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98-552: Fali comprises two languages spoken in northern Cameroon . Included in Greenberg's Adamawa languages (as group G11), it was excluded from that family by Boyd (1989). Roger Blench suspects it may represent one of the earlier lineages to have branched off the Atlantic–Congo stock. According to Ethnologue 16, the two branches of Fali are "different," but it is not clear how distinct they are. Blench apparently treats them as half
196-461: A veto , the power to pardon crimes, authority over foreign policy, authority to command the military as the Commander-in-chief , and authority over advisors and employees of the executive branch. Separation of powers is sometimes held up as an advantage, in that each branch may scrutinize the actions of the other. This is in contrast with a parliamentary system, where the majority party in
294-411: A dozen languages in two branches. South Fali has 20,000 speakers, with several dialects. North Fali, with 16,000 speakers, also has several dialects; North Fali speakers were "rapidly" shifting to Adamawa Fulfulde by 1982. The Nimbari language used to be spoken in the southern Fali area, but Nimbari people now speak Fali Kangou. [REDACTED] This article incorporates text available under
392-559: A head of government elected by citizens to serve one or more fixed-terms. Fixed-terms are praised for providing a level of stability that other systems lack. Although most parliamentary governments go long periods of time without a no confidence vote, Italy, Israel, and the French Fourth Republic have all experienced difficulties maintaining stability. When parliamentary systems have multiple parties, and governments are forced to rely on coalitions, as they often do in nations that use
490-813: A joint letter to the UNHRC defending China 's treatment of Uyghurs in the Xinjiang region. The Cameroon Armed Forces (French: Forces armées camerounaises , FAC) consists of the country's army ( Armée de Terre ), the country's navy ( Marine Nationale de la République (MNR), including naval infantry), the Cameroonian Air Force ( Armée de l'Air du Cameroun , AAC), and the Gendarmerie . Males and females who are 18 years of age up to 23 years of age and have graduated high school are eligible for military service. Those who join are obliged to complete four years of service. There
588-455: A legislative item passed. The presidential model is said to discourage this sort of opportunism, and instead forces the executive to operate within the confines of a term they cannot alter to suit their own needs. Unlike in parliamentary systems, the legislature does not have the power to recall a president under the presidential system. However, presidential systems may have methods to remove presidents under extraordinary circumstances, such as
686-872: A member state of the African Union , the United Nations , the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie (OIF), the Commonwealth of Nations , the Non-Aligned Movement , and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation . Originally, Cameroon was the exonym given by the Portuguese to the Wouri River , which they called Rio dos Camarões meaning 'river of shrimps ' or 'shrimp river', referring to
784-595: A much larger pool of potential candidates. This allows presidents the ability to select cabinet members based as much or more on their ability and competency to lead a particular department as on their loyalty to the president, as opposed to parliamentary cabinets, which might be filled by legislators chosen for no better reason than their perceived loyalty to the prime minister. Supporters of the presidential system note that parliamentary systems are prone to disruptive " cabinet shuffles " where legislators are moved between portfolios, whereas in presidential system cabinets (such as
882-453: A national cash reserve, pay farmers, and finance major development projects; however, many initiatives failed when Ahidjo appointed unqualified allies to direct them. The national flag was changed on 20 May 1975 with the two stars removed and replaced with a large central star as a symbol of national unity. Ahidjo stepped down on 4 November 1982 and left power to his constitutional successor, Paul Biya . However, Ahidjo remained in control of
980-400: A new election". The consistency of a presidency may be seen as beneficial during times of crisis. When in a time of crisis, countries may be better off being led by a president with a fixed term than rotating premierships. Some critics, however, argue that the presidential system is weaker because it does not allow a transfer of power in the event of an emergency. Walter Bagehot argues that
1078-472: A parliamentary system. The presidential system elects a head of government independently of the legislature, while in contrast, the head of government in a parliamentary system answers directly to the legislature. Presidential systems necessarily operate under the principle of structural separation of powers, while parliamentary systems do not; however, the degree of functional separation of powers exhibited in each varies – dualistic parliamentary systems such as
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#17328551712071176-407: A president committing a crime or becoming incapacitated. In some countries, presidents are subject to term limits. The inability to remove a president early is also the subject of criticism. Even if a president is "proved to be inefficient, even if he becomes unpopular, even if his policy is unacceptable to the majority of his countrymen, he and his methods must be endured until the moment comes for
