Jackson ordered Colonel Duncan Clinch to capture the fort in July 1816. He destroyed it and killed many of

3125-626: A wealthy planter who owned hundreds of African American slaves during his lifetime. In 1801, he was appointed colonel of the Tennessee militia and was elected its commander. He led troops during the Creek War of 1813–1814, winning the Battle of Horseshoe Bend and negotiating the Treaty of Fort Jackson that required the indigenous Creek population to surrender vast tracts of present-day Alabama and Georgia. In

3250-439: A writ of habeas corpus for Louaillier's release. Jackson had Hall arrested too. A military court ordered Louaillier's release, but Jackson kept him in prison and evicted Hall from the city. Although Jackson lifted martial law when he received official word that the Treaty of Ghent , which ended the war with the British, had been signed, his previous behavior tainted his reputation in New Orleans. Jackson's victory made him

3375-670: Is in Neshoba County , at 32°48′56″N 89°14′46″W  /  32.81556°N 89.24611°W  / 32.81556; -89.24611 , which comprises more than two-thirds of the reservation's land area and holds more than 62 percent of its population, as of the 2000 census . The total land area is 84.282 km (32.541 sq mi), and its official total resident population was 5,190 persons. The nine counties are Neshoba, Newton , Leake , Kemper , Jones , Winston , Attala , Jackson , and Scott counties. Stratton Andrew Jackson Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845)

3500-657: The Battle of Stono Ferry in June 1779. After anti-British sentiment intensified in the Southern Colonies following the Battle of Waxhaws in May 1780, Elizabeth encouraged Andrew and Robert to participate in militia drills. They served as couriers, and were present at the Battle of Hanging Rock in August 1780. Andrew and Robert were captured in April 1781 when the British occupied the home of

3625-451: The Battle of Talladega . By January 1814, the expiration of enlistments and desertion had reduced Jackson's force by about 1,000 volunteers, but he continued the offensive. The Red Sticks counterattacked at the Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek . Jackson repelled them but was forced to withdraw to Fort Strother. Jackson's army was reinforced by further recruitment and the addition of

3750-464: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 , most jobs were given to whites, with blacks being considered second in line. The Choctaw, who for 150 years had identified neither as white nor black, but were discriminated against as people of color, were "left where they had always been"—in poverty. Donna Ladd wrote that a Choctaw, now in her 40s, remembers "as a little girl, she thought that a 'white only' sign in

3875-588: The Civil Rights era , roughly between 1965 and 1982, Native Americans renewed their commitments to the value of their ancient heritage. They worked to celebrate their strengths and to exercise appropriate rights, dramatically reversing the trend of abandoning Indian culture and tradition. During the 1960s, Community Action programs connected with Native Americans were based on citizen participation. Democratic President John F. Kennedy decided against implementing additional termination of tribal status. He did enact some of

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4000-569: The Congress of the Philippines , the title member of congress is almost never used; instead, legislators are called congressmen or congresswomen . However, these terms apply only to members of the House of Representatives , not to members of the Senate , who are called senators . In referring to an individual lawmaker in that person's capacity of serving in the United States Congress ,

4125-645: The Democratic Party and the various groups who did not support him eventually formed the Whig Party . The political campaign was dominated by the personal abuse that partisans flung at both candidates. Jackson was accused of being the son of an English prostitute and a mulatto , and he was accurately labeled a slave trader who trafficked in human flesh. A series of pamphlets known as the Coffin Handbills accused him of having murdered 18 white men, including

4250-458: The Indian Removal Act . This act, which has been described as ethnic cleansing , displaced tens of thousands of Native Americans from their ancestral homelands east of the Mississippi and resulted in thousands of deaths. Jackson faced a challenge to the integrity of the federal union when South Carolina threatened to nullify a high protective tariff set by the federal government. He threatened

4375-638: The Mississippi River and the Natchez Trace . While boarding at the home of Rachel Stockly Donelson, the widow of John Donelson , Jackson became acquainted with their daughter, Rachel Donelson Robards. The younger Rachel was in an unhappy marriage with Captain Lewis Robards , and the two were separated by 1789. After the separation, Jackson and Rachel became romantically involved, living together as husband and wife. Robards petitioned for divorce, which

4500-690: The Supreme Court of the United States ruled that federally recognized tribes could operate gaming facilities on their sovereign reservation land free from state regulation. In 1988, the U.S. Congress enacted the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (IGRA). IGRA set the terms for Native American tribes to operate casinos and negotiate terms with states, such as paying a portion of revenues instead of taxes. The administration of Governor Ray Mabus delayed action on Indian gaming in Mississippi. However, in 1992, Governor Kirk Fordice gave permission for

