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121-561: The festival was held when the rain season had just begun and many illnesses tended to occur. Rituals to the Creator-god were thus executed both in Cusco and in other lands conquered by the Incas in order to purify them and "send the evil away". The four days rites included offerings "rams" (that is llamas and alpacas ), carefully chosen for their white color, to the deities, purification by bathing in

242-460: A fortress . He climbed it and could spot a multitude of Incan soldier in the fields, thus he ordered his four small cannons to be hidden on the top of the fortress to get ready for the attack. Then an Indian (native American) came, in the name of Atahualpa, telling the Spanish soldiers to settle where they wished except at the fortress, which was their sacred ushnu. They disobeyed and the first shots to

363-561: A social marker the ushnu provided an elevated position for the high level Inca nobility while common and non-Inca people stayed in a lower position in the plaza. Notable ushnus are found in Vilcashuamán , Huánuco Pampa , Chinchero the three of them in Peru and Samaipata in Bolivia and Shincal de Quimivil in northern Argentina . Pachacuti Inca ordered that a great many goods be sacrificed to

484-460: A Spanish colonial town, to this purpose he reserved areas to the east and the south of the square for the erection of the new cathedral and the Jesuits ' church. The original plaza was considered too big and it was divided into two smaller spaces by a row of colonial building. On the top of the steps existing in the square he ordered a gallows to be built. These steps were most probably the foundation of

605-434: A better idea of when the cria is expected can be determined. Hand mating is the most efficient method, but it requires the most work on the part of the human involved. A male and female llama are put into the same pen, and mating is monitored. They are then separated and re-mated every other day until one refuses the mating. Usually, one can get in two matings using this method, though some stud males routinely refuse to mate

726-434: A completely or partially domesticated state. Many are also descended from ancestors previously domesticated, a state that tends to produce a certain amount of variation from the original type. The four forms commonly distinguished by the inhabitants of South America are recognized as distinct species, though there are difficulties in defining their distinctive characteristics. These are: The llama and alpaca are only known in

847-532: A desire, through these representations during the Capacocha to symbolically connect the sacred sites of the conquered territories to those properly Inca, making this celebration probably the greatest of the ceremonies performed in the Inca empire. The ushnu as a well recognizable character of Inca architecture represented one of the main symbols of the central power in peripheral settlements and administrative centers. As

968-523: A female more than once. The separation presumably helps to keep the sperm count high for each mating and also helps to keep the condition of the female llama's reproductive tract more sound. If the mating is unsuccessful within two to three weeks, the female is mated again. Options for feeding llamas are quite wide; various commercial and farm-based feeds are available. The major determining factors include feed cost, availability, nutrient balance and energy density required. Young, actively growing llamas require

1089-445: A given number of lines. The first huaca of the fifth ceque of Antisuyu was in the main square and was mentioned as usnu by Polo de Ondegardo (Spanish colonial jurist, civil servant and thinker). According to Zuidema this was associated with astronomic specific phenomena. The Vilcashuamán ushnu is one of the best known and has been the object of studies and restoration. Its base is 24 by 26 metres (79 by 85 ft) and its height

1210-451: A good fossil record. Camel-like animals have been traced back through early Miocene forms from the thoroughly differentiated, modern species. Their characteristics became more general, and they lost those that distinguished them as camelids; hence, they were classified as ancestral artiodactyls. No fossils of these earlier forms have been found in the Old World , indicating that North America

1331-509: A greater concentration of nutrients than mature animals because of their smaller digestive tract capacities. Llamas that are well-socialized and trained to halter and lead after weaning are very friendly and pleasant to be around. They are extremely curious, and most will approach people easily. However, llamas that are bottle-fed or over-socialized and over-handled as youth will become extremely difficult to handle when mature, when they will begin to treat humans as they treat each other, which

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1452-400: A group), consist of the vicuña ( Vicugna vicugna , prev. Lama vicugna ), guanaco ( Lama guanicoe ), Suri alpaca , and Huacaya alpaca ( Vicugna pacos , prev. Lama guanicoe pacos ), and the domestic llama ( Lama glama ). Guanacos and vicuñas live in the wild, while llamas and alpacas exist only as domesticated animals. Although early writers compared llamas to sheep , their similarity to