1274-501: A presidential system can produce gridlock when the president and the legislature are in opposition. This rarely happens in a parliamentary system, as the prime minister is always a member of the party in power. This gridlock is common occurrence, as the electorate often expects more rapid results than are possible from new policies and switches to a different party at the next election. Critics such as Juan Linz , argue that in such cases of gridlock, presidential systems do not offer voters
1372-588: A quantitative comparison of the strength of presidential system characteristics for individual countries. Presidentialism metrics include the presidentialism index in V-Dem Democracy indices and presidential power scores. The table below shows for individual countries the V-Dem presidentialism index, where higher values indicate higher concentration of political power in the hands of one individual. Subnational governments may be structured as presidential systems. All of
1470-497: A regimen of forced labour. This economic policy was much criticised by the other colonial powers. With the defeat of Germany in World War I , Kamerun became a League of Nations mandate territory and was split into French Cameroon ( French : Cameroun ) and British Cameroon in 1919. France integrated the economy of Cameroon with that of France and improved the infrastructure with capital investments and skilled workers, modifying
1568-411: A semi-presidential system. A pure presidential system may also have mechanisms that resemble those of a parliamentary system as part of checks and balances . The legislature may have oversight of some of the president's decisions through advice and consent , and mechanisms such as impeachment may allow the legislature to remove the president under drastic circumstances. Presidentialism metrics allow
1666-402: A subnational or local level. One example is Japan , where the national government uses the parliamentary system. Non-UN members or observers are in italics. The following countries have presidential systems where the post of prime minister (official title may vary) exists alongside that of the president. The president is still both the head of state and government and the prime minister's role
1764-417: A system of proportional representation , extremist parties can theoretically use the threat of leaving a coalition to further their agendas. Proponents of the presidential system also argue that stability extends to the cabinets chosen under the system. In most parliamentary systems, cabinets must be drawn from within the legislative branch. Under the presidential system, cabinet members can be selected from
1862-553: A territorial dispute over the Bakassi peninsula were resolved. The talks involved President Paul Biya of Cameroon, then President Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria, and then UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan , and resulted in Cameroonian control of the oil-rich peninsula. The northern portion of the territory was formally handed over to the Cameroonian government in August 2006, and the remainder of
1960-486: A treaty with one of the local kings to annex the region for the German emperor. The German Empire claimed the territory as the colony of Kamerun in 1884 and began a steady push inland; the natives resisted. Under the aegis of Germany, commercial companies were local administrations. These concessions used forced labour to run profitable banana, rubber, palm oil, and cocoa plantations. Even infrastructure projects relied on
2058-439: A unitary executive can give way to a dictatorship. The presidential system is defined by the separation of the executive branch from other aspects of government. The head of government is elected to work alongside, but not as a part of, the legislature. There are several types of powers that are traditionally delegated to the president. Under a presidential system, the president may have the power to challenge legislation through
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#17328551712072156-603: A withdrawal by both countries and denied the request by Cameroon for compensation due to Nigeria's long-term occupation. By 2004, Nigeria had failed to meet the deadline to hand over the peninsula. A UN-mediated summit in June 2006 facilitated an agreement for Nigeria to withdraw from the region and both leaders signed the Greentree Agreement . The withdrawal and handover of control was completed by August 2006. In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Cameroon, signed
2254-458: Is Mount Cameroon in the Southwest Region . Cameroon's most populous cities are Douala on the Wouri River , its economic capital and main seaport; Yaoundé , its political capital; and Garoua . Limbé in the southwest has a natural seaport. Cameroon is well known for its native music styles, particularly Makossa , Njang, and Bikutsi , and its successful national football team . It is
2352-417: Is a member of both the Commonwealth of Nations and La Francophonie . Its foreign policy closely follows that of its main ally, France (one of its former colonial rulers). Cameroon relies heavily on France for its defence, although military spending is high in comparison to other sectors of government. President Biya has engaged in a decades-long clash with the government of Nigeria over possession of
2450-457: Is a mixture of civil law , common law , and customary law . Although nominally independent, the judiciary falls under the authority of the executive's Ministry of Justice . The president appoints judges at all levels. The judiciary is officially divided into tribunals, the court of appeal , and the supreme court . The National Assembly elects the members of a nine-member High Court of Justice that judges high-ranking members of government in