4625-571: The Treaty of Moultrie Creek in 1823, which surrendered much of their land in Florida. The Panic of 1819 , the United States' first prolonged financial depression, caused Congress to reduce the military's size and abolish Jackson's generalship. In compensation, Monroe made him the first territorial governor of Florida in 1821. He served as the governor for two months, returning to the Hermitage in ill health. During his convalescence, Jackson, who had been

4750-431: The 100 members of the Senate is elected to serve a six-year term representing the people of that person's state. Each state, regardless of its size, has two senators. Senatorial terms are staggered , so every two years approximately one-third of the Senate is up for election. Each staggered group of one-third of the senators is called a 'class'. No state has both its senators in the same class. The United States Congress

4875-546: The 1824 presidential election, and he was nominated by the Tennessee legislature in July. At the time, the Federalist Party had collapsed, and there were four major contenders for the Democratic-Republican Party nomination: William Crawford, John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. Jackson was intended to be a stalking horse candidate to prevent Tennessee's electoral votes from going to Crawford, who

5000-585: The American government to ignore one of the articles in the treaty, which would have returned the Creek lands taken in the Treaty of Fort Jackson. Following the war, Jackson remained in command of troops in the southern half of the United States and was permitted to make his headquarters at the Hermitage. Jackson continued to displace the Native Americans in areas under his command. Despite resistance from Secretary of

5125-470: The British launched a frontal assault. Their troops made easy targets for the Americans protected by their parapets, and the attack ended in disaster. The British suffered over 2,000 casualties (including Pakenham) to the Americans' 60. The British decamped from New Orleans at the end of January, but they still remained a threat. Jackson refused to lift martial law and kept the militia under arms. He approved

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5250-453: The Choctaws, their shanties along the country roads, grown men lounging on the dirt streets of their villages in demeaning idleness, sometimes drinking from a common bottle, sharing a roll-your-own cigarette, their half-clad children a picture of hurting that would never end. Martin served as chairperson in various Choctaw committees up until 1977. That year, he was elected as Chief, or Miko , of

5375-565: The Constitution, since the United States had not declared war on Spain. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams defended him as he thought Jackson's occupation of Pensacola would lead Spain to sell Florida, which Spain did in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819. In February 1819, a congressional investigation exonerated Jackson, and his victory was instrumental in convincing the Seminoles to sign

5500-577: The Democratic-Republicans in Congress boycotted the caucus, and the power to choose nominees was shifting to state nominating committees and legislatures. Jackson was nominated by a Pennsylvania convention, making him not merely a regional candidate but the leading national contender. When Jackson won the Pennsylvania nomination, Calhoun dropped out of the presidential race. Afterwards, Jackson won

5625-481: The Governor of Louisiana William Claiborne and Tennessee Senator Daniel Smith that some of the people involved in the adventure might be intending to break away from the United States. In December, Jefferson ordered Burr to be arrested for treason. Jackson, safe from arrest because of his extensive paper trail, organized the militia to capture the conspirators. He testified before a grand jury in 1807, implying that it

5750-628: The Indians as Washington's bureaucracy focused on the war. Some Mississippi Choctaw served during the war. The Spanish Influenza also slowed progress, as this pandemic killed many Choctaws. During the Great Depression and the Roosevelt administration , officials implemented numerous initiatives to alleviate some of the social and economic conditions in the South. The 1933 Special Narrative Report described

5875-471: The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians is Cyrus Ben, having been re-elected to a second term in 2023. Ben was first elected in 2019, defeating incumbent tribal chief Phyliss J. Anderson . Ben is the youngest tribal chief elected. In July 2007, Beasley Denson was elected to replace the previous Chief Philip Martin. Under Denson, the title of Chief was changed to Miko , the Choctaw name for the tribe's leader. Denson served until 2011, when Phyliss J. Anderson won

6000-603: The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians to develop Class III gaming. As a result, MBCI now operates one of the largest casino resorts in the nation; it is located in Choctaw, Mississippi . The Silver Star Casino opened in 1994, followed by the Golden Moon Casino in 2002. Together, these casinos are known as the Pearl River Resort . The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians has become one of the state's largest employers. During

6125-450: The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians. He served for 32 years, being re-elected until 2007. Beginning in 1979, the tribal council worked on a variety of economic development initiatives, first geared toward attracting industry to the reservation. They had people available to work, natural resources , and no taxes . The kind of industries included automotive parts, greeting cards , direct mail and printing, and plastic molding. In 1987,

6250-624: The Native American tribes, and pry Florida from the Spanish Empire . Jackson immediately offered to raise volunteers for the war, but he was not called to duty until after the United States military was repeatedly defeated in the American Northwest . After these defeats, in January 1813, Jackson enlisted over 2,000 volunteers, who were ordered to head to New Orleans to defend against

6375-509: The Red Sticks. He headed south from Fayetteville , Tennessee, in October with 2,500 militia, establishing Fort Strother as his supply base. He sent his cavalry under General Coffee ahead of the main force, destroying Red Stick villages and capturing supplies. Coffee defeated a band of Red Sticks at the Battle of Tallushatchee on November 3, and Jackson defeated another band later that month at

