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156-604: Marks was born in Charleston, South Carolina in 1790. His parents, Humphrey and Frances Marks, had come from Lancashire , England in 1783 and worshipped at Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim Synagogue in Charleston. The Marks family was in a group of Jews "invited to Carolina by the indigo and rice planters   ... to invest money in mortgages on plantations along the seaboard." He likely received his early education at one of several private schools run by Jews in Charleston. The family owned

312-428: A Mask ", has "sufficient charm and grace to invite comparison with Milton's poem Comus   ... It was the sort of thing that Marks and Barhamville could do well—dainty, unpretentious and restrained." Other poems in the book are "short mediocre verse of an autobiographic nature and lame expressions of assorted noble sentiments." George Pope Morris "praised the work highly and published lengthy extracts from it in

468-513: A sharecropping agreement with the Freedmen's Bureau in Columbia. Marks attended a 1867 Columbia meeting where Governor Orr and Union officers talked with the newly freed African Americans about their participation in governance . The newspaper account says the tone of the meeting was "hopeful and harmonious." Later in 1867, Marks moved North with his family. A former slave was hired as caretaker of

624-486: A yellow fever outbreak killed about 15% of the remaining inhabitants. Charles Town suffered between five and eight significant yellow fever outbreaks over the first half of the 18th century. It developed a reputation as one of the least healthy locations in the Thirteen Colonies for ethnic Europeans. Malaria was endemic. Although malaria did not have such high mortality as yellow fever, it caused much illness. It

780-484: A Tennessean who found that he had a mutual acquaintance with Sosnowski. Sosnowski used her late husband's Masonic materials to acquire aid from some Union officers. On the last night, a passing unit of "warm hearted" Irish American soldiers assisted Sosnowski in protecting the school from marauders. Marks' Barhamville Institute still stood when the Union Army moved on although some valuables were stolen. The 1865 defeat of

936-586: A Treasury clerk to support her parents after the financial devastation of Barhamville. Cunningham would stay with the Marks family when she was on lobbying trips to Washington, D.C. Marks died on 22 June 1886. He and his wife Julia are buried in Oak Hill Cemetery (Washington, D.C.) . Elias and Julia were among the 19th century pioneers in female education whose "courage and foresight ... should not be forgotten." Charleston, South Carolina Charleston

1092-477: A basement of brick. The South wing was all brick and two stories high with a cellar. There were stand-alone structures for the chemistry lab, teacher housing, and the like. Marks and his wife lived in the central building, which had an entrance hall complete with African American butler and "a broad, circular stairway with mahogany balustrades." The student dormitories and classrooms were in the wings. The Institute had upper and lower chapels. Each year there would be

1248-588: A center for the inland colonization of South Carolina . It remained the southernmost point of the Southern Colonies until the Province of Georgia was established in 1732. As noted, the first settlers primarily came from Europe , Barbados and Bermuda . The Barbadian and Bermudan immigrants were planters who brought enslaved Africans with them, having purchased them in the West Indies . Early immigrant groups to

1404-522: A city in 1783. Population growth in the interior of South Carolina influenced the removal of the state government to Columbia in 1788, but Charleston remained among the ten largest cities in the United States through the 1840 census . Charleston's significance in American history is tied to its role as a major slave trading port. Charleston slave traders like Joseph Wragg were the first to break through

1560-588: A clergyman in Höngg . Together they would travel to schools and the houses of parishioners. It was through these visits that Pestalozzi learned the poverty of country peasants. He saw the consequences of putting children to work in factories at an early age and he saw how little the Catechism schools did for them. Their ignorance, suffering and inability to help themselves left an impression on Pestalozzi, an impression that would guide his future educational ideas. Pestalozzi

1716-493: A complete understanding of it. Based on what he had learnt by operating schools at Neuhof, Stans, Burgdorf and Yverdon, Pestalozzi emphasized that every aspect of the child's life contributed to the formation of the child's personality, character, and capacity to reason. His educational methods were child-centered and based on individual differences, sense perception, and the student's self-activity. He worked in Yverdon to "elementarize"

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1872-614: A different chaplain, rotating among the Protestant denominations of the South. Church attendance was mandatory. The Barhamville Institute was not connected to or supported by any particular denomination. There were two or four girls in each bedroom with curtains partitioning the room. The students ordinarily wore " hoop skirts , kid slippers with flat heels, long tightly laced corsets , and cotton dresses." They would switch to silk dresses with cashmere or silk shawls for more formal events. Exercise

2028-445: A financial failure, and only through the help of friends was the institute able to stay on its feet until 1815, when Schmid returned. During the period of Schmid's absence, Pestalozzi wrote Swansong , a restatement of his educational doctrines, and Life's Destiny , a review of his life's work. These were not published until 1826 when they were joined into one book called Pestalozzi's Swansong . In 1814 he also wrote an article titled "To

2184-528: A foreign port, and defend her against any attempt to dispossess the Customs Officers of her custody until all the requirements of law have been complied with." This federal action became known as the Charleston incident. The state's politicians worked on a compromise law in Washington to gradually reduce the tariffs. Charleston's embrace of classical architecture began after a devastating fire leveled much of

2340-442: A half mile east of the site commemorates Marks' school. The prominent Southern writer William Gilmore Simms "seems to have regarded Marks highly as a poet", but there is no evidence of them meeting personally. Marks wrote many unpublished poems, often for use at student events. He published a book of poetry in 1850: "Elfreide of Guldal   ... and Other Poems" under the pen name of "Marks of Barhamville". The largest poem in

2496-409: A house on the heavily mortgaged property, calling it "Neuhof". The land he had bought, however, was unsuitable to farm. Unfavorable reports led the banker to withdraw his support. Pestalozzi added a wool-spinning business to the farm, hoping to improve his financial situation. The challenges increased as much as his debt. Three months after their financial support was withdrawn, Schulthess gave birth to

2652-506: A majority of any church's parishioners be white. In June 1818, 140 Black church members at Hampstead Church were arrested, and eight of its leaders were given fines and ten lashes; police raided the church again in 1820 and pressured it in 1821. In 1822, members of the church, led by Denmark Vesey , a lay preacher and carpenter who had bought his freedom after winning a lottery, planned an uprising and escape to Haiti —initially for Bastille Day —that failed when one enslaved person revealed

2808-402: A more extended sphere of activity, in which I might promote the welfare and happiness of the people. Juvenile ideas as to what it was necessary and possible to do in this respect in my native town, induced me to abandon the clerical profession, to which I had formerly leaned, and for which I had been destined, and caused the thought to spring up within me, that it might be possible, by the study of

2964-529: A national institution. Staff would receive fixed salaries and money would be spent to publish textbooks written by Pestalozzi and his staff. Using this money, in 1803 Pestalozzi published three elementary books: The ABC of Sense Perception , Lessons on the Observation of Number Relations and The Mother's Book . Two additions were made to Pestalozzi's staff during this time: Johann Joseph Schmid (1785–1851) and Johannes Niederer (1779–1843). Schmid had been at

3120-578: A night attack on the USS ; Housatonic on February 17, 1864. General Gillmore's land assault in July 1864 was unsuccessful but the fall of Columbia and advance of General William T. Sherman 's army through the state prompted the Confederates to evacuate the town on February 17, 1865, burning the public buildings, cotton warehouses, and other sources of supply before their departure. U.S. soldiers liberated