2548-444: Is elected and creates policy, administers government agencies, commands the armed forces , negotiates and ratifies treaties, and declares a state of emergency. The president appoints government officials at all levels, from the prime minister (considered the official head of government), to the provincial governors and divisional officers. The president is selected by popular vote every seven years. There have been 2 presidents since
2646-466: Is no conscription in Cameroon, but the government makes periodic calls for volunteers. Human rights organisations accuse police and military forces of mistreating and even torturing criminal suspects, ethnic minorities, homosexuals , and political activists. United Nations figures indicate that more than 21,000 people have fled to neighbouring countries, while 160,000 have been internally displaced by
2744-458: Is not as strictly enforced in presidential systems. Another stated benefit of the separation of powers is the ability of the legislature to enforce limits on the powers of the executive. In a parliamentary system, if important legislation proposed by the incumbent prime minister and his cabinet is "voted down" by a majority of the members of parliament then it is considered a vote of no confidence . The presidential system has no such mechanism, and
2842-583: Is sometimes the subject of criticism. Dana D. Nelson criticizes the office of the President of the United States as essentially undemocratic and characterizes presidentialism as worship of the president by citizens, which she believes undermines civic participation. British-Irish philosopher and MP Edmund Burke stated that an official should be elected based on "his unbiased opinion, his mature judgment, his enlightened conscience", and therefore should reflect on
2940-599: Is the dominant form of government in the mainland Americas , with 17 of its 22 sovereign states being presidential republics, the exceptions being Canada , Belize , Peru , Guyana and Suriname . It is also prevalent in Central and southern West Africa and in Central Asia . By contrast, there are very few presidential republics in Europe, with Cyprus and Turkey being the only examples. The presidential system has its roots in
3038-409: Is the separation of powers that divides the executive and the legislature. Advocates of presidential systems cite the democratic nature of presidential elections, the advantages of separation of powers, the efficiency of a unitary executive, and the stability provided by fixed-terms. Opponents of presidential systems cite the potential for gridlock, the difficulty of changing leadership, and concerns that
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3136-573: The Atlantic Ocean . Due to its strategic position at the crossroads between West Africa and Central Africa, it has been categorized as being in both camps. Cameroon's population of nearly 31 million people speak 250 native languages, in addition to the national tongues of English and French, or both. Early inhabitants of the territory included the Sao civilisation around Lake Chad and the Baka hunter-gatherers in
3234-783: The CC BY 3.0 license. Cameroon Cameroon , officially the Republic of Cameroon , is a country in Central Africa . It shares boundaries with Nigeria to the west and north, Chad to the northeast, the Central African Republic to the east, and Equatorial Guinea , Gabon , and the Republic of the Congo to the south. Its coastline lies on the Bight of Biafra , part of the Gulf of Guinea , and
3332-679: The Cameroon range extends from Mount Cameroon on the coast—Cameroon's highest point at 4,095 metres (13,435 ft) —almost to Lake Chad at Cameroon's northern border at 13°05'N. This region has a mild climate, particularly on the Western High Plateau , although rainfall is high. Its soils are among Cameroon's most fertile, especially around volcanic Mount Cameroon. Volcanism here has created crater lakes . On 21 August 1986, one of these, Lake Nyos , belched carbon dioxide and killed between 1,700 and 2,000 people. This area has been delineated by
3430-607: The Japanese occupation of Korea , it assisted South Korea in the formation of a presidential government. However, the early years of the South Korean presidency were marked by dictatorial control. At the same time, Indonesia declared independence from the Netherlands in 1945. While it nominally used a presidential system, it was in effect a dictatorship where the president controlled all branches of government. A true presidential system
3528-529: The Southern Cameroons National Council advocated complete secession as the Republic of Ambazonia . The 1992 Labour Code of Cameroon gives workers the freedom to belong to a trade union or not to belong to any trade union at all. It is the choice of a worker to join any trade union in their occupation since there is more than one trade union in each occupation. In June 2006, talks concerning
3626-500: The United States . This head of government is in most cases also the head of state . In a presidential system, the head of government is directly or indirectly elected by a group of citizens and is not responsible to the legislature, and the legislature cannot dismiss the president except in extraordinary cases. A presidential system contrasts with a parliamentary system , where the head of government comes to power by gaining