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6500-478: The Southeast. The chiefs signed the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek with the United States, which the U.S. Senate ratified on February 25, 1831. President Jackson was determined to use the Choctaw removal as a model for removing other tribes from the Southeast to territory far west of the Mississippi River . After ceding close to 11 million acres (45,000 km), the Choctaw were to emigrate in three stages:

6625-577: The Southern states was eroded when he signed a tax on European imports, the Tariff of 1828 , which was called the "Tariff of Abominations" by opponents, into law. Jackson's victory in the presidential race was overwhelming. He won 56 percent of the popular vote and 68 percent of the electoral vote. The election ended the one-party system that had formed during the Era of Good Feelings as Jackson's supporters coalesced into

6750-399: The Spanish from Texas. Burr, who was touring what was then the Western United States after mortally wounding Alexander Hamilton in a duel , stayed with the Jacksons at the Hermitage in 1805. He eventually persuaded Jackson to join his adventure. In October 1806, Jackson wrote James Winchester that the United States "can conquer not only [Florida], but all Spanish North America". He informed

6875-406: The Tennessee militia that it should be ready to march at a moment's notice "when the government and constituted authority of our country require it", and agreed to provide boats and provisions for the expedition. Jackson sent a letter to President Thomas Jefferson telling him that Tennessee was ready to defend the nation's honor. Jackson also expressed uncertainty about the enterprise. He warned

7000-455: The Treasury William Crawford , he signed five treaties between 1816 and 1820 in which the Creek, Choctaw, Cherokee and Chickasaw ceded tens of millions of acres of land to the United States. These included the Treaty of Tuscaloosa and the Treaty of Doak's Stand . Jackson soon became embroiled in conflict in Florida. The former British post at Prospect Bluff , which became known to Americans as "the Negro fort", remained occupied by more than

7125-402: The U.S. Army in Europe during World War II, returned to Neshoba County, Mississippi , to visit his former home. After seeing the poverty of his people, he decided to stay to help. Will D. Campbell , a Baptist minister and civil rights activist, also witnessed the destitution of the Choctaw in the postwar years. He would later write, the thing I remember the most ... was the depressing sight of

7250-447: The United States. Jackson then turned his attention to the British and Spanish. He moved his forces to Mobile , Alabama, in August, accused the Spanish governor of West Florida , Mateo González Manrique , of arming the Red Sticks, and threatened to attack. The governor responded by inviting the British to land at Pensacola to defend it, which violated Spanish neutrality. The British attempted to capture Mobile, but their invasion fleet

7375-467: The age of 29 in a logging accident while clearing land in February 1767, three weeks before his son Andrew was born. Afterwards, Elizabeth and her three sons moved in with her sister and brother-in-law, Jane and James Crawford. Jackson later stated that he was born on the Crawford plantation, which is in Lancaster County, South Carolina , but second-hand evidence suggests that he might have been born at another uncle's home in North Carolina. When Jackson

7500-401: The air. Jackson began his new career in the frontier town of Nashville in 1788 and quickly moved up in social status . He became a protégé of William Blount , one of the most powerful men in the territory. Jackson was appointed attorney general of the Mero District in 1791 and judge-advocate for the militia the following year. He also got involved in land speculation, eventually forming

7625-470: The assimilation of Native Americans into the larger American society, which was becoming increasingly urbanized. The Choctaw people continued to struggle economically due to bigotry , cultural isolation, and lack of jobs in their rural area. However, with the reorganization and establishment of a tribal government over the next decades, they took control of their "schools, health care facilities , legal and judicial systems, and social service programs." In

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7750-458: The basis of promissory notes fell apart in the wake of an earlier financial panic . He had to sell Hunter's Hill, as well as 25,000 acres (10,000 ha) of land he bought for speculation and bought a smaller 420-acre (170 ha) plantation near Nashville that he would call the Hermitage. He focused on recovering from his losses by becoming a successful planter and merchant . The Hermitage grew to 1,000 acres (400 ha), making it one of

7875-441: The concurrent war against the British , Jackson's victory at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815 made him a national hero. He later commanded U.S. forces in the First Seminole War , which led to the annexation of Florida from Spain. Jackson briefly served as Florida's first territorial governor before returning to the Senate. He ran for president in 1824 . He won a plurality of the popular and electoral vote, but no candidate won

8000-460: The difficult march back to Nashville, earning the nickname " Hickory " (later "Old Hickory") for his toughness. After returning to Nashville, Jackson and one of his colonels, John Coffee , got into a street brawl over honor with the brothers Jesse and Thomas Hart Benton . Nobody was killed, but Jackson received a gunshot in the shoulder that nearly killed him. Jackson had not fully recovered from his wounds when Governor Willie Blount called out

