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102-459: The fortress withstood several sieges by Ottomans and Serbs, surviving relatively unscathed. During World War II it was heavily damaged, by explosions and bombing. As of 2009 it is in the midst of extensive restoration and conservation work , despite which the fortress remains "one of the rare preserved courts of medieval Serbian rulers." Smederevo Fortress was declared a national Monument of Culture of Exceptional Importance in 1979. In 2010,

204-405: A marina on the eastern side, a railway to the south, and a variety of other urban structures. The planned final result of the work is for full rehabilitation of both Smederevo Fortress and its immediate surroundings, including relocating the railroad, though estimations of cost vary widely. Between 2003 and 2004, the cost for just the conservation work was estimated to be € 10,600,000, while

306-660: A Syrian city, with soldiers climbing scale ladders supported by archers. Assyrian palace reliefs of the 9th to 7th centuries BC display sieges of several Near Eastern cities. Though a simple battering ram had come into use in the previous millennium, the Assyrians improved siege warfare and used huge wooden tower-shaped battering rams with archers positioned on top. In ancient China, sieges of city walls (along with naval battles) were portrayed on bronze 'hu' vessels , like those found in Chengdu , Sichuan in 1965, which have been dated to

408-605: A devastating raid on Serbia. The Turks took 50,000 men, women and children during that raid, but Smederevo was well-led by Thomas Kantakouzenos . Despite having only 6,000 men, compared to the Ottomans' 20,000, the city withstood. Mehmed the Conqueror besieged Smederevo for the second time and the fortress was besieged by the Ottomans for the third time in 1456, being defended by Serbian forces. In March 1459, Stephen Tomašević took over command of Smederevo Fortress. That same year, Smederevo

510-481: A larger defensive system was built, including escarpments , low walls, and more towers. During the first half of the 18th century, fortified trenches were added. The state of deterioration of the fortress ranges widely, from krstata kula which is still well preserved, to sections of the walls which have seen no repair work and have collapsed in some places. The first, and most severe, damage happened during World War II . On June 5, 1941, ammunition stored in

612-607: A length of 1,400 m (1,530 yd). The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization showed less effort in constructing defences, as did the Minoan civilization on Crete . These civilizations probably relied more on the defence of their outer borders or sea shores. Unlike the ancient Minoan civilization, the Mycenaean Greeks emphasized the need for fortifications alongside natural defences of mountainous terrain, such as

714-419: A minor force could seldom be maintained. A besieging army, encamped in possibly squalid field conditions and dependent on the countryside and its own supply lines for food, could very well be threatened with the disease and starvation intended for the besieged. To end a siege more rapidly, various methods were developed in ancient and medieval times to counter fortifications, and a large variety of siege engines

816-457: A mixed Gothic / Romanesque style. Donžon kula was intended to be the final line of defense. It was constructed with walls over 4 meters thick, and housed the nobility during Turkish attacks. Hidden doors were built into the Jezava wall, allowing for passage towards Hungary. The next nine years were spent expanding the fortifications to include a larger fortified suburb, thereby finishing

918-405: A rebellious Anatolian vassal in the 14th century BC ended when the queen mother came out of the city and begged for mercy on behalf of her people. The Hittite campaign against the kingdom of Mitanni in the 14th century BC bypassed the fortified city of Carchemish . If the main objective of a campaign was not the conquest of a particular city, it could simply be passed by. When the main objective of

1020-596: A scion of the Croatian House of Frankopan and a grand daughter of Francesco I da Carrara , lord of Padua . Little is known of his youth. On 20 April 1434 he married Kantakuzina Katarina Branković , daughter of Đurađ Branković , despot of Serbia ., and the sister of Mara Branković . His influence in the affairs of the Kingdom of Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire soon overshadowed that of his father, with whom he

1122-436: A siege progressed, the surrounding army would build earthworks (a line of circumvallation ) to completely encircle their target, preventing food, water, and other supplies from reaching the besieged city. If sufficiently desperate as the siege progressed, defenders and civilians might have been reduced to eating anything vaguely edible – horses, family pets, the leather from shoes, and even each other . The Hittite siege of

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1224-745: A static target. Modern sieges are more commonly the result of smaller hostage, militant, or extreme resisting arrest situations. The Assyrians deployed large labour forces to build new palaces, temples, and defensive walls. Some settlements in the Indus Valley civilization were also fortified. By about 3500 BC, hundreds of small farming villages dotted the Indus River floodplain. Many of these settlements had fortifications and planned streets. The stone and mud brick houses of Kot Diji were clustered behind massive stone flood dikes and defensive walls, for neighbouring communities quarrelled constantly about

1326-473: A variety of exaggerations and stories, such as the epic poem " Starina Novak i knez Bogosav " ("Elder Novak and Prince Bogosav"), which stated that many people fled to the woods and became hajduci in order to escape taxes and further work. While there were in fact hajduci in the area, it is unclear whether they were actually related to the fortress' construction. Once the first part was completed, Smederevo Fortress quickly became an important connection between