3724-543: The United States Cabinet ), cabinet shuffles are unusual. Some political scientists dispute this concept of stability, arguing that presidential systems have difficulty sustaining democratic practices and that they have slipped into authoritarianism in many of the countries in which they have been implemented. According to political scientist Fred Riggs , presidential systems have fallen into authoritarianism in nearly every country they've been attempted. The list of
3822-541: The World Wildlife Fund as the Cameroonian Highlands forests ecoregion. Presidential system A presidential system , or single executive system , is a form of government in which a head of government , typically with the title of president , leads an executive branch that is separate from the legislative branch in systems that use separation of powers . This system was first introduced in
3920-457: The delegates developed what is now known as the presidential system. Most notably, James Wilson advocated for a unitary executive figure that would become the role of the president. The United States became the first presidential republic when the Constitution of the United States came into force in 1789, and George Washington became the first president under a presidential system. During
4018-596: The wettest places on earth, part of the Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests . The South Cameroon Plateau rises from the coastal plain to an average elevation of 650 metres (2,133 ft). Equatorial rainforest dominates this region, although its alternation between wet and dry seasons makes it less humid than the coast. This area is part of the Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests ecoregion . An irregular chain of mountains, hills, and plateaus known as
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4116-762: The 1810s and 1820s, Spanish colonies in the Americas sought independence , and several new Spanish-speaking governments emerged in Latin America . These countries modeled their constitutions after that of the United States, and the presidential system became the dominant political system in the Americas. Following several decades of monarchy , Brazil also adopted the presidential system in 1889 with Deodoro da Fonseca as its first president. Latin American presidential systems have experienced varying levels of stability, with many experiencing periods of dictatorial rule. Following
4214-580: The Anglophone region as the Federal Republic of Ambazonia . The government responded with a military offensive, and the insurgency spread across the Northwest and Southwest regions. As of 2019 , fighting between separatist guerillas and government forces continues. During 2020, numerous terrorist attacks—many of them carried out without claims of credit—and government reprisals have led to bloodshed throughout
4312-465: The Atlantic Ocean. Tourist literature describes Cameroon as "Africa in miniature" because it exhibits all major climates and vegetation of the continent: coast, desert, mountains, rainforest, and savanna. The country's neighbours are Nigeria and the Atlantic Ocean to the west; Chad to the northeast; the Central African Republic to the east; and Equatorial Guinea , Gabon and the Republic of
4410-716: The British Cameroons, the question was whether to reunify with French Cameroon or join Nigeria; the British ruled out the option of independence. On 1 January 1960, French Cameroun gained independence from France under President Ahmadou Ahidjo as the Republic of Cameroon. On 1 October 1961, the formerly British Southern Cameroons gained independence from the United Kingdom by vote of the UN General Assembly and merged into
4508-474: The CNU and tried to run the country from behind the scenes until Biya and his allies pressured him into resigning. Biya began his administration by moving toward a more democratic government, but a failed coup d'état nudged him toward the leadership style of his predecessor. In 1987, Dja Faunal Reserve , Cameroon's first world heritage site , was inscribed on the list by UNESCO . An economic crisis took effect in
4606-457: The Congo to the south. Cameroon is divided into five major geographic zones distinguished by dominant physical, climatic, and vegetative features. The coastal plain extends 15 to 150 kilometres (9 to 93 mi) inland from the Gulf of Guinea and has an average elevation of 90 metres (295 ft). Exceedingly hot and humid with a short dry season , this belt is densely forested and includes some of
4704-538: The Congress blames the president, and the public remains confused and disgusted with government in Washington". Years before becoming president, Woodrow Wilson famously wrote "how is the schoolmaster, the nation, to know which boy needs the whipping?" Walter Bagehot said of the American system, "the executive is crippled by not getting the law it needs, and the legislature is spoiled by having to act without responsibility:
4802-715: The English-speaking territories, where politicians have advocated for greater decentralisation and even complete separation or independence (as in the Southern Cameroons National Council ). In 2017, tensions over the creation of an Ambazonian state in the English-speaking territories escalated into open warfare . Large numbers of Cameroonians live as subsistence farmers . The country is often referred to as "Africa in miniature" for its geological, linguistic, and cultural diversity. Its natural features include beaches , deserts , mountains , rainforests , and savannas . Cameroon's highest point, at almost 4,100 metres (13,500 ft),