8125-405: The dismal welfare conditions of the Mississippi Choctaw, whose population had declined to 1,665 people by 1930. John Collier , the US Commissioner for Indian Affairs (now BIA), used the report as instrumental support in a proposal to re-organize the Mississippi Choctaw as the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians (MBCI). This action would enable them to establish their own tribal government and develop

8250-472: The early 21st century, they ran 19 businesses and employed 7,800 people. Purporting to represent Native Americans before Congress and state governments to aid them in setting up gaming on their reservation, lobbyists Jack Abramoff and Michael Scanlon used fraudulent means to gain profits of $ 15 million in payment from MBCI. Abramoff expressed contempt for many of his clients. In an E-mail sent January 29, 2002, Abramoff told Scanlon, "I have to meet with

8375-621: The economic welfare of their tribes. In the 1970s, the Choctaw repudiated the extremes of Indian activism. Shortly after, Congress passed the landmark Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975 , marking the end of 15 years of federal policy reform for American Indian tribes. The legislation authorized tribes to negotiate contracts with the BIA to manage more of their own educational and social service programs, provided direct grants to help tribes develop plans for assuming responsibility, and provided for Indian parents' involvement on school boards. Phillip Martin , who had served in

8500-726: The election as the Choctaw's first female chief. Anderson chose not to use M iko as a title, instead using the traditional title of Chief. Martin had been democratically elected for seven consecutive terms. Martin had reduced the tribe's 70% unemployment rate in 1997 to less than 3% unemployment in 2007. During his tenure, he led the tribe to become the third-largest employer in Mississippi. Old Choctaw country included dozens of towns, such as Lukfata, Koweh Chito, Oka Hullo, Pante, Osapa Chito, Oka Cooply, and Yanni Achukma, located in and around Neshoba and Kemper counties. The Choctaw regularly traveled hundreds of miles from their homes for long periods of time, moving to seasonal hunting grounds in

8625-415: The electoral majority. With the help of Henry Clay , the House of Representatives elected John Quincy Adams in a contingent election . Jackson's supporters alleged that there was a " corrupt bargain " between Adams and Clay and began creating their own political organization that would eventually become the Democratic Party . Jackson ran again in 1828 , defeating Adams in a landslide. In 1830, he signed

8750-530: The elite families of Tennessee. In May 1806, Jackson fought a duel with Charles Dickinson . Their dispute started over payments for a forfeited horse race, escalating for six months until they agreed to the duel. Dickinson fired first. The bullet hit Jackson in the chest, but shattered against his breastbone. He returned fire and killed Dickinson. The killing tarnished Jackson's reputation. Later that year, Jackson became involved in former vice president Aaron Burr 's plan to conquer Spanish Florida and drive

8875-483: The execution of six militiamen for desertion. Some Creoles registered as French citizens with the French consul and demanded to be discharged from the militia due to their foreign nationality. Jackson then ordered all French citizens to leave the city within three days, and had a member of the Louisiana legislature, Louis Louaillier, arrested when he wrote a newspaper article criticizing Jackson's continuation of martial law. U.S. District Court Judge Dominic A. Hall signed

9000-415: The federal government, politicians began to support institutionalized gambling to support state programs. Starting with New Hampshire in 1963, numerous state legislatures passed new laws to establish state-run lotteries and other gambling enterprises to raise money for government services. Native American tribes began to study gambling enterprises as a means to increase revenues on their reservations to support

9125-614: The federals to bring the Choctaw case before Congress. On February 5th, their mission culminated with the meeting of President Woodrow Wilson. Culbertson Davis presented a beaded Choctaw belt as a token of goodwill to the President. Nearly two years after the trip to Washington, the Indian Appropriations Act of 1916 was passed. A stipulation allocated $ 1,000 to investigate the Mississippi Choctaws' condition. John R.T. Reeves

9250-574: The first chairperson. With the tribe's adoption of an elected, representative government, in 1944 the Secretary of the Interior declared that 18,000 acres (73 km) would be held in trust for the Choctaw of Mississippi, as was done for other federally recognized tribes on reservations. Lands in Neshoba and surrounding counties were set aside as a federal Indian reservation . Eight communities were included in

9375-512: The first in the fall of 1831, the second in 1832, and the last in 1833. Although the removals continued into the early 20th century, some Choctaw remained in Mississippi and continued to live in their ancient homeland . According to the terms of removal, the nearly 5000 Choctaw who remained in Mississippi became citizens of both the state and the United States. For the next ten years, they were subject to increasing legal conflict, harassment , and intimidation by white settlers. Racism against them

9500-442: The garrison at Mobile, and led his troops to New Orleans. Jackson arrived in New Orleans on December 1, 1814. There he instituted martial law because he worried about the loyalty of the city's Creole and Spanish inhabitants. He augmented his force by forming an alliance with Jean Lafitte 's smugglers and raising units of free African Americans and Creek, paying non-white volunteers the same salary as whites. This gave Jackson