1428-454: A wheeled siege ramp with grappling hooks known as the Cloud Bridge (the protractible, folded ramp slinging forward by means of a counterweight with rope and pulley), and wheeled 'hook-carts' used to latch large iron hooks onto the tops of walls to pull them down. When enemies attempted to dig tunnels under walls for mining or entry into the city, the defenders used large bellows (the type

1530-434: Is a form of constant, low-intensity conflict characterized by one party holding a strong, static, defensive position. Consequently, an opportunity for negotiation between combatants is common, as proximity and fluctuating advantage can encourage diplomacy . A siege occurs when an attacker encounters a city or fortress that cannot be easily taken by a quick assault, and which refuses to surrender . Sieges involve surrounding

1632-452: Is an accurate display of traditional medieval defensive architecture and has remained well preserved, suffering no major deterioration until World War II . The fortress and surrounding area have accumulated evidence of the civilizations that developed throughout history, mainly between the 15th and 20th centuries, providing a direct testimony for the progress of the medieval Serbian state and corresponding Orthodox Church . The fortress

1734-427: Is completely surrounded by water. After the fortress' completion, there was a decline in its military importance and few structural changes were made. As a result, the original architectural style has been preserved to this day. The fortress is encircled by 1.5 kilometers of crenelated walls over 2 meters thick, and 25 towers which are each approximately 25 meters tall. Two sides were bordered by

1836-584: Is still in very bad condition. Parts of the wall are missing and several towers are leaning or partially collapsed. The corner tower behind the Turkish inscription tower, and the stretch of wall along the Danube have seen conservation efforts, and the southern wall, which has been restored several times as part of a levee , is stable, but the conservation work is of poor quality. Much of the time has instead been spent on archaeological excavations and research, especially of

1938-457: The Huo Long Jing , this manuscript of Jiao Yu recorded an earlier Song-era cast-iron cannon known as the 'flying-cloud thunderclap eruptor' (fei yun pi-li pao). The manuscript stated that ( Wade–Giles spelling): The shells ( phao ) are made of cast iron, as large as a bowl and shaped like a ball. Inside they contain half a pound of 'magic' gunpowder ( shen huo ). They are sent flying towards

2040-507: The Balkans and Central Europe . Shortly after it was built, the city reached its peak importance as a religious, commercial, and trade center, at which point it was populated mainly by Serbs and colonies of merchants, primarily from Dubrovnik . Around the same time, the relics of Saint Luke the Evangelist , who became the patron saint of Smederevo, were brought and stored in the church in

2142-701: The Battle of Alesia , the Roman legions created two huge fortified walls around the city. The inner circumvallation, 16 km (10 mi), held in Vercingetorix 's forces, while the outer contravallation kept relief from reaching them. The Romans held the ground in between the two walls. The besieged Gauls, facing starvation, eventually surrendered after their relief force met defeat against Caesar's auxiliary cavalry. The Sicarii Zealots who defended Masada in AD 73 were defeated by

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2244-454: The Danube and Jezava rivers, though the Jezava has now been redirected away from the wall. The third side had two moats added to the defensive system, one for the inner city and one for the suburb. The area south of the outer walls was left open. There were four main phases in the construction of the fortress. The work on the first part, a fortified manor for Despot Đurađ Branković built at

2346-685: The Piankhi stela , records how the Nubians laid siege to and conquered several Egyptian cities by using battering rams, archers, and slingers and building causeways across moats. During the Peloponnesian War , one hundred sieges were attempted and fifty-eight ended with the surrender of the besieged area. Alexander the Great 's army successfully besieged many powerful cities during his conquests. Two of his most impressive achievements in siegecraft took place in

2448-470: The Protodynastic Period of Egypt , c.  3000 BC . These show the symbolic destruction of city walls by divine animals using hoes. The first siege equipment is known from Egyptian tomb reliefs of the 24th century BC, showing Egyptian soldiers storming Canaanite town walls on wheeled siege ladders. Later Egyptian temple reliefs of the 13th century BC portray the violent Siege of Dapur ,

2550-616: The Queen of Hungary implied an increased Serbo-Hungarian alliance. As a result, Vizier Mehmet Saridže-pasha arrived in Smederevo in mid-1434 with a message from Edirne . It stated that Serbia's safety from the Ottoman Empire could only be guaranteed through the marriage of Branković's older daughter to Sultan Murad II . After much deliberation, the council convoked at the palace conceded, and arrangements were made for Mara to be engaged to

2652-520: The Siege of Tyre and the Siege of the Sogdian Rock . His engineers built a causeway that was originally 60 m (200 ft) wide and reached the range of his torsion-powered artillery, while his soldiers pushed siege towers housing stone throwers and light catapults to bombard the city walls. Most conquerors before him had found Tyre , a Phoenician island-city about 1 km (1,100 yd) from