1573-697: A height of 1.7 to 1.8 m (5 ft 7 in to 5 ft 11 in) at the top of the head and can weigh between 130 and 272 kg (287 and 600 lb). At maturity, males can weigh 94.74 kg, while females can weigh 102.27 kg. At birth, a baby llama (called a cria ) can weigh between 9 and 14 kg (20 and 31 lb). Llamas typically live for 15 to 25 years, with some individuals surviving 30 years or more. The following characteristics apply especially to llamas. Dentition of adults: incisors ⁠ 1 / 3 ⁠ canines ⁠ 1 / 1 ⁠ , premolars ⁠ 2 / 2 ⁠ , molars ⁠ 3 / 3 ⁠ ; total 32. In

1694-503: A kush (lying down) position, similar to big cats and canines, which is unusual in a large animal. They mate for an extended time (20–45 minutes), also unusual in a large animal. The gestation period of a llama is 11.5 months (350 days). Dams (female llamas) do not lick off their babies, as they have an attached tongue that does not reach outside of the mouth more than 13 millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 2 inch). Rather, they will nuzzle and hum to their newborns. A cria (from Spanish for "baby")

1815-399: A large animal. Female llamas are induced ovulators . Through mating, the female releases an egg and is often fertilized on the first attempt. Female llamas do not go into estrus ("heat"). Like humans, llama males and females mature sexually at different rates. Females reach puberty at about 12 months old; males do not become sexually mature until around three years of age. Llamas mate in

1936-423: A larger brain cavity and orbits and less-developed cranial ridges due to its smaller size. The nasal bones are shorter and broader and are joined by the premaxilla. Vertebrae : The ears are rather long and slightly curved inward, characteristically known as "banana" shaped. There is no dorsal hump. The feet are narrow, the toes being more separated than in the camels, each having a distinct plantar pad. The tail

2057-621: A llama's purchase cost and annual maintenance. Although not every llama is suited to the job, most are a viable, nonlethal alternative for reducing predation, requiring no training and little care. Llamas have a fine undercoat, which can be used for handicrafts and garments . The coarser outer guard hair is used for rugs, wall hangings, and lead ropes. The fiber comes in many colors, ranging from white or grey to reddish-brown, brown, dark brown, and black. Doctors and researchers have determined that llamas possess antibodies that are well-suited to treat certain diseases. Scientists have been studying

2178-401: A long time to burn. Each was fastened to a cord a fathom in length, and they used to run through all the streets trailing the torches till they were outside the city, as if the torches removed the evils by night as the spears did by day. The burned torches were finally cast into the streams that pass through the city, together with the water in which the people had washed the previous day, so that

2299-427: A place of ceremonial offers, where the liquid poured as an offer into an upper container could drain down to avoid spilling: this way the deity to whom the liquids were offered appeared to be drinking. When the ushnus were built in the new conquered areas, where they adopted the physical form of platforms or pyramids, a drainage was emplaced together with a stairway and in some cases a seat on the top. The usnu embodies

2420-541: A sacrifice, which everyone could drink. Four hundred runner warriors, fully armed, were assembled and waiting around the ushnu; each group of one hundred was facing one of the four suyus (provinces of the Inca Empire): Chinchaysuyu (NW), Antisuyu (NE), Kuntisuyu (SW) and Qullasuyu (SE). When the priests form the Coricancha arrived, the four hundred warriors shouted a ritual cry and started running towards

2541-584: A sign that the lavatory had been done and all the persons were cleansed. The situa lasted four day as follows: On the day of the conjunction of the Moon, at noon, the Inca went to the Coricancha (Quechua Qorikancha), the temple of the Sun-god, with his council, the priests and the most noble persons of Cusco. There they discussed the details of the festival, because in some years certain aspects could be added or removed. In

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2662-541: A solar observatory. Ushnus mark the center of plazas (main squares) of the Inca administrative centers all along the highland path of the Inca road system . The ushnu had also the function of a basin with a drain for libations. During the most important Inca festivals such as the Situa in Cusco , the capital of the Inca empire, the emperor poured chicha (fermented maize beverage) into