9625-534: The garrison. Some survivors were enslaved while others fled into the wilderness of Florida. White American settlers were in constant conflict with Native American people collectively known as the Seminoles , who straddled the border between the U.S. and Florida. In December 1817, Secretary of War John C. Calhoun initiated the First Seminole War by ordering Jackson to lead a campaign "with full power to conduct

9750-470: The governor, Archibald Roane , broke the tie in Jackson's favor. Jackson later accused Sevier of fraud and bribery. Sevier responded by impugning Rachel's honor, resulting in a shootout on a public street. Soon afterwards, they met to duel, but parted without having fired at each other. Jackson resigned his judgeship in 1804. He had almost gone bankrupt when the land and mercantile speculations he had made on

9875-462: The home of their ancestors . For years, the state protected the site as a Mississippi state park . It returned Nanih Waiya to the Choctaw in 2006 under Mississippi Legislature State Bill 2803. The deed was signed on August 18, 2008. The Choctaw have celebrated the day since as a tribal holiday, and made it an occasion to tell stories of their origin and history, serve traditional foods, and conduct related dances. The current Miko or tribal chief of

10000-468: The largest cotton-growing plantations in the state. Like most planters in the Southern United States , Jackson used slave labor . In 1804, Jackson had nine African American slaves; by 1820, he had over 100; and by his death in 1845, he had over 150. Over his lifetime, he owned a total of 300 slaves. Jackson subscribed to the paternalistic idea of slavery, which claimed that slave ownership

10125-516: The last terminations in process, such as that of the Ponca . Both presidents Lyndon Johnson and Republican Richard Nixon repudiated the termination of the federal government's special relationships with Native American tribes. In March 1968, President Johnson delivered a special message to Congress on the problems of the American Indian, titled "The Forgotten American," where he stated: We must affirm

10250-519: The militia in September 1813 following the August Fort Mims Massacre . The Red Sticks , a Creek Confederacy faction that had allied with Tecumseh , a Shawnee chief who was fighting with the British against the United States, killed about 250 militia men and civilians at Fort Mims in retaliation for an ambush by American militia at Burnt Corn Creek . Jackson's objective was to destroy

10375-668: The monkeys from the Choctaw tribal council." Congressional hearings on the Abramoff scandal were held by the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs in 2006. Federal charges were brought against Abramoff and Scanlon. In 2002, the United States Congress formally recognized the entire Choctaw Nation in 25 U.S.C. 1779, including those Choctaw in Mobile and Washington counties, Alabama. They were described as Full-Blooded Choctaw equally and in

10500-578: The newly formed Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana Choctaw Council at a 1913 meeting. After deliberation, the council selected delegates to send to Washington, D.C ., to bring attention to the Choctaw's plight. Historian Robert Bruce Ferguson wrote in his 2015 article that: In late January 1914, Chief Wesley Johnson and his delegates (Culbertson Davis and Emil John) traveled to Washington, D.C. ... While they were in Washington, Johnson, Davis, and John met with numerous senators & representatives and persuaded

10625-504: The nomination in six other states and had a strong second-place finish in three others. In the presidential election, Jackson won a 42-percent plurality of the popular vote. More importantly, he won a plurality of electoral votes , receiving 99 votes from states in the South, West, and Mid-Atlantic. He was the only candidate to win states outside of his regional base: Adams dominated New England , Crawford won Virginia and Georgia, and Clay took three western states. Because no candidate had

10750-783: The ongoing disagreement led to its dissolution. In the spring of 1831, Jackson demanded the resignations of all the cabinet members except Barry, who would resign in 1835 when a Congressional investigation revealed his mismanagement of the Post Office. Jackson tried to compensate Van Buren by appointing him the Minister to Great Britain , but Calhoun blocked the nomination with a tie-breaking vote against it. Van Buren—along with newspaper editors Amos Kendall and Francis Preston Blair —would become regular participants in Jackson's Kitchen Cabinet , an unofficial, varying group of advisors that Jackson turned to for decision making even after he had formed

10875-410: The people, blaming banks for the country's depression. During his presidential candidacy, Jackson reluctantly ran for one of Tennessee's U.S. Senate seats. Jackson's political managers William Berkeley Lewis and John Eaton convinced him that he needed to defeat incumbent John Williams , who opposed him. The legislature elected Jackson in October 1823. He was attentive to his senatorial duties. He

11000-403: The popular will, but it functioned as political patronage and became known as the spoils system . Jackson spent much of his time during his first two and a half years in office dealing with what came to be known as the "Petticoat affair" or "Eaton affair". The affair focused on Secretary of War Eaton's wife, Margaret . She had a reputation for being promiscuous, and like Rachel Jackson, she