2754-520: The Vietnam War . Until the invention of gunpowder -based weapons (and the resulting higher-velocity projectiles), the balance of power and logistics definitely favored the defender. With the invention of gunpowder, cannon and mortars and howitzers (in modern times), the traditional methods of defense became less effective against a determined siege. Although there are numerous ancient accounts of cities being sacked, few contain any clues to how this

2856-518: The Warring States period (5th to 3rd centuries BC). An attacker's first act in a siege might be a surprise attack, attempting to overwhelm the defenders before they were ready or were even aware there was a threat. This was how William de Forz captured Fotheringhay Castle in 1221. The most common practice of siege warfare was to lay siege and just wait for the surrender of the enemies inside or, quite commonly, to coerce someone inside to betray

2958-537: The Yuan dynasty in 1271, was very effective, allowing the Mongols to sweep through large areas. Even if they could not enter some of the more well-fortified cities, they used innovative battle tactics to grab hold of the land and the people: By concentrating on the field armies, the strongholds had to wait. Of course, smaller fortresses, or ones easily surprised, were taken as they came along. This had two effects. First, it cut off

3060-446: The brickwork . In 1430, the elegant manor was completed. It included a palace stretching along the length of the moat wall; a throne hall against the Danube wall; a keep , Donžon kula (Donjon tower), in the corner formed by the walls; a treasury in a high chamber; and other auxiliary buildings, creating an inner city. The throne hall, where Branković received his visitors, was built with four double-arched windows, fashioned in

3162-676: The concentric castle from the period of the Crusades —and more dangerous to attackers—witness the increasing use of machicolations and murder-holes , as well the preparation of hot or incendiary substances . Arrowslits (also called arrow loops or loopholes), sally ports (airlock-like doors) for sallies and deep water wells were also integral means of resisting siege at this time. Particular attention would be paid to defending entrances, with gates protected by drawbridges , portcullises , and barbicans . Moats and other water defenses, whether natural or augmented, were also vital to defenders. In

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3264-600: The defenders of city walls . Siege machinery was also a tradition of the ancient Greco-Roman world . During the Renaissance and the early modern period , siege warfare dominated the conduct of war in Europe. Leonardo da Vinci gained some of his renown from design of fortifications. Medieval campaigns were generally designed around a succession of sieges. In the Napoleonic era , increasing use of ever more powerful cannons reduced

3366-660: The Celje territories in Croatia - Slavonia ; however his power was broken at the Second Battle of Kosovo in 1448, and Count Ulrich was able to lead a successful crusade, nominally in the Habsburg interest, into Hungary (1450). In 1452, he forced Emperor Frederick III to hand over the boy king Ladislaus to his keeping, practically making him ruler of Hungary. In 1454 his power was increased by his succession to his father's vast wealth; and after

3468-450: The Chinese commonly used in heating up a blast furnace for smelting cast iron ) to pump smoke into the tunnels in order to suffocate the intruders. Advances in the prosecution of sieges in ancient and medieval times naturally encouraged the development of a variety of defensive countermeasures. In particular, medieval fortifications became progressively stronger—for example, the advent of

3570-731: The European Middle Ages , virtually all large cities had city walls— Dubrovnik in Dalmatia is a well-preserved example—and more important cities had citadels , forts , or castles . Great effort was expended to ensure a good water supply inside the city in case of siege. In some cases, long tunnels were constructed to carry water into the city. Complex systems of tunnels were used for storage and communications in medieval cities like Tábor in Bohemia , similar to those used much later in Vietnam during

3672-513: The Hungarians and Ottomans agreed to recognize Branković as an independent ruler of Serbia, thereby turning it into a buffer state . A contract also established Ottoman overlordship of Serbia, in conjunction with remaining a Hungarian vassal. Between the longer status with Hungary and religious differences with the Ottomans (Hungary and Serbia were Christian , as compared to the Muslim Turks), it

3774-679: The Roman legions, who built a ramp 100 metres (330 ft) high up to the fortress's west wall. During the Roman–Persian Wars , siege warfare was extensively being used by both sides. In the Middle Ages, the Mongol Empire 's campaign against China (then comprising the Western Xia dynasty , Jin dynasty , and Southern Song dynasty ) by Genghis Khan until Kublai Khan , who eventually established

3876-509: The Saint's relics were stored. Though its construction began in the 15th century, it was built over several historical phases. The second structure was a Turkish bath from the 17th century. For years, Smederevo Fortress stood as the last defense against Ottoman assaults. During their attack in 1439, it also became the first site in Serbia to see cannon fire. When it fell in 1459, it became