3276-471: A number of orphans came to the newly established institution. Pestalozzi wrote, "They were in a dreadful condition, both of body and of mind". He took many roles at Stans, including a master, servant, father, guardian, sick-nurse and teacher. He had no school materials and his only assistant was a housekeeper. Drawing from previous experience, his aim at Stans was similar to that of Neuhof: the combination of education and industry. However, he no longer looked at

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3432-465: A plan for a school and submitted it to Philipp Albert Stapfer , the new Minister of Arts and Sciences, who approved of Pestalozzi's plan. Pestalozzi was not able to implement his new school right away, because a suitable site could not be found quickly enough. In the meantime, Pestalozzi was asked to take charge of a government newspaper, the Helvetisches Volksblatt , in hopes that he could win

3588-462: A port in the coastwise trade, traveling to such ports as Mobile and New Orleans. Enslaving was the primary marker of class, and even the town's freedmen and free people of color typically enslaved people if they had the wealth to do so. Visitors commonly remarked on the sheer number of Blacks in Charleston and their seeming freedom of movement, though in fact—mindful of the Stono Rebellion and

3744-466: A profound impact on the opinion and practice of education. It is written in the form of fourteen letters from Pestalozzi to his friend Heinrich Gessner , a bookbinder in Berne . The first three letters describe how he, Krüsi, Tobler, and Büss came to their present situation at Burgdorf. Letters four to eleven are his reflections and experience in pedagogical instruction and educational theory. The twelfth letter

3900-496: A prominent New York surgeon. He published his inaugural dissertation in 1815. It reviews the mind-stomach connection and is "as much a study in psychology as it was in physiology." Marks married Jane Barham (1788–1827) in 1816. Born in Lincolnshire England, she was a Christian and "a teacher who shared his commitment to the development of women's intellectual abilities." In 1817, Marks published an English translation of

4056-441: A regimen of physical exercise and outdoor activity linked to general, moral and intellectual education that reflected Pestalozzi's ideal of harmony and human autonomy. Pestalozzi's philosophy of education was based on a four-sphere concept of life and the premise that human nature was essentially good. The first three "exterior" spheres—home and family, vocational and individual self-determination , and state and nation—recognized

4212-573: A separate mosque . Enlavers sometimes provided them with beef rations instead of pork in recognition of religious traditions. The registered tonnage of Charleston shipping in 1829 was 12,410. In 1832, South Carolina passed an ordinance of nullification , a procedure by which a state could, in effect, repeal a federal law; it was directed against the most recent tariff acts. Soon, U.S. soldiers were dispensed to Charleston's forts, and five United States Coast Guard cutters were detached to Charleston Harbor "to take possession of any vessel arriving from

4368-701: A series of evening conversations to address social and political corruption. A weekly newspaper called the Schweizerblatt was also founded and disbanded during the same year with Pestalozzi briefly acting as the chief editor. In 1794 Pestalozzi visited his sister in Leipzig . During the visit, he met Johann Wolfgang von Goethe , Christoph Martin Wieland and Johann Gottfried Herder . On his return trip to Neuhof, he met Johann Gottlieb Fichte . Fichte saw in Pestalozzi's ideas

4524-534: A six-pointed star and a triangle. The Latin motto was "Qualem decet esse sororum", "Such as sisters ought to be". It was a quote from the Metamorphoses of Ovid , book 2. By 1861, Marks entered his seventies and retired back to Columbia. Marks still owned Bahramville. Acelie Togno, who had been running a school in Columbia, leased the school from Marks in June 1862 and ran it for two years. Then Sophie Sosnowski took over

4680-516: A slave society: it had a majority-Black population from the colonial period until after the Great Migration of the early 20th century, when many rural Blacks moved to northern and midwestern industrial cities to escape Jim Crow laws . At the foundation of the town, the principal items of commerce were pine timber and pitch for ships and tobacco . The early economy developed around the deerskin trade, in which colonists used alliances with

4836-607: A store in Columbia and lived above it. Marks converted to Christianity early in life, after being inspired by the Methodist faith of his African American nurse. He attended the College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York City and graduated in 1815 as a medical doctor. After graduation from medical school, Marks conducted "a drug store in New York City for a few years." He was "for a time associated in practice with Dr. Valentine Mott ",

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4992-496: A violent hurricane passed over Charles Town. The Circular Congregational Church manse was damaged during the storm, and church records were lost. Much of Charles Town was flooded as "the Ashley and Cooper rivers became one." At least seventy people died in the disaster. From the 1670s, Charleston attracted pirates. The combination of a weak government and corruption made the city popular with pirates, who frequently visited and raided

5148-630: A violent incident in Cainhoy at an October joint discussion meeting. Violent incidents occurred throughout the Piedmont of the state as white insurgents struggled to impose white supremacy in the face of social changes after the war and the granting of citizenship to freedmen by amendments to the U.S. Constitution. After former Confederates were allowed to vote again, election campaigns from 1872 on were marked by violent intimidation of blacks and Republicans by conservative Democratic paramilitary groups, known as

5304-460: A year Pestalozzi's old faults again led the institution to near ruin. An appeal for public support in 1777 brought much-needed help, and Pestalozzi contributed to the periodical a series of letters on the education of the poor. The appeal, however, only postponed the failure of the institution. In 1779, Pestalozzi had to close Neuhof. With help from his friends, Pestalozzi was able to save the house at Neuhof for himself and his family to live in. Despite

5460-430: Is a wife and mother from the village of Bonnal, who teaches her children how to live moral upstanding lives through the belief and love of God. Glüphi, a school teacher, sees the success Gertrude has with her children and tries to model his school around her teachings. A parish clergyman also adopts Gertrude's teachings and the work of Gertrude, Glüphi and the clergyman are helped by Arner, a politician, who solicits aid from

5616-403: Is about physical education while the last two letters talk about moral and religious education. Pestalozzi's purpose in these letters was to show that, by reducing knowledge to its elements and by constructing a series of psychologically ordered exercises, anybody could teach their children effectively. Because of this literary success, people from all parts of Switzerland and Germany came to see

5772-530: Is the most populous city in the U.S. state of South Carolina , the county seat of Charleston County , and the principal city in the Charleston metropolitan area . The city lies just south of the geographical midpoint of South Carolina's coastline on Charleston Harbor , an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean formed by the confluence of the Ashley , Cooper , and Wando rivers. Charleston had a population of 150,227 at

5928-413: The 2020 census . The population of the Charleston metropolitan area, comprising Berkeley , Charleston , and Dorchester counties, was estimated to be 849,417 in 2023. It ranks as the third-most populous metropolitan statistical area in the state, and the 71st-most populous in the United States. Charleston was founded in 1670 as Charles Town, honoring King Charles   II , at Albemarle Point on

6084-479: The Atlantic slave trade , first as indentured servants and then as enslaved people . In the early 1700s, Charleston's largest slave trader, Joseph Wragg , pioneered the settlement's involvement in the slave trade. Of the estimated 400,000 captive Africans transported to North America to be sold into slavery, 40% are thought to have landed at Sullivan's Island off Charlestown. Free people of color also migrated from

6240-577: The Cherokee and Creek peoples to secure the raw material. At the same time, Native Americans kidnapped and enslaved each other in warfare. From 1680 to 1720, approximately 40,000 native men, women, and children were sold through the port, principally to the West Indies such as ( Bermuda and the Bahamas ), but also to other Southern colonies. The Lowcountry planters did not keep enslaved Native Americans, considering them too prone to escape or revolt. They used