4900-619: The French-administered part of Cameroon became independent, as the Republic of Cameroun, under President Ahmadou Ahidjo . The southern part of British Cameroons federated with it in 1961 to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon. The federation was abandoned in 1972. The country was renamed the United Republic of Cameroon in 1972 and back to the Republic of Cameroon in 1984 by a presidential decree by President Paul Biya . Biya,
4998-575: The Kanem and its successor state, the Bornu Empire . Kingdoms, fondoms , and chiefdoms arose in the west. Portuguese sailors reached the coast in 1472. They noted an abundance of the ghost shrimp Lepidophthalmus turneranus in the Wouri River and named it Rio dos Camarões ( Shrimp River ), which became Cameroon in English. Over the following few centuries, European interests regularised trade with
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#17328551712075096-483: The Netherlands, Sweden and Slovakia forbid members of the legislature from serving in the executive simultaneously, while Westminster-type parliamentary systems such as the United Kingdom require it. Heads of government under the presidential system do not depend on the approval of the legislature as they do in a parliamentary system (with the exception of mechanisms such as impeachment). The presidential system and
5194-458: The Republic of Cameroon to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon. The federal republic was composed of two federated states, East Cameroon and West Cameroon , each with their own legislatures, governments, and prime ministers. 1 October is now observed as Unification Day , a public holiday . Ahidjo used the ongoing war with the UPC to concentrate power in the presidency, continuing with this even after
5292-545: The UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Zeid Ra'ad Al Hussein expressed deep concern about reports of violations and abuses in the English-speaking Northwest and Southwest regions of Cameroon. According to OCHA, more than 1.7 million people require humanitarian assistance in the northwest and southwest regions. OCHA also estimates that at least 628,000 people have been internally displaced by violence in
5390-444: The administration of an elected Regional Council . Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor. These leaders are charged with implementing the will of the president, reporting on the general mood and conditions of the regions, administering the civil service, keeping the peace, and overseeing the heads of the smaller administrative units. Governors have broad powers: they may order propaganda in their area and call in
5488-413: The arguments for and against certain policies and then do what he believes is best for his constituents and country as a whole, even if it means short-term backlash. Thus defenders of presidential systems hold that sometimes what is wisest may not always be the most popular decision and vice versa. The separation of the executive and the legislature is the key difference between a presidential system and
5586-580: The army, gendarmes , and police. All local government officials are employees of the central government's Ministry of Territorial Administration, from which local governments also get most of their budgets. The regions are subdivided into 58 divisions (French départements ). These are headed by presidentially appointed divisional officers ( préfets ). The divisions are further split into sub-divisions ( arrondissements ), headed by assistant divisional officers ( sous-prefets ). The districts, administered by district heads ( chefs de district ), are
5684-514: The coast, and the North-West ( Nord-Ouest ) and West ( Ouest ) regions are in the western grassfields. At 475,442 square kilometres (183,569 sq mi), Cameroon is the world's 53rd-largest country. The country is located in Central Africa , on the Bight of Bonny , part of the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean. Cameroon lies between latitudes 1° and 13°N , and longitudes 8° and 17°E . Cameroon controls 12 nautical miles of
5782-649: The coastal peoples, and Christian missionaries pushed inland. In 1896, Sultan Ibrahim Njoya created the Bamum script , or Shu Mom, for the Bamum language . It is taught in Cameroon today by the Bamum Scripts and Archives Project . Germany began to establish roots in Cameroon in 1868 when the Woermann Company of Hamburg built a warehouse. It was built on the estuary of the Wouri River. Later, Gustav Nachtigal made
5880-416: The colonial system of forced labour. The British administered their territory from neighbouring Nigeria . Natives complained that this made them a neglected "colony of a colony". Nigerian migrant workers flocked to Southern Cameroons, ending forced labour altogether but angering the local natives, who felt swamped. The League of Nations mandates were converted into United Nations Trusteeships in 1946, and
5978-836: The confidence of an elected legislature . Not all presidential systems use the title of president . Likewise, the title is sometimes used by other systems. It originated from a time when such a person personally presided over the governing body, as with the President of the Continental Congress in the early United States , prior to the executive function being split into a separate branch of government. It may also be used by presidents in semi-presidential systems . Heads of state of parliamentary republics , largely ceremonial in most cases, are called presidents. Dictators or leaders of one-party states , whether popularly elected or not, are also often called presidents. The presidential system