3978-874: The Serbian capital to remain near the Christian Kingdom of Hungary , while also satisfying Sultan Murad II of the Ottoman Empire by eliminating the uncontrolled passage of the Hungarians into the Morava Valley . The fortress' position connecting the Balkans and Central Europe has made it an important religious and commercial center for centuries, now aided by being on the Pan-European X Corridor . The Danube also connects it to many other historic sites, most notably Belgrade and its suburb of Vinča , Novi Sad , Golubac Fortress , Lepenski Vir and Viminacium . Amidst

4080-754: The Southern Song Chinese held out against the enormous barrage of Mongol attacks. Much of this success in defense lay in the world's first use of gunpowder (i.e. with early flamethrowers , grenades , firearms , cannons, and land mines ) to fight back against the Khitans , the Tanguts , the Jurchens , and then the Mongols. The Chinese of the Song period also discovered the explosive potential of packing hollowed cannonball shells with gunpowder. Written later c.  1350 in

4182-540: The Sultan, was broken. Led by Murad II, 130,000 Turkish soldiers occupied the hills around Smederevo. Branković rushed to Hungary for help, leaving his son Grgur in command. Help was not forthcoming, but Smederevo withstood the attack, even when Murad brought in cannons . Nearly three months later, on August 18, 1439, hunger forced the Serbs to surrender. Princes Grgur and Stefan were sent to Anatolia and blinded , despite

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4284-487: The Sultan. That autumn, Murad sent several of his "most famous viziers" to retrieve his fiancée. On August 14, 1435, a formal contract of "brotherhood and friendship" between Serbia and the Republic of Venice was signed in Smederevo's audience hall . This contract resulted in Đurađ and his sons being counted as Venetian citizens. In early June 1439, the peace with the Ottomans, which had been gained through Mara's marriage to

4386-422: The attacker or defender. This form of siege, though, can take many months or even years, depending upon the size of the stores of food the fortified position holds. The attacking force can circumvallate the besieged place, which is to build a line of earth-works, consisting of a rampart and trench, surrounding it. During the process of circumvallation, the attacking force can be set upon by another force, an ally of

4488-548: The besieged place, due to the lengthy amount of time required to force it to capitulate. A defensive ring of forts outside the ring of circumvallated forts, called contravallation, is also sometimes used to defend the attackers from outside. Ancient cities in the Middle East show archaeological evidence of fortified city walls . During the Warring States period of ancient China , there is both textual and archaeological evidence of prolonged sieges and siege machinery used against

4590-655: The booty of his conquest undamaged, and retain his men and equipment intact, for the price of a well-placed bribe to a disgruntled gatekeeper. The Assyrian siege of Jerusalem in the 8th century BC came to an end when the Israelites bought them off with gifts and tribute, according to the Assyrian account, or when the Assyrian camp was struck by mass death, according to the Biblical account. Due to logistics, long-lasting sieges involving

4692-468: The campaign had been fulfilled, the Hittite army returned to Carchemish and the city fell after an eight-day siege. Disease was another effective siege weapon, although the attackers were often as vulnerable as the defenders. In some instances, catapults or similar weapons were used to fling diseased animals over city walls in an early example of biological warfare . If all else failed, a besieger could claim

4794-512: The center of a Turkish sanjak . Later, Smederevo was a province of the Habsburg monarchy , and between 1805 and 1807 it was once again the center of the renewed Serbian state . Smederevo Fortress is a monumental complex built in the Byzantine tradition and modeled after Constantinople Fortress . Although its foundations were not intended to be submerged, it is classed as a water fortress because it

4896-490: The confluence of the rivers, began in the autumn of 1428. Under the eye of George Palaiologos Kantakouzenos , older brother of Despotina Jerina Branković , lumber, lime , and enormous stones from the former Roman cities of Mons Aureus (the modern village of Seone , west of Smederevo), Margum (at the mouth of the Great Morava ), and Viminacium were collected. In the spring of 1429, Greek and Ragusan workers began

4998-428: The control of prime agricultural land. Mundigak (c. 2500 BC) in present-day south-east Afghanistan has defensive walls and square bastions of sun-dried bricks . City walls and fortifications were essential for the defence of the first cities in the ancient Near East . The walls were built of mudbricks, stone, wood, or a combination of these materials, depending on local availability. They may also have served

5100-616: The coronation of her infant son Ladislaus the Posthumous with the Holy Crown of Hungary in 1440. A feud with the Hungarian Hunyadi family followed, embittered by John Hunyadi's failed attack on the forces of the Ottoman Empire at the Battle of Varna in 1444—while Ulrich remained idle—and Hunyadi's refusal to recognize Ulrich's claim to Bosnia on the death of King Tvrtko II (1443). In 1446 Hunyadi, now regent of Hungary , harried

5202-512: The death of John Hunyadi at the Siege of Belgrade in 1456, he was named Captain General of Hungary by Ladislaus, an office previously held by his rival. Ulrich's triumph did not last: On 8 November, he entered the fortress of Belgrade with King Ladislaus; the next day he was killed by agents of John Hunyadi's son László in unknown circumstances. With him died the male line of the Counts of Celje. He