2783-420: A sort of theatricality of power the ushnu was intended to produce a uniform collective consciousness that allowed all person subjected to the Inca to feel connected to the astral deities and to the sacred places. This was primarily intended to ensure ideological domination over the multitudes of newly subjugated peoples in the recently conquered territories. With reference to Huánuco Pampa, Morris observes that

2904-436: A strange noise or feels threatened, an alarm call - a loud, shrill sound that rhythmically rises and falls - is sent out, and all others become alert. They will often hum to each other as a form of communication. The llama's groaning noises or going "mwa" (/mwaʰ/) is often a sign of fear or anger. Unhappy or agitated llamas will lay their ears back, while ears being perked upwards is a sign of happiness or curiosity. An "orgle"

3025-507: A truncated pyramid shape. On the contrary the natural carved stone may have very different shapes depending on the original rock outcrop, with one common point: the seat or throne on top of it. The structure of built ushnus is made of stone. Some of the masonry is well worked imperial Inca style with big blocks, but most of the ushnus have a rustic style, also known as pirca style , with pirca meaning wall in Quechua. Different authors define

3146-564: A way to fix a date for the calendar. In this respect calculations by Zuidema show that the Sun and the Moon, in four dates every year, stand precisely at the zenith and at the nadir above and below Cusco, thus providing the ushnu with the role of the axis mundi or ritual axis of the Earth. The organization of the spaces the Cuzco was based on the ceque system , whose center was the Coricancha (temple of

3267-450: Is 8 metres (26 ft). Being the tallest known ushnu it has 4 platforms, but observed form the west side one can see 5 platforms. According to Cavero this may be due to restoration works carried out in the past. On the East side there is a double jamb entrance gate with a stairway leading to the top where a finely carved double seat monolith is found. According to the chronicles it was used by

3388-464: Is built with rustic style masonry with an extension of 74 by 69 metres (243 by 226 ft). The total volume of this ushnu is approximately 6,150 cubic metres (217,000 cu ft). The access to the top platform is through the south side where a stairway stands. It had originally 32 steps. The top platform is enclosed by a wall having a thickness of about 1 metre (3.3 ft) and a height of 1.5 metres (4.9 ft). A small outward projection from

3509-519: Is characterized by bouts of spitting, kicking and neck wrestling. Llamas are now utilized as certified therapy animals in nursing homes and hospitals. Rojo the Llama , located in the Pacific Northwest was certified in 2008. The Mayo Clinic says animal-assisted therapy can reduce pain, depression, anxiety, and fatigue. This type of therapy is growing in popularity, and several organizations throughout

3630-426: Is considered a continuation of the birthing patterns observed in the wild. Their crias are up and standing, walking, and attempting to suckle within the first hour after birth. Crias are partially fed with llama milk that is lower in fat and salt and higher in phosphorus and calcium than cow or goat milk. A female llama will only produce about 60 millilitres (2 US fluid ounces) of milk at a time when she gives milk, so

3751-643: Is generally more expensive but not always more valuable. Alpacas tend to have a more consistent color throughout the body. The most apparent visual difference between llamas and camels is that camels have a humps and llamas do not. Llamas are not ruminants , pseudo-ruminants, or modified ruminants. They do have a complex three-compartment stomach that allows them to digest lower quality, high cellulose foods. The stomach compartments allow for fermentation of tricky foodstuffs, followed by regurgitation and re-chewing. Ruminants (cows, sheep, goats) have four compartments, whereas llamas have only three stomach compartments:

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3872-436: Is instinctively very effective in preventing predation. Some llamas bond more quickly to sheep or goats if introduced just before lambing . Many sheep and goat producers indicate a special bond quickly develops between lambs and their guard llama, and the llama is particularly protective of the lambs. Using llamas as guards has reduced the losses to predators for many producers. The value of the livestock saved each year exceeds

3993-443: Is short, and the fiber is long, woolly, and soft. In essential structural characteristics, as well as in general appearance and habits, all the animals of this genus very closely resemble each other, so whether they should be considered as belonging to one, two, or more species is a matter of controversy among naturalists . The question is complicated by the circumstances of most individuals who have come under observation, either in