6396-616: The Continental Congress were elected in 1774, and South Carolina declared its independence from Britain on the steps of the Exchange . Slavery was again an important factor in the city's role during the Revolutionary War . The British attacked the settlement three times, assuming that the settlement had a large base of Loyalists who would rally to their cause once given some military support. The loyalty of white Southerners towards

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6552-514: The First and Second banks were also located in Charleston. Throughout the Antebellum Period , Charleston continued to be the only major American city with a majority-slave population. The city's widespread use of enslaved people as workers was a frequent subject of writers and visitors: a merchant from Liverpool noted in 1834 that "almost all the working population are Negroes, all the servants,

6708-620: The Home Journal , of New York.” During the winter of 1868–1869, Marks and his wife lived with their daughter Edwina at the Mount Vernon estate of George Washington . Edwina was employed as secretary to Ann Pamela Cunningham and her Mount Vernon Ladies' Association , which was working to preserve Mount Vernon. Cunningham was a former student at Barhamville. Marks found the "solitude, monotony, and absence of books" intolerable, so Edwina took her parents back to Washington, D.C. Edwina worked as

6864-703: The Reconstruction era . The war had shattered the city's prosperity. Still, the African-American population surged (from 17,000 in 1860 to over 27,000 in 1880) as freedmen moved from the countryside to the major city. Blacks quickly left the Southern Baptist Church and resumed open meetings of the African Methodist Episcopal and AME Zion churches. They purchased dogs, guns, liquor, and better clothes—all previously banned—and ceased yielding

7020-506: The Red Shirts . Violent incidents occurred in Charleston on King Street on September 6 and nearby Cainhoy on October 15 in association with political meetings before the 1876 election. The Cainhoy incident was the only one statewide in which more whites were killed than blacks. The Red Shirts were instrumental in suppressing the black Republican vote in some areas in 1876 and narrowly electing Wade Hampton as governor, and taking back control of

7176-776: The Upper South to the Deep South in the antebellum years, as cotton plantations were widely developed through what became known as the Black Belt . Many enslaved people were transported in the coastwise slave trade , with slave ships stopping at ports such as Charleston. Charleston was significant in the American Civil War . As a pivotal city, the U.S. Army and Confederate States Army vied for control of it. The rebellion began in Charleston Harbor in 1861 and ended mere months after

7332-461: The West Indies , being descendants of white planters and their Black consorts and unions among the working classes. In 1767, Gadsden's Wharf was constructed at the city port on the Cooper River; it ultimately extended 840 feet and could accommodate six ships at a time. Many enslaved people were sold from here. Devoted to plantation agriculture that depended on enslaved labor, South Carolina became

7488-413: The cotton gin sped the processing of the crop over 50 times. Britain 's Industrial Revolution —initially built upon its textile industry —took up the extra production ravenously and cotton became Charleston's major export commodity in the 19th century. The Bank of South Carolina, the second-oldest building in the nation to be constructed as a bank, was established in 1798. In 1800 and 1817, branches of

7644-521: The slave revolution that established Haiti —the whites closely regulated the behavior of both enslaved and free people of color. The town fixed wages and hiring practices, sometimes required identifying badges, and sometimes censored work songs. Punishment was handled out of sight by the city's workhouse , whose fees provided the municipal government with thousands a year. In 1820, state law mandated that each act of manumission (freeing an enslaved person) required legislative approval, effectively halting

7800-606: The "Educational Institute for the Children of the Middle Classes", in the Burgdorf Castle . Here, two educators joined Pestalozzi, Johann Georg Tobler and Johann Christoff Büss . During this time Pestalozzi systemized and codified many of his methods and ideas about education. Pestalozzi for the second time in his literary career attracted a wide circle of readers after publishing How Gertrude Teaches her Children . The book had

7956-639: The 1820s, his parents and brother also moved to Columbia. "Columbia's early Jews found a warm reception in their new town. Many Jews, including ... educator Dr. Elias Marks ... were viewed by their neighbors as important people with powerful connections." Elias and Jane worshiped at Trinity Episcopal Church in Columbia . He and Jane "soon became aware of an urgent need in this state (SC) for the higher education of women." They became principals at Columbia Female Academy by 1821. Jane and Elias had four children before she died in 1827. None of Jane's children survived to adulthood. Marks did continue his involvement with

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8112-450: The 1850s for a collegiate year, but the optional fees could raise that considerably. Marks' circular for the school dated 1855-1856 shows the curriculum. There was a preparatory year and then four years of collegiate classes. The classes included mathematics (arithmetic, algebra, geometry), sciences (botany, mineralogy, chemistry, astronomy), history (ancient and modern), philosophy (natural, intellectual, and moral) and literature. Literature

8268-483: The Caribbean showed the planter George Lucas's daughter Eliza how to raise and use indigo for dyeing in 1747. Throughout this period, enslaved people were sold aboard the arriving ships or at ad hoc gatherings in the town's taverns. Runaways and minor slave rebellions prompted the 1739 Security Act , which required all white men to carry weapons at all times (even to church on Sundays). Before it fully took effect,

8424-514: The Cato or Stono Rebellion broke out. The white community had recently been decimated by a malaria outbreak, and the rebels killed about 25 white people before being stopped by the colonial militia. As a result of their fears of rebellion, whites killed a total of 35 to 50 Black people. The planters attributed the violence to recently imported Africans and agreed to a 10-year moratorium on slave importation through Charlestown. They relied for labor upon

8580-649: The Confederacy wrecked the Southern economy. "One-fourth of the Confederate army was killed by war or disease; the basis of wealth, slaves , was eliminated by emancipation." Few planters could afford to send their daughters to an expensive school. Marks and his family lived on the property from 1865 to 1867 while the school was operated by Angela Torriani, a refugee from the destruction of Charleston . The school closed after decades of educational success. In 1866, Marks recorded

8736-504: The Crown had largely been forfeited, however, by British legal cases (such as the 1772 Somersett case which marked the prohibition of slavery in England and Wales , a significant milestone in the abolitionist struggle) and military tactics (such as Dunmore's Proclamation in 1775) that promised the emancipation of people enslaved by Patriot planters; these efforts did, however, unsurprisingly win

8892-575: The Government's offer and, in June 1804, Pestalozzi's work in Burgdorf ended. Pestalozzi's stay at Münchenbuchsee was short. Nearby in Hofwil , there was another educational establishment run by Philipp Emanuel von Fellenberg . Pestalozzi's colleagues convinced him to collaborate with Fellenberg to plan the new institute at Münchenbuchsee. Pestalozzi and Fellenberg did not get along and after months of planning it

9048-510: The Indian slave trade. The area's unsuitability for growing tobacco prompted the Lowcountry planters to experiment with other cash crops . The profitability of growing rice led the planters to pay premiums for enslaved people from the "Rice Coast" who knew its cultivation; their descendants make up the ethnic Gullah who created their own culture and language in this area. Slaves imported from

9204-580: The Innocent, Serious, and Magnanimous of my Fatherland", a testimony to the many people living in poverty which his institutions could not reach. After the death of Pestalozzi's wife in 1815, Krüsi resigned from the institute. Niederer followed in 1817. Overcome by troubles, Pestalozzi sought Schmid's help. Schmid managed to raise £2,500 by publishing a compilation of Pestalozzi's works. The institute remained open for another 10 years, during which time Pestalozzi tried to convince Krüsi and Niederer to return. In 1825