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#17328551712076076-619: The country. Since 2016, more than 450,000 people have fled their homes. The conflict indirectly led to an upsurge in Boko Haram attacks, as the Cameroonian military largely withdrew from the north to focus on fighting the Ambazonian separatists. More than 30,000 people in northern Cameroon fled to Chad after ethnic clashes over access to water between Musgum fishermen and ethnic Arab Choa herders in December 2021. The President of Cameroon
6174-513: The direction of the National Anti-Corruption Observatory . There are several high corruption risk areas in Cameroon, for instance, customs, public health sector and public procurement. However, the corruption has gotten worse, regardless of the existing anti-corruption bureaus, as Transparency International ranked Cameroon 152 on a list of 180 countries in 2018. President Biya's Cameroon People's Democratic Movement (CPDM)
6272-459: The event they are charged with high treason or harming national security. Cameroon is viewed as rife with corruption at all levels of government. In 1997, Cameroon established anti-corruption bureaus in 29 ministries, but only 25% became operational, and in 2012, Transparency International placed Cameroon at number 144 on a list of 176 countries ranked from least to most corrupt. On 18 January 2006, Biya initiated an anti-corruption drive under
6370-408: The executive becomes unfit for its name, since it cannot execute what it decides on; the legislature is demoralized by liberty, by taking decisions of which others [and not itself] will suffer the effects". A 2024 meta-analytical review found that presidential systems were associated with more corruption than parliamentary systems. In a presidential system, the president is elected independently of
6468-560: The governance of the British colonies of the 17th century in what is now the United States. The Pilgrims , permitted to govern themselves in Plymouth Colony , established a system that utilized an independent executive branch. Each year, a governor was chosen by the colonial legislature , as well as several assistants, analogous to modern day cabinets . Additional executive officials such as constables and messengers were then appointed. At
6566-691: The government suppresses the freedoms of opposition groups by preventing demonstrations, disrupting meetings, and arresting opposition leaders and journalists. In particular, English-speaking people are discriminated against; protests often escalate into violent clashes and killings. In 2017, President Biya shut down the Internet in the English-speaking region for 94 days, at the cost of hampering five million people, including Silicon Mountain startups. Freedom House ranks Cameroon as "not free" in terms of political rights and civil liberties. The last parliamentary elections were held on 9 February 2020. Cameroon
6664-449: The ideal ruler in times of calm is different from the ideal ruler in times of crisis, criticizing the presidential system for having no mechanism to make such a change. In many cases, the president is elected as both the head of government and the head of state . This is in contrast to most parliamentary governments where the head of state is separate from the head of government and plays a largely symbolic role. The president's status
6762-513: The incumbent president, has led the country since 1982 following Ahidjo's resignation; he previously held office as prime minister from 1975 onward. Cameroon is governed as a unitary presidential republic . The official languages of Cameroon are French and English, the official languages of former French Cameroons and British Cameroons . Christianity is the majority religion in Cameroon , with significant minorities practising Islam and traditional faiths . It has experienced tensions from
6860-521: The independence of Cameroon. The National Assembly makes legislation. The body consists of 180 members who are elected for five-year terms and meet three times per year. Laws are passed on a majority vote. The 1996 constitution establishes a second house of parliament, the 100-seat Senate . The government recognises the authority of traditional chiefs, fons, and lamibe to govern at the local level and to resolve disputes as long as such rulings do not conflict with national law. Cameroon's legal system
6958-404: The kind of accountability seen in parliamentary systems, and that this inherent political instability can cause democracies to fail, as seen in such cases as Brazil and Allende's Chile . It is easy for either the president or the legislature to escape blame by shifting it to the other. Describing the United States, former Treasury Secretary C. Douglas Dillon said "the president blames Congress,
7056-533: The legislature has little incentive to appease the president beyond saving face. When an action is within the scope of a president's power, a presidential system can respond more rapidly to emerging situations than parliamentary ones. A prime minister, when taking action, needs to retain the support of the legislature, but a president is often less constrained. In Why England Slept , future U.S. president John F. Kennedy argued that British prime ministers Stanley Baldwin and Neville Chamberlain were constrained by
7154-475: The legislature that also serves as the executive is unlikely to scrutinize its own actions. Writing about the Watergate scandal , former British MP Woodrow Wyatt said "don't think a Watergate couldn't happen here, you just wouldn't hear about it." The extent of this effect is debated. Some commentators argue that the effect is mitigated when the president's party is in power, while others note that party discipline