4114-498: Is the mating sound of a llama or alpaca, made by the sexually aroused male. The sound is reminiscent of gargling but with a more forceful, buzzing edge. Males begin the sound when they become aroused and continue throughout copulation . Using llamas as livestock guards in North America began in the early 1980s, and some sheep producers have used llamas successfully since then. Some would even use them to guard their smaller cousins,

4235-485: Is the name for a baby llama, alpaca , vicuña , or guanaco . Crias are typically born with all the herd's females gathering to protect against the male llamas and potential predators. Llamas give birth standing. Birth is usually quick and problem-free, over in less than 30 minutes. Most births occur between 8 am and noon, during the warmer daylight hours. This may increase cria survival by reducing fatalities due to hypothermia during cold Andean nights. This birthing pattern

4356-502: The Ministerio de Cultura (Ministry of Culture) in Peru. In the middle of the plaza, where the gold usño stood, it was like a well into which they poured the chicha sacrifice when they drank The main square of Cusco roughly corresponding to the modern Plaza de Armas and Plaza del Regocijo was divided by the river Saphi into two sub-squares called Haucaypata (Hawkaypata) or square of

4477-613: The Chavín culture in the Early Horizon (1000 to 200 BCE) and the Tiwanaku culture in the Middle Horizon (600 to 1000 CE) they might have become the Inca ushnu. According to the chronicle of Guamán Poma de Ayala it was the Inca emperor Pachacuti Inca Yupanquy (before 1438 – 1471) who ordered the construction of a throne for him in every district of his empire. Ushnus are mentioned by

4598-656: The Great Plains of North America about 40 million years ago and subsequently migrated to South America about three million years ago during the Great American Interchange . By the end of the last ice age (10,000–12,000 years ago), camelids were extinct in North America. As of 2007, there were over seven million llamas and alpacas in South America. Some were imported to the United States and Canada late in

4719-548: The Rocky Mountains and in Central America . Some of the fossil llamas were much larger than current forms. Some species remained in North America during the last ice ages. North American llamas are categorized as an extinct genus, Hemiauchenia . Llama-like animals would have been a common sight 25,000 years ago in modern-day California , Texas , New Mexico , Utah , Missouri , and Florida . The camelid lineage has

4840-514: The bleak and elevated parts of the mountain range bordering the region of perpetual snow , amidst rocks and precipices, occurring in various suitable localities throughout Peru , in the southern part of Ecuador , and as far south as the middle of Bolivia . Its manners very much resemble those of the chamois of the European Alps ; it is as vigilant, wild, and timid. Vicuña fiber is extremely delicate and soft and highly valued for weaving, but

4961-480: The camel was soon recognized. They were included in the genus Camelus along with alpaca in the Systema Naturae ( 1758 ) of Carl Linnaeus . They were, however, separated by Georges Cuvier in 1800 under the name of lama along with the guanaco . DNA analysis has confirmed that the guanaco is the wild ancestor of the llama, while the vicuña is the wild ancestor of the alpaca; the latter two were placed in

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5082-497: The pre-Columbian era . Llamas are social animals and live with others as a herd . Their wool is soft and contains only a small amount of lanolin . Llamas can learn simple tasks after a few repetitions. When using a pack, they can carry about 25 to 30% of their body weight for 8 to 13 km (5–8 miles ). The name llama (in the past also spelled "lama" or "glama") was adopted by European settlers from native Peruvians . The ancestors of llamas are thought to have originated on

5203-418: The 20th century; their descendants now number more than 158,000 llamas and 100,000 alpacas. In Aymara mythology, llamas are important beings. The Heavenly Llama is said to drink water from the ocean and urinates as it rains. According to Aymara eschatology , llamas will return to the water springs and ponds where they come from at the end of time. Lamoids, or llamas (as they are more generally known as