9360-678: The Johann Pestalozzi Bilingual Academy in Aibonito , Puerto Rico , US. In fact, when the Swiss government joined the international rebuilding effort after the devastating 1963 Skopje earthquake by donating funds for the construction of a school in Skopje , it enrolled the famous Swiss architect Alfred Roth  [ de ] to design the new school, equipped it with the first modern application of seismic isolation , and named it after

9516-491: The Market Hall and Sheds, where fresh meat and produce were brought daily, became a hub of commercial activity. The slave trade also depended on the port of Charleston, where ships could be unloaded and enslaved people bought and sold. The legal importation of enslaved Africans had ended in 1808, although smuggling was significant. However, the domestic trade was booming. More than one million enslaved people were transported from

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9672-702: The Poor on the Neuhof. Preacher to the People in Leonard and Gertrude In Stans, Father of the orphan, In Burgdorf and Münchenbuchsee, Founder of the New Primary Education. In Yverdon, Educator of Humanity. He was an individual, a Christian and a citizen. He did everything for others, nothing for himself! Bless his name! Pestalozzi was a Romantic who felt that education must be broken down to its elements in order to have

9828-530: The Revolutionary War and the Civil War, Charleston experienced an economic boom, at least for the top strata of society. Expanding cotton as a cash crop in the South led to massive wealth for a small segment of society and funded impressive architecture and culture. However, it also escalated the economic importance of enslaving people and led to greater and greater restrictions on Black Charlestonians. By 1783,

9984-618: The Science of Education ] (in French) . Although Pestalozzi said he did not know much French, what he was able to understand "threw a flood of light upon my whole endeavor". It confirmed his ideas of education that he had developed at Neuhof, Stans, and now Burgdorf, in which all understanding can be achieved through a psychologically ordered sequence. In January 1800, a young teaching assistant, Hermann Krüsi , offered to help Pestalozzi. Krüsi already had some practical teaching experience and followed

10140-690: The Southern Confederated States". In 1865 Union General Sherman 's army marched from Savannah towards Virginia in the Campaign of the Carolinas . Confederate scouts reported that the Union Army was heading for Columbia . Marks in Columbia worked with Sosnowski in Barhamville to get the last group of female students sent Upcountry before the Union Army arrived. Civil order deteriorated in Columbia as

10296-514: The Swiss government. A national deputation was sent to Paris to interview Napoleon on behalf of Switzerland. Pestalozzi was elected as a member of this deputation. Before going, he published his ideas about political effort. It is a unique document in Pestalozzi's work that shows the connection of his political, social and educational influence. Pestalozzi did not enjoy his time in Paris; Napoleon had no interest in his work. On his return, Pestalozzi found

10452-400: The U.S. soldiers retook control of Charleston in 1865. Following the election of Abraham Lincoln , the South Carolina General Assembly voted on December 20, 1860, to declare secession from the United States , becoming the first state to do so. On December 27, the U.S. Army garrison of Castle Pinckney surrendered to the state militia. On January 9, 1861, Citadel cadets opened fire on

10608-427: The USS   Star of the West as it entered Charleston Harbor. The first full battle of the war occurred on April 12, 1861, when shore batteries under the command of General P. G. T. Beauregard fired upon the US Army - held Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. After a 34-hour bombardment, Major Robert Anderson surrendered the fort. On December 11, 1861, an enormous fire burned over 500 acres (200 ha) of

10764-470: The Union Army approached and the Confederate Army withdrew. During the Union occupation from 17 to 20 February, a third of Columbia was destroyed by a series of fires. The Union Army provided guards for certain non-military buildings during the brief occupation. Marks was able to get guards assigned to Barhamville for protection against drunken, ill-intentioned soldiers and civilians. The exhausted guards made little effort except for one diligent Union soldier,

10920-559: The United States to quash the practice; free Blacks were banned from returning to the state if they left for any reason; enslaved people were given a 9:15 pm curfew; the city razed Hampstead Church to the ground and erected a new arsenal . This structure later was the basis of the Citadel 's first campus. The AME congregation built a new church, but in 1834, the city banned it and all Black worship services following Nat Turner's Rebellion in Virginia in 1831. The estimated 10% of enslaved people who came to America as Muslims never had

11076-505: The acceptance of the people of Switzerland. Political change of any kind during this period was viewed as tyrannical. When the French army invaded the town of Stans in 1798, many children were left without a home or family. The Swiss government established an orphanage and recruited Pestalozzi on 5 December 1798, to take charge of the newly formed institution. On 7 December, Pestalozzi went to Stans, writing: I went gladly, for I hoped to offer these innocent little ones some compensation for

11232-453: The allegiance of thousands of Black Loyalists . The Battle of Sullivan's Island saw the British fail to capture a partially constructed palmetto palisade from Col. Moultrie 's militia regiment on June 28, 1776. The Liberty Flag used by Moultrie's men formed the basis of the later South Carolina flag , and the victory's anniversary continues to be commemorated as Carolina Day . Making

11388-532: The antebellum free black community, historian Melinda Meeks Hennessy described the community as "unique" in being able to defend themselves without provoking "massive white retaliation", as occurred in numerous other areas during Reconstruction . In the 1876 election cycle, two major riots between black Republicans and white Democrats occurred in the city, in September and the day after the election in November, as well as

11544-560: The aphorisms of Hippocrates , based on a Latin text. It is dedicated to the South Carolina botanist Stephen Elliot , who had an intellectual circle in Charleston. He belonged to the Physio-Medical Society and gave a speech to them on the "sophistication of medical theory" in 1817. This speech was published in a 15-page booklet. In 1819, Marks and his wife returned to South Carolina but to Columbia instead of Charleston. During

11700-576: The area under a kind of siege. British Army officer Alexander Leslie , commanding Charlestown, requested a truce in March 1782 to purchase food for his garrison and the town's inhabitants. Greene refused and formed a brigade under Mordecai Gist to counter British forays. The British finally evacuated Charlestown in December 1782. Greene presented the British leaders of the town with the Moultrie Flag . Between

11856-442: The battles of Monck's Corner and Lenud's Ferry , Lincoln's surrender on May 12, 1780, became the greatest American defeat of the war . The British continued to hold Charlestown for over a year following their defeat at Yorktown in 1781. However, they alienated local planters by refusing to restore full civil government. Nathanael Greene had entered the state after Cornwallis's pyrrhic victory at Guilford Courthouse and kept

12012-461: The book because it went through two more editions in 1837 and 1851 with substantial changes in each re-issue. His educational philosophy was influenced by Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi , Richard Lovell Edgeworth , and Maria Edgeworth . In 1829, Marks announced that the Institute had hired Mrs. Julia Ann Pierpont Warne (1793–1878), principal of a girls' school at Sparta, Georgia. She was a Christian and

12168-450: The capture of Charlestown their chief priority, the British sent Sir Henry Clinton , who laid siege to Charleston on April 1, 1780, with about 14,000 troops and 90 ships. Bombardment began on March 11, 1780. The Patriots, led by Benjamin Lincoln , had about 5,500 men and inadequate fortifications to repel the forces against them. After the British cut his supply lines and lines of retreat at

12324-511: The carmen & porters, all the people who see at the stalls in Market, and most of the Journeymen in trades". American traders had been prohibited from equipping the Atlantic slave trade in 1794 and all importation of enslaved people was banned in 1808 , but American merchantmen frequently refused to permit British inspection for enslaved cargo, and smuggling remained common. Much more important