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5304-657: The demands on stored food and water. During the Warring States period in China (481–221 BC), warfare lost its honorable, gentlemen's duty that was found in the previous era of the Spring and Autumn period , and became more practical, competitive, cut-throat, and efficient for gaining victory. The Chinese invention of the hand-held, trigger-mechanism crossbow during this period revolutionized warfare, giving greater emphasis to infantry and cavalry and less to traditional chariot warfare. The philosophically pacifist Mohists (followers of

5406-573: The dual purpose of showing potential enemies the might of the kingdom. The great walls surrounding the Sumerian city of Uruk gained a widespread reputation. The walls were 9.5 km (5.9 mi) in length, and up to 12 m (39 ft) in height. Later, the walls of Babylon , reinforced by towers, moats, and ditches, gained a similar reputation. In Anatolia , the Hittites built massive stone walls around their cities atop hillsides, taking advantage of

5508-566: The early 13th century, but did not become significant weapons for another 150 years or so. In early decades, cannons could do little against strong castles and fortresses, providing little more than smoke and fire. By the 16th century, however, they were an essential and regularized part of any campaigning army, or castle's defences. Ulrich II of Celje Ulrich II , or Ulrich of Celje ( Slovene : Ulrik Celjski / Urh Celjski ; Hungarian : Cillei Ulrik ; German : Ulrich II von Cilli ; 16 February 1406 – 9 November 1456),

5610-454: The enemy camp from an eruptor ( mu phao ); and when they get there a sound like a thunder-clap is heard, and flashes of light appear. If ten of these shells are fired successfully into the enemy camp, the whole place will be set ablaze... During the Ming dynasty (AD 1368–1644), the Chinese were very concerned with city planning in regards to gunpowder warfare. The site for constructing the walls and

5712-541: The field, he was unable to capture Rome itself. The legionary armies of the Roman Republic and Empire are noted as being particularly skilled and determined in siege warfare. An astonishing number and variety of sieges, for example, formed the core of Julius Caesar 's mid-1st-century BC conquest of Gaul (modern France). In his Commentarii de Bello Gallico ( Commentaries on the Gallic War ), Caesar describes how, at

5814-490: The first night while laying siege to a city, the leader of the Mongol forces would lead from a white tent : if the city surrendered, all would be spared. On the second day, he would use a red tent: if the city surrendered, the men would all be killed, but the rest would be spared. On the third day, he would use a black tent: no quarter would be given. However, the Chinese were not completely defenseless, and from AD 1234 until 1279,

5916-403: The fortification's walls, could allow the attackers to fire down upon the defenders and also advance troops to the wall with less danger than using ladders. In addition to launching projectiles at the fortifications or defenders, it was also quite common to attempt to undermine the fortifications, causing them to collapse. This could be accomplished by digging a tunnel beneath the foundations of

6018-498: The fortification. During the medieval period, negotiations would frequently take place during the early part of the siege. An attacker – aware of a prolonged siege's great cost in time, money, and lives – might offer generous terms to a defender who surrendered quickly. The defending troops would be allowed to march away unharmed, often retaining their weapons. However, a garrison commander who was thought to have surrendered too quickly might face execution by his own side for treason. As

6120-543: The fortress exploded, destroying not only a large part of the southern wall, but also decimating most of Smederevo . Further damage was caused by the Allies ' bombing in 1944. A dam in the Iron Gate , completed in 1972, raised the water level of the lower Danube basin and caused significant flooding . Between 1970 and 1980, a system was built to protect the fortress and surrounding city from future high water, however there

6222-472: The fortress was placed on the tentative list for possible nomination as a World Heritage Site ( UNESCO ). Smederevo Fortress, 45 kilometers southeast of Belgrade , covers 11.3  hectares in the center of the modern-day city of Smederevo . It is strategically located on the right bank of the Danube river on the triangular plain formed by the confluence of the Danube and Jezava rivers, only 72 meters above sea level. This location allowed

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6324-521: The fortress, including a palace and enough other buildings to form an inner city, was completed. Work on a fortified suburb and additional fortifications continued until 1439. On April 20, 1434, Đurađ Branković's youngest daughter Katarina and Ulrich II of Celje were wed in the new fortress. This marriage stressed the friendly relations the Despot had with the Ottoman Porte , although Ulrich's kinship with

6426-472: The fortress. In relation to the structure itself, the inner city is notable for the audience hall , which is an important representation of Serbian medieval architecture . High in the stone wall on the Danube side, four sets of double-arched windows are carved in a combination of Gothic and Romanesque styles. This is where a merchant contract between the Republic of Venice and the Serbian Despotate