5324-457: The Cusco ushnu and its destruction and substitution for a gibbet was a sign of the empowerment of the new governor and of the end of the Inca sacred ceremonies. In the 17th century the descriptions of the Cuzco ushnu differ enormously from the chronicles of the preceding century. Thus, Guamán Poma de Ayala draws the ushnu of Cuzco as superimposed platforms, like a truncated pyramid, on top of which Manco Inca Yupanqui (founder and monarch of

5445-412: The Inca state architecture which imposed central plazas dominated by an ushnu «can be compared in many ways to a huge stage to be used by the state for the integration of a fragmented interior area. In addition to providing housing for people and economic activities, the architecture provided a way through which divisions and combinations could be manipulated by the Inca. In part the architectural backdrop

5566-438: The Inca and his colla (or qoya , the queen), to pray. The Huanuco Pampa plaza is a huge open space measuring 350 by 550 metres (1,150 by 1,800 ft). In its middle stands a platform built with imperial style stone masonry. It measures 38 by 63 metres (125 by 207 ft) having a height of 3.7 to 4 metres (12 to 13 ft) it is supported by a platform having a height of about 0.8 metres (2.6 ft). The base platform

5687-474: The Inca settlement. The settlement had a plaza , five kallankas (halls) a 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) long aqueduct to provide fresh water, and about twenty collcas (warehouses). The Qhapaq ñan , in its main mountain trunk, crosses the settlement North to South , on the side of the plaza. The urban layout of the road inside El Shincal is completed with a scenic architectural component: two twin hills about 25 metres (82 ft) high are located on both sides of

5808-545: The Inca's men, that started the Battle of Cajamarca , were shot from the top of the ushnu. Unfortunately that ushnu no longer exists. The earliest depictions of ushnus are found in the drawing by Guamán Poma de Ayala (1615) at folios 240, 242, 386 and 400. They are found in Cajamarca , Cusco and Vilcashuamán and he calls them usno while representing them as truncated step pyramids . Other images of ushnu platforms are found in

5929-509: The Incas mummified their dead sovereigns, the Sapan Inca and his Qoya (queen) and worshipped them after the death. Mummies were taken care of by the panaka (lineage) of the dead emperor and shown in public at festivals. Thus the third day of situa each panaka took out and brought to the main square the royal mummies they were taking care of and at night they ritually washed them in the same baths that each sovereign had been using while alive. Once

6050-754: The Sapan Inca, fully dressed and with a spear, run down from the Sacsayhuamán fortress to the Haucaypata, where four royal blood Incas (and not four hundred warriors) awaited and then run towards the four suyus. When the night came everybody danced, including the Inca. At dawn, people went to the rivers and springs to bathe, and ordered any illness to leave them. After bathing, they prepared and lit large straw torches, similar to large balls tied with ropes, called pancuncos or panconcos ( pankunku in Quechua, meaning dry wood or straw torch). The men went around playing and hitting each other with them. These torches interested

6171-432: The Spanish chroniclers and they gave different descriptions of the practice. Polo de Ondegardo states «[…] they emitted great shouts, with torches in their hands, crying “Evil be driven out,” and hitting one another with the torches. These were called panconcos .» Garcilaso de la Vega states «[…] they went out with great torches of straw woven like the jackets for oil jars in round balls. These were called pancuncu , and took

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6292-408: The Sun choose four among the cleanest and whitest rams, rubbing them with blood sanco and sacrificed them. The high priest then warned everyone that those who dare eating sanco in sin will be punished by the gods, while those who ate sanco in pure spirit will be rewarded by «joyful years, bountiful food, and everything else needed for success». The high priest ate his portion of sanco followed by

6413-506: The Sun). This system was composed of a series of ritual imaginary pathways leading outward from Cusco into the territory of the Inca Empire. All along the ceque lines huacas (shrines, sacred places) were found corresponding to spots of ceremonial, ritual, or religious significance. The system was divided into four sectors towards the four provinces which composed the Inca empire and each province had

6534-579: The Tragulina ( chevrotains ), the Pecora ( ruminants ), and the Whippomorpha ( hippos and cetaceans , which belong to Artiodactyla from a cladistic , if not traditional, standpoint). The Tylopoda have more or less affinity to each of the sister taxa , standing in some respects in a middle position between them, sharing some characteristics from each, but in others showing special modifications not found in any of