12480-600: The city included the Huguenots , Scottish , Irish , and Germans , as well as hundreds of Jews , predominately Sephardi from London and significant cities of the Dutch Republic , where they had been given refuge. As late as 1830, Charleston's Jewish community was the most prominent and wealthiest in North America . By 1708, most of the colony's population were Black Africans. They had been brought to Charlestown via

12636-500: The city within the month. The War Department recovered what federal property remained. Also, it confiscated the campus of the Citadel Military Academy and used it as a U.S. Army garrison for the next 17 years. The facilities were finally returned to the state and reopened as a military college in 1882 under the direction of Lawrence E. Marichak. After the defeat of the Confederacy, U.S. soldiers remained in Charleston during

12792-472: The city's growth had reached a point where a municipal government became desirable; therefore, on August 13, 1783, an act of incorporation for Charleston was ratified. The act originally specified the city's name as "Charles Ton", as opposed to the previous Charlestown, but the spelling "Charleston" quickly came to dominate. Although Columbia had replaced it as the state capital in 1788, Charleston became even more prosperous as Eli Whitney 's 1793 invention of

12948-577: The city. U.S. Navy control of the North Atlantic coastline permitted the repeated bombardment of the city, causing vast damage. Although Admiral Du Pont's naval assault on the town's forts in April 1863 failed, the U.S. Navy's blockade shut down most commercial traffic. Throughout the war, some blockade runners got through, but not a single one made it into or out of Charleston Harbor between August 1863 and March 1864. The early submarine H.L. Hunley made

13104-447: The city. Charles Town was besieged by the pirate Blackbeard for several days in May 1718. Blackbeard released his hostages and left in exchange for a chest of medicine from Governor Robert Johnson . Around 1719, the town's name began to be generally written as Charlestown and, excepting those fronting the Cooper River, the old walls were largely removed over the next decade. Charlestown was

13260-399: The city. On April 27, 1838, Charleston suffered a catastrophic fire that burned more than 1000 buildings and caused about $ 3 million (equivalent to $ 84,910,000 in 2023) in damage at the time. The damaged buildings amounted to about one-fourth of all the businesses in the main part of the city. A great cultural awakening occurred when many homes and businesses were rebuilt or repaired. Before

13416-465: The collection, "Elfreide of Guldal", is a "bland enough narrative of heroic doings amongst the Norsemen.” The eponymous maiden loyally chooses to protect her community rather than accept the queenship of the invaders. It is written in the style of John Milton , using blank verse . The following poem "Semael" is a " mystical effusion in a Levantine setting". Another prominent poem in the book, " Maia ;

13572-463: The conception of converting Neuhof into an industrial school. Against the wishes of his wife's family, Pestalozzi gained the support of philosopher Isaak Iselin of Basel , who published it in Die Ephemerides , a periodical devoted to social and economic questions. The publication led to subscriptions and loans free of interest. The new foundation had a short period of apparent prosperity, but after

13728-532: The conversion of the United States Arsenal into the Porter Military Academy, an educational facility for former soldiers and boys left orphaned or destitute by the war. Porter Military Academy later joined with Gaud School and is now a university-preparatory school , Porter-Gaud School . In 1875, blacks made up 57% of the city's and 73% of the county's population. With leadership by members of

13884-478: The couple's only son, Jean-Jacques Pestalozzi. He was nicknamed Schaggeli and often had epileptic fits that led Pestalozzi and Schulthess to worry constantly about his health. After the failure of his farming venture, Pestalozzi wanted to help the poor. He had been poor himself most of his life and had observed orphans who gained apprenticeships as farmers only to be overworked and underfed. He desired to teach them how to live self-respecting lives. This led him to

14040-880: The creator of the concept of the kindergarten , was a student of Pestalozzi. Pestalozzi's ideas inspired Charles Mayo who returned from Switzerland to work with his sister Elizabeth Mayo . Charles had lived with Pestalozzi from 1819 to 1822 at Yverdon. The two siblings were credited with founding the formal education of infant teachers in Britain. Schools that are named after Pestalozzi include Pestalozzi-Gymnasium Biberach and Pestalozzischule Raunheim in Germany, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi ( Macedonian : Јохан Хајнрих Песталоци ) Elementary School in Skopje , North Macedonia , Colegio Pestalozzi in Argentina, Asociación Colegio Pestalozzi in Peru, and

14196-602: The desire to implement a similar system in their own nations. In May 1807, Die Wochenschrift fur Menschenbildung , a newspaper published by the institute, was started by Niederer and regularly included philosophical discussions about education and reports to parents and the public about the institute's progress. Some notable changes to the institute at Yverdon were that pupils of any age were educated, not just young children; German, French, Latin and Greek were taught along with geography, natural history, history, literature, arithmetic, geometry, surveying, drawing, writing and singing. At

14352-608: The enslaved Africans brought to North America between 1700 and 1775, and about half up until the end of the African trade. The plantations and the economy based on them made this the wealthiest city in the Thirteen Colonies and the largest in population south of Philadelphia . In 1770, the city had 11,000 inhabitants—half enslaved—and was the 4th-largest port in the colonies, after Boston , New York City , and Philadelphia. The elite began to use their wealth to encourage cultural and social development. America's first theater building

14508-566: The example set by Pestalozzi. After eight months of teaching, Pestalozzi was evaluated by school authorities who praised him for his progress. In eight months, he had not only taught children of five and six years of age to read perfectly, but also to write, draw and understand arithmetic. The school board promoted Pestalozzi to a mastership in the second boys' school where he continued his educational experiments. Fueled by his success, in October 1800 Pestalozzi decided to open another school in Burgdorf,

14664-452: The family, the utility of individuality, and the applicability of the parent-child relationship to society as a whole in the development of a child's character, attitude toward learning, and sense of duty. The last "exterior" sphere—inner sense—posited that education, having provided a means of satisfying one's basic needs, results in inner peace and a keen belief in God. As Pestalozzi said himself,

14820-443: The fire, few homes were styled as Greek Revival; many residents decided to construct new buildings in that style after the conflagration. This tradition continued, making Charleston one of the foremost places to view Greek Revival architecture. The Gothic Revival also made a significant appearance in the construction of many churches after the fire that exhibited picturesque forms and reminders of devout European religion. By 1840,

14976-416: The height of the institution's fame Pestalozzi was highly regarded for his work as an educator and in educational reform. As time went on, Pestalozzi felt that his colleagues were growing farther apart, something he called the " canker of disunion". Disagreement had not yet developed into open conflict, but different views about policy were represented by Niederer and Schmid. Niederer had gained influence in

15132-475: The institute as a poor pupil but was added to the staff for his teaching ability. Niederer had formerly been a minister. Pestalozzi's family finally joined him in the institute to live and work. In 1801 Pestalozzi's son, Jean-Jacques, died at the age of 31, but his daughter-in-law and grandchild, Gottlieb, moved from Neuhof to Burgdorf to live at the institute. Political changes by Napoleon during this time put Pestalozzi's institute in jeopardy through reform in