6528-443: The improbably high numbers which he used for both the Mongols and the defenders do give one a sense of the large numbers of machines used at a single siege. Another Mongol tactic was to use catapults to launch corpses of plague victims into besieged cities. The disease-carrying fleas from the bodies would then infest the city, and the plague would spread, allowing the city to be easily captured, although this transmission mechanism

6630-458: The inner city, the foundation is the only part of the palace which remains standing, and the audience hall has only an outline where the base was. What remains has been partially restored and is now stable, though issues of vegetation growth and permanent maintenance remain. The surrounding towers also still need work, as many have collapsed. The town's restoration was followed in 1994–1995 with an archaeological investigation. The fortified suburb

6732-454: The inner city. To the southeast, the previously open space along the Jezava now has a harbor and a marina . There are also discussions underway to determine compatible future, modernized uses, and to develop projects to restore and rehabilitate the fortress. Smederevo Fortress has been described as "one of the most striking and monumental pieces of architecture surviving from medieval Serbia", and "the witness of Serbian creative force." It

6834-402: The main fortress. In the suburb, a sacral complex was built in phases from the 15th century onwards, and a Turkish bath was added by the Ottomans in the 17th century. There was a ship gate in the suburb's Danube wall, where sailors could enter the fortress. It is unclear whether any long-term residential buildings were built. Between 1460 and 1480, while held by the Ottoman Empire,

6936-425: The mainland, impregnable. The Macedonians built a mole , a raised spit of earth across the water, by piling stones up on a natural land bridge that extended underwater to the island, and although the Tyrians rallied by sending a fire ship to destroy the towers, and captured the mole in a swarming frenzy, the city eventually fell to the Macedonians after a seven-month siege. In complete contrast to Tyre, Sogdian Rock

7038-441: The massive Cyclopean walls built at Mycenae and other adjacent Late Bronze Age (c. 1600–1100 BC) centers of central and southern Greece. Although there are depictions of sieges from the ancient Near East in historical sources and in art, there are very few examples of siege systems that have been found archaeologically. Of the few examples, several are noteworthy: The earliest representations of siege warfare have been dated to

7140-466: The nearby railway station, packed with people, was blown away, and most of the buildings in the city were turned into debris. Around 2,500 people died in the explosion, and every other inhabitant was injured or wounded (approximately 5,500). Bombing by the Allies in 1944 caused further damage. The fortress is currently used as a city park , and occasionally hosts festivals , concerts , fairs , and other cultural events. A stage has been built in

7242-428: The new capital in Belgrade , which was ceded to him as an award. After Stefan's death in 1426, Đurađ Branković , Stefan's nephew and successor, had to return Belgrade to the Hungarians. To compensate for this loss, Đurađ decided to build a new capital, and the choice fell to Smederevo . Smederevo, which had no prior settlement, was chosen for several reasons. In 1428, during the Ottoman Empire's war with Venice ,

7344-420: The number of floods, especially before the coast was consolidated . Air pollution and vegetation growth are increasing the rate of decay. Urban encroachment , especially by the railroad, continues to threaten the character of the area surrounding the fortress. Unrestricted visits by tourists, combined with inadequate protection, maintenance, and support, both administrative and financial, also contribute to

7446-545: The personal secretary of Emperor Frederick III at the height of his conflict with Ulrich. On his mother's side, Ulrich was the closest surviving male descendant of Francesco I da Carrara , lord of Padua . However, he is not known to have ever pressed claim on the Carraresi inheritance. At the time of his death, Ulrich held around 12 towns, 30 market towns and 125 castles: around 20 in Carinthia, Carniola, and Slavonia each, and

7548-417: The philosopher Mozi ) of the 5th century BC believed in aiding the defensive warfare of smaller Chinese states against the hostile offensive warfare of larger domineering states. The Mohists were renowned in the smaller states (and the enemies of the larger states) for the inventions of siege machinery to scale or destroy walls. These included traction trebuchet catapults , 8-foot (2.4 m) high ballistas ,

7650-458: The pleas of their sister, now Sultana Mara. Five years later, however, Smederevo, Grgur, and Stefan returned to Branković through the Peace of Szeged . Around the beginning of 1449, Branković imprisoned Hungarian regent John Hunyadi in the dungeons of the fortress until he was ransomed by his countrymen. In 1453, Sultan Mehmed II and Isak-bey Arbanazović led another attack on Smederevo as part of

7752-428: The principal city from communicating with other cities where they might expect aid. Secondly, refugees from these smaller cities would flee to the last stronghold. The reports from these cities and the streaming hordes of refugees not only reduced the morale of the inhabitants and garrison of the principal city, it also strained their resources. Food and water reserves were taxed by the sudden influx of refugees. Soon, what

7854-457: The remains of the sacral complex and Turkish bath . The escarpment along the Danube, which had partially collapsed several times, has seen restoration work, and is now in good condition. On the other sides, much of the escarpment is gone or underground, and the overall condition is unknown. The ambiance and setting are also threatened, though they remain the best along the Danube. The other two sides are surrounded by modern development, such as