11125-512: The power of the Red Sticks. Jackson continued his scorched-earth campaign of burning villages, destroying supplies, and starving Red Stick women and children. The campaign ended when William Weatherford , the Red Stick leader, surrendered, although some Red Sticks fled to East Florida . On June 8, Jackson was appointed a brigadier general in the United States Army, and 10 days later

11250-525: The president to leave the existing appointees in office, replacing them through attrition. Jackson enforced the Tenure of Office Act , an 1820 law that limited office tenure, authorized the president to remove current office holders, and appoint new ones. During his first year in office, he removed about 10% of all federal employees and replaced them with loyal Democrats. Jackson argued that rotation in office reduced corruption by making officeholders responsible to

11375-480: The reservation land: Bogue Chitto , Bogue Homa, Conehatta , Crystal Ridge, Pearl River , Red Water , Tucker , and Standing Pine . Under the Indian Reorganization Act, the Mississippi Choctaw reorganized on April 20, 1945, as the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians when it was federally recognized by the U.S. government, and its constitution ratified. This gave them sovereignty and independence from

11500-448: The right of the first Americans to remain Indians while exercising their rights as Americans. We must affirm their rights to freedom of choice and self-determination. The Choctaw witnessed the social forces that brought Freedom Summer to their ancient homeland. The Civil Rights Era produced significant social change for the Choctaw in Mississippi, as their civil rights improved alongside the changing conditions for African Americans. Before

11625-523: The same Mississippi Choctaw Jurisdictional Act of 1934, by which the Mississippi Band of Choctaw reorganized. After nearly two hundred years, the Mississippi Band of Choctaw regained stewardship of Nanih Waiya from the state of Mississippi. Nanih Waiya is a platform mound with an adjacent conical mound and remnants of an earthwork embankment . The earliest dates for construction of the earthworks are from 100 to 400 CE. Choctaw people venerated this site and nearby Nanih Waiya Cave as their place of origin and

11750-536: The soldiers he had executed for desertion and alleging that he stabbed a man in the back with his cane. They stated that he had intentionally massacred Native American women and children at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, ate the bodies of Native Americans he killed in battle, and threatened to cut off the ears of congressmen who questioned his behavior during the First Seminole War. Jackson and Rachel were accused of adultery for living together before her divorce

11875-644: The special status of those tribes that they thought were more fully assimilated. In 1959, the Choctaw Termination Act was passed. Congress settled on a policy to terminate tribes as quickly as possible, believing that was a route of assimilation. During the same period, the federal government, concerned about the isolation of many Native Americans living on reservations in rural areas with scarce job opportunities, created relocation programs to cities. They aimed to increase job and cultural opportunities for American Indians . Indian policy experts hoped to expedite

12000-437: The state government. Mississippi continued to be dominated by conservative whites of the Democratic Party , who maintained legal racial segregation and disenfranchisement well into the late 20th century. In the 1950s, successive Republican administrations, supported by conservative Democrats in the South (a one-party region), became impatient with the gradual assimilation of Native Americans. Republicans proposed to terminate

12125-509: The use of military force to enforce the tariff, but the crisis was defused when it was amended . In 1832, he vetoed a bill by Congress to reauthorize the Second Bank of the United States , arguing that it was a corrupt institution. After a lengthy struggle , the Bank was dismantled. In 1835, Jackson became the only president to pay off the national debt . He survived the first assassination attempt on

12250-528: The values he associated with Britain, in particular aristocracy and political privilege. After the American Revolutionary War, Jackson worked as a saddler, briefly returned to school, and taught reading and writing to children. In 1784, he left the Waxhaws region for Salisbury, North Carolina , where he studied law under attorney Spruce Macay. He completed his training under John Stokes , and

12375-586: The war as he may think best". Jackson believed the best way to do this was to seize Florida from Spain once and for all. Before departing, Jackson wrote to President James Monroe , "Let it be signified to me through any channel ... that the possession of the Floridas would be desirable to the United States, and in sixty days it will be accomplished." Jackson invaded Florida, captured the Spanish fort of St. Marks , and occupied Pensacola . Seminole and Spanish resistance

12500-409: The whites included all people of color in the category of "other" or Negro (black), and required them to use segregated facilities. By 1907, the Mississippi Choctaw were in decline. The Dawes Commission had sent a large number of the Mississippi Choctaws to Indian Territory , and only 1,253 members remained. Meetings were held in 1913 to try to find a solution. Wesley Johnson was elected chief of

12625-596: The winter. They set out early in the fall and returned to their reserved lands at the opening of spring to plant their gardens. At that time they visited the Europeans at Columbus, Mississippi; Macon, Brooksville, and Crawford, and the region where Yazoo City now is located. Presently, the Mississippi Choctaw Indian Reservation has eight communities: These communities are located in parts of nine counties in Mississippi. The largest concentration of land