7252-419: The legislature. This may be done directly through a popular vote or indirectly such as through the electoral college used in the United States. This aspect of presidential systems is sometimes touted as more democratic, as it provides a broader mandate for the president. Once elected, a president typically remains in office until the conclusion of a term. Presidential systems are typically understood as having
7350-409: The mid-1980s to late 1990s as a result of international economic conditions, drought, falling petroleum prices, and years of corruption, mismanagement, and cronyism . Cameroon turned to foreign aid, cut government spending, and privatised industries. With the reintroduction of multi-party politics in December 1990, the former British Southern Cameroons pressure groups called for greater autonomy, and
7448-598: The need to maintain the confidence of the Commons . James Wilson , who advocated for a presidential system at the constitutional convention , maintained that a single chief executive would provide for greater public accountability than a group and thereby protect against tyranny by making it plain who was responsible for executive actions. He also submitted that a singular chief executive was necessary to ensure promptness and consistency and guard against deadlock, which could be essential in times of national emergency. Conversely,
7546-686: The oil-rich Bakassi peninsula. Cameroon and Nigeria share a 1,000-mile (1,600 km) border and have disputed the sovereignty of the Bakassi peninsula. In 1994 Cameroon petitioned the International Court of Justice to resolve the dispute. The two countries attempted to establish a cease-fire in 1996; however, fighting continued for years. In 2002, the ICJ ruled that the Anglo-German Agreement of 1913 gave sovereignty to Cameroon. The ruling called for
7644-437: The parliamentary system can also be blended into a semi-presidential system . Under such a system, executive power is shared by an elected head of state (a president) and a legislature-appointed head of government (a prime minister or premier). The amount of power each figure holds may vary, and a semi-presidential system may lean closer to one system over the other. The president typically retains authority over foreign policy in
7742-565: The pattern of other Spanish colonies, the Philippines established the first presidential system in Asia in 1898, but it fell under American control due to the Spanish–American War . The presidential system was restored after the United States granted the Philippines independence in 1946. The end of World War II established presidential systems in two countries. After the United States ended
7840-566: The peninsula was left to Cameroon two years later, in 2008. The boundary change triggered a local separatist insurgency , as many Bakassians refused to accept Cameroonian rule. While most militants laid down their arms in November 2009, some carried on fighting for years. In February 2008, Cameroon experienced its worst violence in 15 years when a transport union strike in Douala escalated into violent protests in 31 municipal areas. In May 2014, in
7938-413: The predominantly English-speaking Northwest and Southwest regions of the country have been campaigning for continued use of the English language in schools and courts. People were killed and hundreds were jailed as a result of these protests. In 2017, Biya's government blocked the regions' access to the Internet for three months. In September, separatists started a guerilla war for the independence of
8036-557: The presidential system in the final decades of the 20th century. A modified version of the presidential system was implemented in Iran following constitutional reform in 1989 in which the Supreme Leader serves as the head of state and is the absolute power in this country. In 1981, Palau achieved independence and adopted a presidential system. When the Soviet Union was dissolved in 1991,
8134-588: The presidential system was adopted by the new states that were created, though most of them adopted other governmental systems over the following decades. The presidential system continues to be adopted in the 21st century. Following its independence in 2011, South Sudan adopted a presidential system. In 2018, after the 2017 Turkish constitutional referendum , Turkey adopted a presidential system. There are several characteristics that are unique to presidential systems or prominent in countries that use presidential systems. The defining aspect of presidential systems
8232-583: The question of independence became a pressing issue in French Cameroon. France outlawed the pro-independence political party, the Union of the Peoples of Cameroon ( French : Union des Populations du Cameroun , UPC), on 13 July 1955. This prompted a long guerrilla war waged by the UPC and the assassination of several of the party's leaders, including Ruben Um Nyobè , Félix-Roland Moumié and Ernest Ouandie . In
8330-699: The same time, the British Isles underwent a brief period of republicanism as the Protectorate , during which the Lord Protector served as an executive leader similar to a president. The first true presidential system was developed during the United States Constitutional Convention in 1787. Drawing inspiration from the previous colonial governments, from English Common Law , and from philosophers such as John Locke and Montesquieu ,
8428-613: The smallest administrative units. The three northernmost regions are the Far North ( Extrême Nord ), North ( Nord ), and Adamawa ( Adamaoua ). Directly south of them are the Centre ( Centre ) and East ( Est ). The South Province ( Sud ) lies on the Gulf of Guinea and the southern border. Cameroon's western region is split into four smaller regions: the Littoral ( Littoral ) and South-West ( Sud-Ouest ) regions are on