15288-776: The institute had to be closed due to a lack of funds. Pestalozzi returned to his old home at Neuhof and published Pestalozzi's Swansong . This provoked many bitter responses, by Fellenberg and Niederer in particular. Pestalozzi did not take lightly to these criticisms. He became sick on 15 February 1827, and died two days later in Brugg on 17 February 1827. His last words were, "I forgive my enemies. May they now find peace to which I am going forever." The inscription on Pestalozzi's grave reads: Heinrich Pestalozzi: born in Zurich January 12, 1746 died in Brugg February 17, 1827 Saviour of

15444-430: The institution and started to add subjects that teachers were not competent to teach. Schmid was open about his criticisms and the division grew among the institute's staff. In 1809 and 1810 the criticism was so great that Niederer suggested to Pestalozzi that an impartial commission be brought in from the Government to assess the conduct and efficiency of the institute. Against Schmid's wishes, Pestalozzi agreed, and in 1810

15600-525: The key to the solution of the educational problem, and suggested to Pestalozzi that he write about his views on human nature and the problem of its development. After three years, Pestalozzi wrote and published Enquiries into the Course of Nature in the development of the Human Race . Few people read his work, and in an 1821 edition, Pestalozzi wrote: "Scarcely any one has noticed the book, although it has been before

15756-570: The late 1870s, industry was bringing the city and its inhabitants back to a renewed vitality; new jobs attracted new residents. As the city's commerce improved, residents worked to restore or create community institutions. In 1865, the Avery Normal Institute was established by the American Missionary Association as the first free secondary school for Charleston's African American population. Gen. Sherman lent his support to

15912-569: The law, to find a career that would be likely to procure for me, sooner or later, the opportunity and means of exercising an active influence on the civil condition of my native town, and even of my native land. During the mid-18th century the government in Switzerland condemned Rousseau's Emile and Social Contract , saying they were dangerous to the State and the Christian religion . A prison sentence

16068-533: The loss they had sustained, and to find in their wretchedness a basis for their gratitude. In my zeal to put my hands to the task which had been the great dream of my life, I should have been ready to begin even in the highest Alps and without fire and water, so to speak, had I only been allowed. The buildings of the Ursuline Convent at Stans were supposed to have been converted into an orphanage, but little had been done when Pestalozzi arrived. On 14 January 1799,

16224-462: The management of Barhamville. The American Civil War began in April 1861. The Jews of South Carolina shifted their allegiance from the nation to the state as the Civil War approached. "Except in religion, the Jews differed very little from other white residents of the city.” "On the critical issue of slavery, they were supporters   ..." Marks wrote lyrics for music dedicated to the "patriotic ladies of

16380-462: The medical profession for a while, giving an 1821 speech to the Medical Board of Columbia SC. The Medical Board published the speech as a 7-page pamphlet "Discourse on the progress of medical science". In 1826, he asked the S. C. legislature to fund an institution of higher learning for young women. The proposal was considered inexpedient , so he decided to undertake "singly   ... that, which

16536-741: The monopoly of the Royal African Company and pioneered the large-scale slave trade of the 18th century; almost one-half of enslaved people imported to the United States arrived in Charleston. In 2018, the city formally apologized for its role in the American slave trade . King Charles II granted the chartered Province of Carolina to eight of his loyal friends, known as the Lords Proprietors , on March 24, 1663. In 1670, Governor William Sayle arranged for several shiploads of settlers from Bermuda and Barbados . These settlers established what

16692-582: The moratorium expired and Charlestown reopened to the slave trade in 1750, the memory of the Stono Rebellion resulted in traders avoiding buying enslaved people from the Congo and Angola , whose populations had a reputation for independence. By the mid-18th century, Charlestown was the hub of the Atlantic slave trade in the Southern Colonies . Even with the decade-long moratorium, its customs processed around 40% of

16848-506: The new Swiss government questioning his right to use the facilities at Burgdorf. They notified him that his services were no longer needed on the grounds that the buildings were needed for their own officials. To avoid being criticized by the public, however, the authorities offered Pestalozzi the use of an old monastery in Münchenbuchsee . Pestalozzi received offers to establish his institute in other towns, but ultimately he decided to accept

17004-475: The original Charles Town in 1680. (The original site is now commemorated as Charles Towne Landing .) The second location was more defensible and had access to a fine natural harbor. The new town had become the fifth largest in North America by 1690. A smallpox outbreak erupted in 1698, followed by an earthquake in February 1699. The latter caused a fire that destroyed about a third of the town. During rebuilding,

17160-581: The plot to his enslaver. Over the next month, the city's intendant (mayor) James Hamilton Jr. organized a militia for regular patrols, initiated a secret and extrajudicial tribunal to investigate, and hanged 35 and exiled 35 or 37 enslaved people to Spanish Cuba for their involvement. Hamilton imposed more restrictions on both free and enslaved Blacks: South Carolina required free Black sailors to be imprisoned while their ships were in Charleston Harbor, although international treaties eventually required

17316-460: The practice. The effects of slavery were pronounced on white society as well. The high cost of enslaving people in the 19th century and their high rate of return combined to institute an oligarchic society controlled by about ninety interrelated families, where 4% of the free population controlled half of the wealth, and the lower half of the free population—unable to compete with enslaved or rented people—held no wealth at all. The white middle class

17472-609: The proceeds of their sale to purchase enslaved Black Africans for their own plantations . The slave raiding—and the European firearms it introduced—helped destabilize Spanish Florida and French Louisiana in the 1700s during the War of the Spanish Succession . But it also provoked the Yamasee War of the 1710s that nearly destroyed the colony. After that, South Carolina largely abandoned

17628-417: The products of the children's labors as a possible source of income. Any work was considered by Pestalozzi as a way to train physical dexterity, promote efficiency and encourage mutual helpfulness. He wanted to cultivate the fundamental activities of the mind—"the powers of attention, observation, and memory, which must precede the art of judgment and must be well established before the latter is exercised." It

17784-525: The property being saved, they were in financial ruin and were reduced to poverty. His family connections abandoned him, along with most people who had shown interest in his ideas. Iselin remained a friend of Pestalozzi and encouraged him to continue writing. In 1780 Pestalozzi published anonymously in Die Ephemerides a series of aphorisms entitled The Evening Hours of a Hermit . They are his earliest works which outline ideas that would later be known as Pestalozzian. The aphorisms attracted little attention at

17940-528: The property. There was a "proposal to purchase Barhamville for the school for the daughters of fallen Confederate soldiers." The main building was destroyed in an accidental fire on 18 February 1869. Marks had an offer of $ 20,000 from New York just before the fire. It now was worth much less and was a devastating loss because Marks hoped to leave the money to his daughter Edwina. All of the Barhamville Institute buildings are gone. A historical marker about

18096-493: The public for more than twenty years." This work marked the end of his eighteen-year literary period, during which time Pestalozzi and his family lived a life of poverty. His wife was often ill, and in 1797 his son returned home from his apprenticeship in Basel in a similar state of health. Political changes were taking place, and when serfdom was abolished in Switzerland in 1798, Pestalozzi decided to become an educator. He wrote

18252-441: The real work of his life did not lie in Burgdorf or in Yverdon. It lay in the principles of education which he practised, in the development of his observation, in the training of the whole person, and in the sympathetic way of dealing with students, principles and practices which he illustrated in his six months' labors at Stans. He had the deepest effect on all branches of education, and his influence continues. Friedrich Fröbel ,

18408-416: The sandhills there were considered healthier than downtown Columbia and it was distant from the distractions of the town. "The house was situated on an elevated knoll in the pine woods, surrounded by a beautiful drive and gardens in a state of high cultivation." The main building had a three-story center structure with a cellar and wings off to each side. The North wing was made of wood, three stories high with