12750-539: Was Burr's associate James Wilkinson who was guilty of treason, not Burr. Burr was acquitted of the charges. On June 18, 1812, the United States declared war on the United Kingdom , launching the War of 1812 . Though the war was primarily caused by maritime issues, it provided white American settlers on the southern frontier the opportunity to overcome Native American resistance to settlement, undermine British support of

12875-516: Was accused of adultery. She and Eaton had been close before her first husband John Timberlake died, and they married nine months after his death. With the exception of Barry's wife Catherine, the cabinet members' wives followed the lead of Vice-president Calhoun's wife Floride and refused to socialize with the Eatons. Though Jackson defended Margaret, her presence split the cabinet, which had been so ineffective that he rarely called it into session, and

13000-722: Was admitted to the North Carolina bar in September 1787. Shortly thereafter, his friend John McNairy helped him get appointed as a prosecuting attorney in the Western District of North Carolina, which would later become the state of Tennessee . While traveling to assume his new position, Jackson stopped in Jonesborough . While there, he bought his first slave, a woman who was around his age. He also fought his first duel , accusing another lawyer, Waightstill Avery , of impugning his character. The duel ended with both men firing in

13125-588: Was appointed chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs but avoided debate or initiating legislation. He used his time in the Senate to form alliances and make peace with old adversaries. Eaton continued to campaign for Jackson's presidency, updating his biography and writing a series of widely circulated pseudonymous letters that portrayed Jackson as a champion of republican liberty. Democratic-Republican presidential nominees had historically been chosen by informal congressional nominating caucuses . In 1824, most of

13250-528: Was born in Carrickfergus , County Antrim , around 1738, and his ancestors had crossed into Northern Ireland from Scotland after the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. Jackson had two older brothers who came with his parents from Ireland, Hugh (born 1763) and Robert (born 1764). Elizabeth had a strong hatred of the British that she passed on to her sons. Jackson's exact birthplace is unclear. Jackson's father died at

13375-486: Was born in the colonial Carolinas before the American Revolutionary War . He became a frontier lawyer and married Rachel Donelson Robards . He briefly served in the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate , representing Tennessee . After resigning, he served as a justice on the Tennessee Superior Court from 1798 until 1804. Jackson purchased a property later known as the Hermitage , becoming

13500-458: Was created in Article I of the Constitution , which laid out the limitations and powers of Congress. Article I grants Congress legislative power , lists the enumerated powers and allows Congress to make laws that are necessary and proper to carry out the enumerated powers. It specifies the election and composition of the House of Representatives, and the election and composition of the Senate, and

13625-404: Was effectively ended by May 1818. He also captured two British subjects , Robert Ambrister and Alexander Arbuthnot , who had been working with the Seminoles. After a brief trial, Jackson executed both of them, causing an international incident with the British. Jackson's actions polarized Monroe's cabinet. The occupied territories were returned to Spain. Calhoun wanted him censured for violating

13750-495: Was elected to be its U.S. representative . In Congress, Jackson argued against the Jay Treaty , criticized George Washington for allegedly removing Democratic-Republicans from public office, and joined several other Democratic-Republican congressmen in voting against a resolution of thanks for Washington. He advocated for the right of Tennesseans to militarily oppose Native American interests. The state legislature elected him to be

13875-883: Was finalized, and Rachel heard about the accusation. She had been under stress throughout the election, and just as Jackson was preparing to head to Washington for his inauguration, she fell ill. She did not live to see her husband become president, dying of a stroke or heart attack a few days later. Jackson believed that the abuse from Adams' supporters had hastened her death, stating at her funeral: "May God Almighty forgive her murderers, as I know she forgave them. I never can." Jackson arrived in Washington, D.C. , on February 11, and began forming his cabinet. He chose Van Buren as Secretary of State, John Eaton as Secretary of War, Samuel D. Ingham as Secretary of Treasury, John Branch as Secretary of Navy, John M. Berrien as Attorney General, and William T. Barry as Postmaster General. Jackson

14000-518: Was granted in 1793 on the basis of Rachel's infidelity. The couple legally married in January 1794. In 1796, they acquired their first plantation, Hunter's Hill , on 640 acres (260 ha) of land near Nashville. Jackson became a member of the Democratic-Republican Party , the dominant party in Tennessee. He was elected as a delegate to the Tennessee constitutional convention in 1796. When Tennessee achieved statehood that year, he

14125-459: Was inaugurated on March 4, 1829; Adams, who was embittered by his defeat, refused to attend. Jackson was the first president-elect to take the oath of office on the East Portico of the U.S. Capitol . In his inaugural address, he promised to protect the sovereignty of the states, respect the limits of the presidency, reform the government by removing disloyal or incompetent appointees, and observe