7956-455: The rest mostly in Styria. He owned around a third of all castles in modern-day Slovenia at the time. Some of his most important possessions are listed below. On 20 April 1434, Ulrich married Princess Katarina Brankovic of Serbia . She was a daughter of Despot Đurađ Branković of Serbia and Princess Eirene Kantakouzene of Byzantium . Through this marriage, Ulrich became the brother-in-law of

8058-434: The siege was of a location on a coastline, from ships launched from the harbor of the location. The universal method for defending against siege is the use of fortifications, principally walls and ditches , to supplement natural features. A sufficient supply of food and water was also important to defeat the simplest method of siege warfare: starvation . On occasion, the defenders would drive 'surplus' civilians out to reduce

8160-432: The slow deterioration of the fortress. 44°40′10″N 20°55′40″E  /  44.66944°N 20.92778°E  / 44.66944; 20.92778 Siege A siege ( Latin : sedere , lit.   'to sit') is a military blockade of a city, or fortress , with the intent of conquering by attrition, or by well-prepared assault. Siege warfare (also called siegecraft or poliorcetics )

8262-448: The target to block provision of supplies and reinforcement or escape of troops (a tactic known as " investment "). This is typically coupled with attempts to reduce the fortifications by means of siege engines , artillery bombardment, mining (also known as sapping), or the use of deception or treachery to bypass defenses. Failing a military outcome, sieges can often be decided by starvation, thirst, or disease, which can afflict either

8364-530: The terrain. In Shang dynasty China, at the site of Ao, large walls were erected in the 15th century BC that had dimensions of 20 m (66 ft) in width at the base and enclosed an area of some 1,900 m (2,100 yd) squared. The ancient Chinese capital for the State of Zhao , Handan , founded in 386 BC, also had walls that were 20 m (66 ft) wide at the base; they were 15 m (49 ft) tall, with two separate sides of its rectangular enclosure at

8466-615: The thickness of the walls in Beijing's Forbidden City were favoured by the Chinese Yongle Emperor (r. 1402–1424) because they were in pristine position to resist cannon volley and were built thick enough to withstand attacks from cannon fire. For more, see Technology of the Song dynasty . The introduction of gunpowder and the use of cannons brought about a new age in siege warfare. Cannons were first used in Song dynasty China during

8568-432: The total rehabilitation cost, including conservation, restoration, and research, reached as high as €22,000,000. In 2005, the combined cost for basic conservation and research dropped to €4,000,000. Despite conservation efforts, the fortress is still at risk of damage, for reasons, both natural and man-made. The higher groundwater level resulting from the dam in the Iron Gate threatens its stability, and has increased

8670-578: The turbulence of the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans in the early 15th century, the region's Christian rulers lost several battles, such as the Battle of Kosovo and the siege of Veliko Tarnovo . Despot Stefan Lazarević had to maintain the Serbian Despotate in a delicate balance between the Ottomans and Hungarians . Around 1403, he accepted the Hungarian vassalage from King Sigismund and established

8772-409: The value of fortifications. In the 20th century, the significance of the classical siege declined. With the advent of mobile warfare , a single fortified stronghold is no longer as decisive as it once was. While traditional sieges do still occur, they are not as common as they once were due to changes in modes of battle, principally the ease by which huge volumes of destructive power can be directed onto

8874-534: The walls, and then deliberately collapsing or exploding the tunnel. This process is known as mining . The defenders could dig counter-tunnels to cut into the attackers' works and collapse them prematurely. Fire was often used as a weapon when dealing with wooden fortifications. The Roman Empire used Greek fire , which contained additives that made it hard to extinguish. Combined with a primitive flamethrower , it proved an effective offensive and defensive weapon. A sallying out might also occur with such weapons, or if

8976-454: The year of 6938 [1430]".) Above it is an immured cross , which gives the tower its names " Krstata kula " ("Krstata tower") and tower " Krstača ". This type of inscription is rare, and found only on former Byzantine territory. It is the sole example in the former Yugoslavia . In the fortified suburb are the minimal remains of two more significant structures. One was a sacral complex, Blagoveštenjska crkva ( Annunciation Church), where

9078-634: Was achieved. Some popular tales existed on how the cunning heroes succeeded in their sieges. The best-known is the Trojan Horse of the Trojan War , and a similar story tells how the Canaanite city of Joppa was conquered by the Egyptians in the 15th century BC. The Biblical Book of Joshua contains the story of the miraculous Battle of Jericho . A more detailed historical account from the 8th century BC, called

9180-488: Was built by Đurađ Branković as the new capital of Serbia. During construction, Branković's wife Jerina was seen speaking with the foreign overseers—her brother George Palaiologos Kantakouzenos and his men—which resulted in her being commonly associated with the project. Among the workers, this association, coupled with required long-term labor and high taxes, gained her the nickname " Prokleta Jerina " ("Damned Jerina"). The amount of effort exerted also produced