6655-609: The United States participate. When correctly reared, llamas spitting at a human is a rare thing. Llamas are very social herd animals, however, and sometimes spit at each other to discipline lower-ranked llamas. A llama's social rank in a herd is never static. They can always move up or down the social ladder by picking small fights. This is usually done between males to see which will become dominant. Their fights are visually dramatic, characterized by spitting, ramming each other with their chests, neck wrestling, and kicking, mainly to knock

6776-480: The afterlife. The Moche of pre-Columbian Peru depicted llamas quite realistically in their ceramics. In the Inca Empire , llamas were the only beasts of burden, and many of the people dominated by the Inca had long traditions of llama herding. For the Inca nobility, the llama was symbolic, and llama figures were often buried with the dead. In South America, llamas are still used as beasts of burden, as well as for

6897-464: The alpaca. They are used most commonly in the western regions of the United States , where larger predators, such as coyotes and feral dogs, are prevalent. Typically, a single gelding (castrated male) is used. Research suggests using multiple guard llamas is not as effective as one. Multiple males tend to bond with one another rather than with the livestock and may ignore the flock. A gelded male of two years of age bonds closely with its new charges and

7018-573: The ancient Inca rites. A well known prayer, whose text is also provided by Guaman Poma de Ayala, Martín de Murúa and Juan de Santa Cruz Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamaygua is the following: O Creator! [You] who are without equal to the end of the world. [You] who gave life and strength to mankind, and said, "[Let] this one be male,” and to the women, “[Let] this one be female.” Saying this, you created them, shaped them, and gave them life. Protect those that you have created, [let them] live safe and sound, without danger, [and] in peace. Where are you? Are you in

7139-459: The blood was in fact taken from sacrificed beasts. He also reports that the acllas , Virgins of the Sun, prepared a great amount of buns, which were also given to the foreigners in the last day of the festival, while even more buns were sent to the distant shrines and to the kurakas (local chiefs and governors) as a sign of confederation and loyalty to the Sun-god and the Inca. Sanco was also used to warm people, statues and mummies, rubbing it on

7260-430: The bodies so as to revitalize them. The chroniclers use the Spanish word calentar for this action. Before dawn, everyone washed their bodies and took a little of the blood sanco and passed it over their heads and faces, chests and backs, arms and legs in order to cleanse their bodies of all diseases. The elder brother, lord of the house, smeared the threshold of the street door with sanco and left it glued to them, as

7381-411: The center of the settlement and was designed as the base for the construction of the entire site. The ushnu was also linked to the most notable aspects of the surrounding landscape through the lines projected towards the main directions of the settlement. Notably the southern direction of its stairway was possibly oriented to the 6,635 metres (21,768 ft) high, permanently snow-capped Yerupajá , which

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7502-430: The chroniclers who described the Inca empire in the 16th century, among them Francisco Xerez , Pedro Cieza de León , Felipe Guamán Poma de Ayala and Juan de Betanzos . According to the chronicle of Francisco de Xerez in 1532 Francisco Pizarro , reached Cajamarca , where the Inca emperor Atahualpa was quartered with his troops. There, in the middle of the city plaza (main square), Pizarro saw what he called

7623-512: The city at the beginning of the festival were summoned inside once again to join the celebration. Everyone went again to the plaza with the priests, the huacas and the Inca. A great amount of livestock, of all types and from each of the four regions, was brought to the plaza too. Molina states that «according to those who gave statements … there were over one hundred thousand heads. This livestock had to be clean, without any blemishes or marks, and woolly, having never been shorn». The high priest of

7744-414: The city, all those who were not natives of Cusco were banished for a distance of two leagues. Moreover, anyone who had broken earlobes, all the hunchbacks and anyone who had a lesion or defect on their body were taken out of city, being considered as carriers of bad fate. Even the dogs were chased out of the city so that they would not howl. They could all return to the city at the beginning of the last day of

7865-417: The cria must frequently suckle to receive the nutrients it requires. In harem mating , the male is left with females most of the year. For field mating , a female is turned into a field with a male llama and left there for some time. This is the easiest method in terms of labor but the least useful in predicting a likely birth date. An ultrasound test can be performed, and together with the exposure dates,