18564-450: The school in Burgdorf. The school grew, but Pestalozzi still felt that he was not doing enough. Though a financial success, the school could not do what Pestalozzi desired: educate the poor. He communicated to the Swiss government that he would like more opportunity to educate the poor. In response it sent two commissioners to investigate his work and, following their favorable review, the government decided to transform Pestalozzi's school into

18720-426: The school's title to "Collegiate Institute", making it the "South Carolina Female Collegiate Institute." At that time, the formal title of "College" was restricted to institutions for male students. The Barhamville Institute was often praised over the years. "Few southern institutions received as much recognition as the   ... Institute." It was the "best girls' school in the South, so it would seem". "...   it

18876-630: The settlers declared war in October 1671. The settlers initially allied with the Westo , a northern indigenous tribe that traded in enslaved Indians. The settlers abandoned their alliance with the Westo in 1679 and allied with the Cusabo instead. The initial settlement quickly dwindled and disappeared while another village—established by the settlers on Oyster Point at the confluence of the Ashley and Cooper rivers around 1672 —thrived. This second settlement formally replaced

19032-482: The sidewalks to whites. Despite the efforts of the state legislature to halt manumissions , Charleston had already had a large class of free people of color as well. At the onset of the war, the city had 3,785 free people of color, many of mixed race, making up about 18% of the city's black population and 8% of its total population. Many were educated and practiced skilled crafts; they quickly became leaders of South Carolina's Republican Party and its legislators. Before

19188-425: The slave communities they already held. The 1740 Negro Act also tightened controls, requiring a ratio of one white for every ten Blacks on any plantation (which was often not achieved) and banning enslaved people from assembling, growing personal food, earning money, or learning to read. Drums were banned because Africans used them for signaling; enslaved people were allowed to use string and other instruments. When

19344-452: The state commissioners visited Yverdon. The commissioners' report looked favorably upon Pestalozzi's ideas but not on the practices of the institute. Any hope of Yverdon becoming a state institution was cut off. Pestalozzi felt that justice had not been done. Schmid resigned his post and neither Pestalozzi nor Niederer could fill his position as teacher of mathematics, so instead they opened a printing and bookselling business. This proved to be

19500-710: The state legislature. Another riot occurred in Charleston the day after the election when a prominent Republican leader was mistakenly reported killed. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi ( German: [ˈjoːhan ˈhaɪnrɪç pɛstaˈlɔtsiː] , Italian: [pestaˈlɔttsi] ; 12 January 1746 – 17 February 1827) was a Swiss pedagogue and educational reformer who exemplified Romanticism in his approach. He founded several educational institutions both in German- and French-speaking regions of Switzerland and wrote many works explaining his revolutionary modern principles of education. His motto

19656-466: The state. Through these four institutions, harmony is achieved and a comprehensive education is offered to all people. The first volume was very successful; however, the second through fourth volumes were not widely published or read. Pestalozzi had planned a fifth and sixth volume, but the manuscript of the fifth was lost in his 1804 trip to Paris and it is not known if a sixth was ever written. Pestalozzi wrote Christopher and Elizabeth in 1782 as

19812-436: The still-young widow of attorney Richard Henry Warne, who died in 1824. Julia was trained by the feminist educator Emma Willard , founder of the first school for women's higher education. Like Jane, Julia was deeply committed to women's education and was described as "of deep religious feeling—hospitable, generous, dignified." Marks and Julia married in 1833. "The credit for Barhamville's success should be shared almost equally by

19968-437: The teaching of ancient languages, principally Latin, but also Hebrew and Greek. In 1819, Stephan Ludwig Roth came to study with Pestalozzi, and his new humanism contributed to the development of the method of language teaching, including considerations such as the function of the mother tongue in the teaching of ancient languages. Pestalozzi and Niederer were important influences on the theory of physical education; they developed

20124-434: The time of publication. Pestalozzi knew the country peasant life much more intimately than his contemporaries did, from the visits of his childhood with his grandfather to his current state of poverty. He drew from these experiences and published four volumes of a story titled Leonard and Gertrude . These four volumes revolve around the lives of four characters: Gertrude, Glüphi, an unnamed parish clergyman and Arner. Gertrude

20280-412: The two of them." Elias and Julia had six children. Marks published various educational materials, such as his "Questions Analytically Adapted", which was written as a supplement to Samuel Whelpley 's history textbook. Marks selected a location with over 500 acres two miles outside of Columbia for his new school and named it "Barhamville" after his deceased first wife Jane. The spot was selected because

20436-491: The war, men who had been free people of color comprised 26% of those elected to state and federal office in South Carolina from 1868 to 1876. The Pacific Guano Company , established in 1861, opened a plant in Charleston which consumed immense quantities of menhaden scrap brought from the water by the vessels which carried on their return trip a supply of South Carolina phosphates for the Woods Hole, Massachusetts factory. By

20592-614: The wealthy planter class . Among the prominent students were Anna Maria Calhoun Clemson (daughter of John C. Calhoun ), Martha Bulloch Roosevelt (mother of Theodore Roosevelt ), Elizabeth Allston Pringle (daughter of S.C. Governor Robert Allston ), and Theresa Jones (wife of Dr. J. Marion Sims ). Ann Pamela Cunningham , another student, founded the Mount Vernon Ladies' Association , which rescued George Washington's home. Enrollment at any one time seems to have fluctuated between 100 and 200 students. Board and tuition were $ 200 in

20748-659: The west bank of the Ashley River (now Charles Towne Landing ) but relocated in 1680 to its present site, which became the fifth-largest city in North America within ten years. It remained unincorporated throughout the colonial period; its government was handled directly by a colonial legislature and a governor sent by Parliament . Election districts were organized according to Anglican parishes, and some social services were managed by Anglican wardens and vestries . Charleston adopted its present spelling with its incorporation as

20904-506: Was "Learning by head, hand and heart". Thanks to Pestalozzi, illiteracy in 18th-century Switzerland was overcome almost completely by 1830. Pestalozzi was born on 12 January 1746, in Zürich , Switzerland. His father was a surgeon and oculist who died at age 33 when Pestalozzi, the second of three children, was five years old; he belonged to a family who had fled the area around Locarno due to its Protestant faith. His mother, whose maiden name

21060-608: Was Hotze, was a native of Wädenswil on the lake of Zürich. The family also had a maid, Barbara Schmid, nicknamed Babeli. After the death of Pestalozzi's father it was only through the help of Babeli that Pestalozzi's mother could financially support the family. In 1761, Pestalozzi attended the Gymnasium (Collegium Humanitatis) and received instruction from educators Johann Jakob Bodmer , who taught history and politics, and Johann Jakob Breitinger , who taught Greek and Hebrew. On holidays Pestalozzi would visit his maternal grandfather,

21216-455: Was a major health problem throughout most of the city's history before dying out in the 1950s after the use of pesticides cut down on the mosquitoes that transmitted it. Charles Town was fortified according to a plan developed in 1704 under Governor Nathaniel Johnson . Both Spain and France contested Britain's claims to the region. Various bands of Native Americans and independent pirates also raided it. On September 5–6, 1713 (O.S.),