9282-596: Was buried in the Minorite Church of St. Mary in Celje. The eulogy was delivered by the famous humanist rhetorician and prelate Johann Roth . Ulrich's estates were claimed by his widow Catherine, his son-in-law Matthias Corvinus - the younger brother of László Hunyadi - as well as Count John of Gorizia , and Emperor Frederick III of Austria, who outlived his rivals. Ulrich's high ambitions were sharply criticized by Aeneas Sylvius (the later Pope Pius II ), although his writings were politically minded, as he had served as

9384-404: Was captured by stealthy attack. Alexander used commando-like tactics to scale the cliffs and capture the high ground, and the demoralized defenders surrendered. The importance of siege warfare in the ancient period should not be underestimated. One of the contributing causes of Hannibal 's inability to defeat Rome was his lack of siege engines , thus, while he was able to defeat Roman armies in

9486-405: Was captured by the Ottomans, leading to the end of the medieval Serbian state while Stephen Tomašević fled to Bosnia. During World War II , German forces used the fortress for ammunition storage. On June 5, 1941, the ammunition exploded , blasting through the entirety of Smederevo and reaching settlements as far as 10 kilometers away. Much of the southern wall of the fortress was destroyed,

9588-434: Was developed for use by besieging armies. Ladders could be used to escalade over the defenses. Battering rams and siege hooks could also be used to force through gates or walls, while catapults , ballistae , trebuchets , mangonels , and onagers could be used to launch projectiles to break down a city's fortifications and kill its defenders. A siege tower , a substantial structure built to equal or greater height than

9690-570: Was not known at the time. In 1346, the bodies of Mongol warriors of the Golden Horde who had died of plague were thrown over the walls of the Crimean city of Kaffa (now Feodosiya ) during the Siege of Caffa . It has been speculated that this operation may have been responsible for the advent of the Black Death in Europe. The Black Death is estimated to have killed 30%–60% of Europe's population. On

9792-507: Was once a formidable undertaking became easy. The Mongols were then free to lay siege without interference of the field army, as it had been destroyed. At the siege of Aleppo , Hulagu used twenty catapults against the Bab al-Iraq ( Gate of Iraq ) alone. In Jûzjânî, there are several episodes in which the Mongols constructed hundreds of siege machines in order to surpass the number which the defending city possessed. While Jûzjânî surely exaggerated,

9894-433: Was once again major flooding in 2006 , a result of heavy rainfall and melting snow. The fortress has been the focus of restoration and conservation efforts, followed by archaeological and architectural research, since at least 1970. The majority of work so far was done between 1970 and 1995. While some parts were at least partially repaired, others only received conservation work and are still in bad condition. In

9996-513: Was preferred that the capital be closer to Hungary than the Ottoman Empire. Smederevo's location on the Danube, between Belgrade and Golubac, provided easy access to other points along the river. It also allowed the control of Danube traffic, including blocking Hungarian entry into the Morava valley, which satisfied the Turks. In the fall of 1428, construction of the capital began. In 1430, the first part of

10098-627: Was raised to a Prince of the Empire by Emperor Sigismund of Luxembourg in 1436. This led to feuds with the Austrian House of Habsburg , wounded in their rights as Styrian overlords of Celje, ending, however, in an alliance with the Habsburg King Albert II of Germany , who made Ulrich his lieutenant in Bohemia for a short while. Upon King Albert's death in 1439, Ulrich took up the cause of his widow Elizabeth of Luxembourg , and presided at

10200-468: Was resolved a year later by the sudden death of king Ladislas the Posthumous and the election of Matthias Corvinus , the son of John Hunyadi and Ulrich's son-in-law, as king. Ulrich's possessions in the Holy Roman Empire were inherited by Emperor Frederick III , while his possessions in Hungary were reverted to the crown. Ulrich II was the son of Count Frederick II of Celje and his wife Elizabeth ,

10302-552: Was signed. There is also a tower in the inner city with a large brick inscription naming Đurađ Branković and stating the date of construction. It reads " V Hrista Boga blagoverni despot Đurđ, gospodin Srbljem i Pomorju Ze(t)skomu; povelenijem jego sazida se grad sij v leto 6938. " ("In Christ the Lord faithful Despot Đurđ, Lord of Serbs and the Littoral of Zeta . By His order this city was built in

10404-559: Was the last Princely Count of Celje . At the time of his death, he was captain general and de facto regent of Hungary , ban (governor) of Slavonia , Croatia and Dalmatia and feudal lord of vast areas in present-day Slovenia , Croatia , Bosnia , Austria , and Slovakia . He was also a claimant to the Bosnian throne . He was killed by agents of the Hunyadi clan under unknown circumstances, which plunged Hungary into civil unrest that

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