8526-506: The southeastern rainforest. Portuguese explorers reached the coast in the 15th century and named the area Rio dos Camarões ( Shrimp River ), which became Cameroon in English. Fulani soldiers founded the Adamawa Emirate in the north in the 19th century, and various ethnic groups of the west and northwest established powerful chiefdoms and fondoms . Cameroon became a German colony in 1884 known as Kamerun . After World War I , it
8624-407: The stakes of presidential elections and inevitably exacerbates their attendant tension and polarization. Fixed-terms in a presidential system may also be considered a check on the powers of the executive, contrasting parliamentary systems, which may allow the prime minister to call elections whenever they see fit or orchestrate their own vote of no confidence to trigger an election when they cannot get
8722-412: The state governments in the United States use the presidential system, even though this is not constitutionally required. In these cases instead of the title of President the role has the title of Governor. On a local level, a presidential system might be organized with the office of Mayor acting as the president. Some countries without a presidential system at the national level use a form of this system at
8820-600: The suppression of the UPC in 1971. Ahidjo's political party, the Cameroon National Union (CNU), became the sole legal political party on 1 September 1966, and on 20 May 1972, a referendum was passed to abolish the federal system of government in favour of a United Republic of Cameroon, headed from Yaoundé . This day is now the country's National Day , a public holiday. Ahidjo pursued an economic policy of planned liberalism , prioritising cash crops and petroleum development. The government used oil money to create
8918-581: The then abundant Cameroon ghost shrimp . Today the country's name in Portuguese remains Camarões . Evidence from digs at Shum Laka in the Northwest Region shows human occupation in Cameroon dating back 30,000 years. The longest continuous inhabitants are groups such as the Baka ( Pygmies ). From there, Bantu migrations into eastern, southern and central Africa are believed to have occurred about 2,000 years ago. The Sao culture arose around Lake Chad , c. 500 CE , and gave way to
9016-534: The two regions, while more than 87,000 have fled to Nigeria. Same-sex sexual acts are banned by section 347-1 of the penal code with a penalty of from 6 months up to 5 years imprisonment. Since December 2020, Human Rights Watch claimed that Islamist armed group Boko Haram has stepped up attacks and killed at least 80 civilians in towns and villages in the Far North region of Cameroon. The constitution divides Cameroon into 10 semi-autonomous regions, each under
9114-424: The violence, many reportedly hiding in forests. Prisons are overcrowded with little access to adequate food and medical facilities, and prisons run by traditional rulers in the north are charged with holding political opponents at the behest of the government. However, since the first decade of the 21st century, an increasing number of police and gendarmes have been prosecuted for improper conduct. On 25 July 2018,
9212-686: The wake of the Chibok schoolgirls kidnapping , presidents Paul Biya of Cameroon and Idriss Déby of Chad announced they were waging war on Boko Haram , and deployed troops to the Nigerian border. Boko Haram launched several attacks into Cameroon, killing 84 civilians in a December 2014 raid , but suffering a heavy defeat in a raid in January 2015 . Cameroon declared victory over Boko Haram on Cameroonian territory in September 2018. Since November 2016, protesters from
9310-590: The world's 22 older democracies includes only two countries (Costa Rica and the United States) with presidential systems. Yale political scientist Juan Linz argues that: The danger that zero-sum presidential elections pose is compounded by the rigidity of the president's fixed term in office. Winners and losers are sharply defined for the entire period of the presidential mandate ... losers must wait four or five years without any access to executive power and patronage. The zero-sum game in presidential regimes raises
9408-557: Was established in 1998. Decolonization in the 1950s and 1960s brought with it significant expansion of the presidential system. During this time, several new presidential republics were formed in Africa. Cyprus, the Maldives, and South Vietnam also adopted the presidential system following decolonization. Pakistan and Bangladesh did so as well, but they changed their governmental systems shortly afterward. Several more countries adopted
9506-476: Was divided between France and the United Kingdom as League of Nations mandates . France took 4/5 and the United Kingdom 1/5 of the territory and both ruled it under mandate until independence in 1960 and 1961 respectively. The Union des Populations du Cameroun (UPC) political party advocated independence but was outlawed by France in the 1950s, leading to the national liberation insurgency fought between French and UPC militant forces until early 1971. In 1960,
9604-568: Was the only legal political party until December 1990. Numerous regional political groups have since formed. The primary opposition is the Social Democratic Front (SDF), based largely in the Anglophone region of the country and headed by John Fru Ndi . Biya and his party have maintained control of the presidency and the National Assembly in national elections, which rivals contend were unfair. Human rights organisations allege that
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