7986-425: The domestic state and are variable in size and of many colors, often white, brown, or piebald. Some are grey or black. The guanaco and vicuña are wild. The guanaco is endangered; it has a nearly uniform light-brown color, passing into white below. The guanaco and vicuña certainly differ: The vicuña is more petite, more slender in its proportions, and has a shorter head than the guanaco. The vicuña lives in herds on

8107-522: The drawings and books by 19th century explorers such as Léonce Angrand (1874) Ephraim George Squier (1877), and Charles Wiener (1880). Little is known of the Quechua root of the term ushnu. The Quechua−Spanish dictionaries were produced since a few years after the conquest by the Spaniards and they include the word ushnu although written with obsolete spelling. The ushnu existing in Cusco used to be

8228-509: The family and friends. The mummies of the dead relatives were warmed with sanco , so that they could enjoy the celebration. The day ended in joy, and everyone ate and drank the best foods they had; even the poorest persons had saved food for the festival. During this celebration no one argued with one another, nor pronounced angry words, nor asked to be repaid a debt because they believed that if they had behaved badly in this day, they would have quarrels and difficulties all year long. That night

8349-410: The festival had to be performed, giving rules to an ancient tradition. “Illnesses, disasters, misfortunes, and dangers, leave this land!” – ritual cry of the situa festival According to Garcilaso, the priests could detect the equinox by observing the shadows of stone columns as projected though an east to west line and could discern the exact date of the situa. In order to obtain proper cleanliness of

8470-449: The festival. In the meantime, the population of Cusco prepared for this festival with fast and abstinence for three days. Children fasted just one day. On the night before the start of the festival, men, women and children gathered at the house of the eldest brother of the family and prepared the bread called sanco , made with corn flour and other previously toasted cereals, cooked with little water and some fat. This bread, prepared in buns

8591-419: The festivals of the 1540s and 1550s. While he was a young boy he was an eyewitness to part of the rituals since, as a child, he was not allowed to see all of it. He writes: «I remember having seen part of this celebration in my childhood. […] I saw the four Indians running with their spears. I saw the common people shaking their clothes and making the other gestures, and saw them eat the bread called sanco . I saw

8712-494: The four directions of the Inca empire. The runners, continuously shouting the ritual words, carried their weapons; after a quarter of a league they passed them to other warriors and so on until they were about "five or six leagues out of the city. There the runners bathed and washed their weapons in the rivers at the places they had reached. The warriors going to Collasuyu bathed in the Urubamba River (also known as Vilcanota) near

8833-416: The four relays of warriors bathing themselves and their weapons in the major rivers of the region. In the later and more limited rituals witnessed by Garcilaso de la Vega, the situa festival ended with the runners sticking their spears “in the ground as a barrier to prevent the ills from re-entering the area from which they had been banished"». Moreover Garcialso states that a royal blood Inca , not necessarily

8954-566: The genus Vicugna . The genera Lama and Vicugna are, with the two species of true camels, the sole existing representatives of a very distinct section of the Artiodactyla or even-toed ungulates, called Tylopoda , or "bump-footed", from the peculiar bumps on the soles of their feet. The Tylopoda consists of a single family, the Camelidae, and shares the order Artiodactyla with the Suina ( pigs ),

9075-540: The heights of heaven? Or below in the thunder [clouds]? Or in the storm clouds? Hear me, answer me, and grant me [my prayers]; give us eternal life forever. Take us by your hand and receive this offering wherever you may be, O Creator! When the Spaniards conquered the Empire and imposed the Christian religion as the only one, they started a fight against idolatry, forbidding all Inca festivals and ritual practices to take place. Even

9196-583: The huacas [shrines] and the houses of the Sun, the Temple of the Sun, Coricancha. He also directed that there be a throne and seat of the Incas called usno in each uamani [district] The truncated pyramids and the circular pillar with a basin−pit system found during the archaeological surveys in Caral date back to the Andean preceramic period (8000 to 1800 BCE) and represent mountain and water cult symbols. After passing through