21372-561: Was also a member of the Helvetic Society, attracted widespread attention regarding his successful business model. He had converted a large plot of worthless land into several valuable farms. In 1767 Pestalozzi visited Tschiffeli to learn about his method. After a year with Tschiffeli, Pestalozzi purchased 15 acres of waste land in the neighborhood of Zürich. He obtained financial support from a Zürich banker, bought more land and, in 1769, he married Anna Schulthess . Pestalozzi began to build

21528-545: Was apparent in the well-being of the children. He left Stans in order to recover in Gurnigel , an Alpine health resort, hoping to return to the orphanage when the buildings were free, but he was not permitted to return. During his recovery in Gurnigel, Stapfer assigned Pestalozzi to the town of Burgdorf . He was to receive a small quarterly salary, an apartment and a position teaching at the lowest school in town. Pestalozzi's position

21684-442: Was believed to be an accessory to the escape of a fellow newspaper contributor. Although he was later proven innocent, he was under arrest for three days. These events caused Pestalozzi to have many political enemies and destroyed any hope of a legal career. After the failure of his political aspirations and at the suggestion of several friends, Pestalozzi decided to become a farmer . During this time, Johann Rudolf Tschiffeli , who

21840-405: Was constructed in 1736; today's Dock Street Theater later replaced it. St   Michael's was erected in 1753. Benevolent societies were formed by the Huguenots , free people of color, Germans, and Jews. The Library Society was established in 1748 by well-born young men who wanted to share the financial cost of keeping up with the scientific and philosophical issues of the day. Delegates for

21996-605: Was decided to move the institute to Yverdon . By far, the institute at Yverdon was the longest lasting of Pestalozzi's endeavors. Pestalozzi spent the first few months of his stay at Yverdon in quiet literary work, thanks to a monetary gift from the King of Denmark, Christian VII . During this time he wrote Views and Experiences relating to the idea of Elementary Education . In July 1805 the institute at Yverdon opened and attracted visitors and pupils from all over Europe. Many governments sent their own educators to study with Pestalozzi with

22152-561: Was deemed inexpedient for the many". He proceeded to open the South Carolina Female Institute in 1828 without support from the government or a church organization. "Very probably this was the first women's college in the South." While formally named the "South Carolina Female Institute" in 1828, the school was often casually called the "Barhamville Institute/School/Academy/College/Female Seminary" or simply "Barhamville." The South Carolina government agreed in 1835 to elevate

22308-540: Was doing damage control in the newspaper after rumors spread of an affair between two staff members. The Barhamville school term ended early in 1854 when a student died of typhoid , the first student death at the school in 18 years. Marks grew mulberry trees on the Barhamville property for the Southern silkworm industry during the M. multicaulis craze of the 1830s. The insignia of the South Carolina Female Collegiate Institute (SCFCI) combined

22464-508: Was during his time at Stans that Pestalozzi realized the significance of a universal method of education, which he would attempt to apply at future institutions. In June 1799, the French army, after being defeated by the Austrians, took back Stans. They needed every available building to house their troops, and the school was broken up. Even during the short time of the orphanage, Pestalozzi's success

22620-402: Was educated to become a clergyman. As a clergyman, he expected to have ample opportunity to carry out his educational ideas; however, the failure of his first sermon and influence from philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau led him to pursue a career in law and political justice. The ideal system of liberty, also, to which Rousseau imparted fresh animation, increased in me the visionary desire for

22776-519: Was issued upon Rousseau. Bodmer, Pestalozzi's former professor, embraced the teachings of Rousseau and founded the Helvetic Society with about 20 other philosophers in 1765. Their goal was the advancement of freedom. The 19-year-old Pestalozzi was an active member, contributing many articles to the Society's newspaper, Der Erinnerer . Pestalozzi brought to light several cases of official corruption and

22932-400: Was minimal: Charlestonians generally looked down upon hard work, considering it as labor meant for enslaved people. All the enslavers taken together held 82% of the city's wealth and almost all non-enslavers were poor. Olmsted considered their civic elections "entirely contests of money and personal influence" and the oligarchs dominated civic planning: The lack of public parks and amenities

23088-421: Was mostly confined to walking and practicing quadrilles . Students received visitors in the parlor or library; rules forbade any male visitors other than relatives such as brothers and cousins. Marks sought out top-notch teachers, often from Europe or Northern states, and paid them well. Eugene Dovilliers and Sophie Sosnowski were among the teachers. The students came mostly from South Carolina and mostly from

23244-408: Was never ratified, however, Charles Town was never incorporated during the colonial period. Instead, local ordinances were passed by the provincial government, with day-to-day administration handled by the wardens and vestries of St   Philip's and St   Michael's Anglican parishes . At the time of European colonization , the area was inhabited by the indigenous Cusabo , on whom

23400-501: Was not held long; the shoemaker who ran the school before Pestalozzi had arrived did not agree with his ideas. Shortly after, Pestalozzi was able to transfer to a different school. The children were five to eight years old. Pestalozzi was nervous at first, but he continued his investigations and experiments in education carried out at Stans. A book was suggested to Pestalozzi by a friend, Herbart, Johann Friedrich, Vous voulez mécaniser l'education [ The Application of Psychology to

23556-432: Was not solely intellectual work running Barhamville Institute. On one occasion, Marks had to use his shotgun to chase away disruptive students who arrived at Barhamville from a nearby male college. He slightly wounded one student with a shotgun pellet. The student's flintlock misfired when he attempted to return fire on Marks. On at least two occasions, Marks was advertising for the return of runaway slaves . Another time he

23712-605: Was noted, as was the abundance of private gardens in the wealthy's walled estates. In the 1810s, the town's churches intensified their discrimination against their Black parishioners, culminating in Bethel Methodist 's 1817 construction of a hearse house over its Black burial ground. 4,376 Black Methodists joined Morris Brown in establishing Hampstead Church , the African Methodist Episcopal church now known as Mother Emanuel . State and city laws prohibited Black literacy, limited Black worship to daylight hours, and required

23868-704: Was taken seriously. "Don't read light fiction, he (Marks) warned his hearers; cultivate your literary taste; nurse your spiritual welfare." Around 1847, the school published several issues of the Barhamville Register, "perhaps the earliest literary publications by an educational institution for women." "The important thing about The Barhamville Register is not that the verse was poor or that its essays lacked originality but that it existed at all." Drawing, painting, music, and languages (French, Italian, Latin, and Spanish) were available as optional courses. The music classes and performances were particularly important. It

24024-596: Was the domestic slave trade, which boomed as the Deep South developed into new cotton plantations. As a result of the trade, there was a forced migration of more than one million enslaved people from the Upper South to the Lower South in the antebellum years. During the early 19th century, the first dedicated slave markets were founded in Charleston, mostly near Chalmers and State streets. Many domestic slavers used Charleston as

24180-488: Was the first and only school of its character at the South. It was of a very high class   ..." Marks published the first edition of "Hints on Female Education" in 1828. In it, Marks argued that "men and women were equal in intellectual gifts but that those gifts found different expression." He makes a Christian argument that female education is necessary for "enlarging and strengthening the moral and intellectual faculty" of women. There must have been significant interest in

24336-585: Was then called Charles Town at Albemarle Point, on the west bank of the Ashley River, a few miles northwest of the present-day city center. Charles Town became the first comprehensively planned town in the Thirteen Colonies . Its governance, settlement, and development were to follow a visionary plan known as the Grand Model prepared for the Lord's Proprietors by John Locke . Because the Carolina's Fundamental Constitutions

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