14250-535: Was interpreted as his being against representative democracy. Jackson responded by championing the needs of ordinary citizens and declaring that "the voice of the people   ... must be heard". Jackson was nominated for president by the Tennessee legislature in October 1825, more than three years before the 1828 election. He gained powerful supporters in both the South and North, including Calhoun, who became Jackson's vice-presidential running mate, and New York Senator Martin Van Buren. Meanwhile, Adams's support from

14375-606: Was made a brevet major general with command of the Seventh Military District, which included Tennessee, Louisiana, the Mississippi Territory, and the Muscogee Creek Confederacy. With President James Madison 's approval, Jackson imposed the Treaty of Fort Jackson . The treaty required all Creek, including those who had remained allies, to surrender 23,000,000 acres (9,300,000 ha) of land to

14500-577: Was morally acceptable as long as slaves were treated with humanity and their basic needs were cared for. In practice, slaves were treated as a form of wealth whose productivity needed to be protected. Jackson directed harsh punishment for slaves who disobeyed or ran away. For example, in an 1804 advertisement to recover a runaway slave, he offered "ten dollars extra, for every hundred lashes any person will give him" up to three hundred lashes—a number that would likely have been deadly. Over time, his accumulation of wealth in both slaves and land placed him among

14625-411: Was passed, most Choctaw men were enrolled and formed the 1st Choctaw Battalion. While the enlisted were Choctaw Indians, all commissioned officers were white men. The battalion was headquartered at Newton Station, Mississippi , and consisted of two companies of 101 soldiers. However, the battalion had members who deserted, and it was disbanded a few months after formation. While the 1st Choctaw Battalion

14750-561: Was rampant. A Choctaw described their situation in 1849 as follows: "We have had our habitations torn down and burned, our fences destroyed, cattle turned into our fields and we ourselves have been scourged , manacled , fettered and otherwise personally abused, until by such treatment some of our best men have died." The Mississippi Choctaw participated in the American Civil War . After the Confederate Conscription Act

14875-544: Was repulsed at Fort Bowyer . Jackson then invaded Florida, defeating the Spanish and British forces at the Battle of Pensacola on November 7. Afterwards, the Spanish surrendered, and the British withdrew. Weeks later, Jackson learned that the British were planning an attack on New Orleans, which was the gateway to the Lower Mississippi River and control of the American West. He evacuated Pensacola, strengthened

15000-472: Was seen as a Washington insider. Jackson unexpectedly garnered popular support outside of Tennessee and became a serious candidate. He benefited from the expansion of suffrage among white males that followed the conclusion of the War of 1812. He was a popular war hero whose reputation suggested he had the decisiveness and independence to bring reform to Washington. He also was promoted as an outsider who stood for all

15125-602: Was standing down, Spann's Independent Scouts was forming. Many Mississippi Choctaw men enrolled in this battalion and continued participation in the war until the surrender. Conditions declined for the Choctaw after the Civil War and during Reconstruction . As conservative white Democrats worked to restore white supremacy and eliminate black suffrage , they passed a new constitution in 1890 that effectively disenfranchised blacks by creating barriers to voter registration . In addition, under racial segregation and Jim Crow laws,

15250-553: Was stolen from the Treasury. They also resulted in a reduction in costs to the Department of the Navy, saving $ 1 million (equivalent to $ 28,600,000 in 2023). Jackson asked Congress to tighten laws on embezzlement and tax evasion, and he pushed for an improved government accounting system. Jackson implemented a principle he called " rotation in office ". The previous custom had been for

15375-770: Was tasked with investigating the condition of Indians living in Mississippi and reporting his findings to Congress. Reeves submitted his report on November 6, 1916. In March 1917, federal representatives held hearings attended by approximately 100 Choctaws to examine the needs of the Mississippi Choctaw. Some congressmen who presided over the hearings were Charles D. Carter of Oklahoma, William W. Hastings of Oklahoma, Carl T. Hayden of Arizona, John N. Tillman of Arkansas, and William W. Venable of Mississippi. These hearings resulted in improved access to health care, housing, and schools. The Mississippi Choctaw's improvements may have continued if they weren't dramatically interrupted by world events. World War I slowed down progress for

15500-422: Was the seventh president of the United States , serving from 1829 to 1837. Before his presidency , he gained fame as a general in the U.S. Army and served in both houses of the U.S. Congress . Often praised as an advocate for ordinary Americans and for his work in preserving the union of states , Jackson has also been criticized for his racial policies, particularly his treatment of Native Americans . Jackson

15625-542: Was young, Elizabeth thought he might become a minister and paid to have him schooled by a local clergyman. He learned to read, write, and work with numbers, and was exposed to Greek and Latin, but he was too strong-willed and hot-tempered for the ministry. Jackson and his older brothers, Hugh and Robert, served on the Patriot side against British forces during the American Revolutionary War . Hugh served under Colonel William Richardson Davie , dying from heat exhaustion after

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