9317-553: The independent Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba ) sits. His drawing is very similar to another that he makes of the Cajamarca ushnu. The ushnu also was also an observation point of the Sun. The chroniclers report that small stone towers or pillars marked the horizon on the east and west of Cusco and the main observation point could have been the ushnu in the main square, nevertheless the solar observation could be purely ritual and not as

9438-498: The iridescent plumes of a bird. The same ritual was performed on the statue of the Creator-god. Afterward the Inca, fully dressed in his richest robes and accompanied by his court, went to the main plaza of Cusco. At the same time, the main image of the Sun-god, accompanied by the priests of the Sun, was brought to the plaza together with two other gold images representing its wives. During this last day, all those who were driven out of

9559-492: The largest existing ushnu. The area was conquered by the Incas to gain access to the forested lowlands and the coca plantations, when they expanded their empire towards the east in the current Santa Cruz Department (Bolivia) . It has not yet been ascertained whether the Samaipata settlement was constructed during the rule of Pachacuti , Topa Inca Yupanqui , or Huayna Capac . It has a large plaza without any built ushnu, but

9680-456: The lower jaw, the three incisors are long, spatulate, and procumbent; the outer ones are the smallest. Next to these is a curved, suberect canine, followed after an interval by an isolated minute and often deciduous simple conical premolar; then a contiguous series of one premolar and three molars, which differ from those of Camelus in having a small accessory column at the anterior outer edge. The skull generally resembles that of Camelus , with

9801-423: The lowland of current Bolivia some 125 kilometres (78 mi) from Santa Cruz de la Sierra and known as el Fuerte de Samaipata or simply El Fuerte (the fort), a big rock outcrop is found. It measures approximately 250 by 60 metres (820 by 200 ft) and emerges from the surrounding hills. It was finely carved to produce seats, niches, drainage channels, basins, and animal shapes. It is regarded as, possibly,

9922-438: The meantime, many armed warriors met in the small square in front of the temple, while the statues of the deities from some huacas were brought to that same square. The high priest of the Sun would then declare the festival opened. In the middle of the main plaza of Cusco there was a special ushnu (a ceremonial platform) which was shaped as a golden pillar and resembled a well. It was filled with chicha poured on top of it as

10043-601: The modern town of Quiquijana , those going to Chinchaysuyu bathed in the Apurímac River below the modern town of Limatambo . Those who carried their shouts to Antisuyu bathed in the Urubamba River beside the modern town of Písac and those who went to Cuntisuyu washed at the Cusibamba River. Molina states that: «the reason that they bathed in these rivers was because these are voluminous rivers [that] they know lead to

10164-399: The mummies were taken back to their respective homes they were warmed with sanco and then each mummy was offered the food they liked most in their life, which after this rite was burnt as an offering to the deities. When the Sapan Inca finished his own bath he went to his private room with his principal wife where both were warmed with sanco on their heads, which were then adorned with

10285-577: The nearby hill and river. Before their placement, the stones underwent rudimentary percussion work in order to adapt them to imitate the typical Cusco stonework. This ushnu appears to be the largest built to the South of Cusco. Its measures are a visible sign of the importance of this settlement. According to the Inka ideology, the ushnu was the conceptual scenario where power and alliances between leaders were assumed and consummated. According to Raffino and colleagues it

10406-425: The nobility from the two Cusco neighborhoods, hanan and hurin (upper and lower), saving some for those who were absent. The lungs of the sacrificed rams were taken out and inflated by blowing into them. The priests then looked for any signs that implied either fruitful or bad incoming years. Then the lungs were burnt and the meat of the four rams was eaten by the priests, while all the other people were invited to share

10527-417: The notion of a sacred central space. […] It was at the usnu in Cuzco […] that the Inca king conducted the solemn state religious rituals designed to maintain cosmic order and social stability. The different uses of the ushnus can be summarized as follows Except the Cusco ushnu, which was never described by the chronicles as a platform, practically all the other masonry ushnus are platforms either stepped or in

10648-555: The object of archaeological excavations, showed the existence of basins with drainage systems. It has been suggested by some scholars that Intihuatanas (solar observatories), such as those found in Inca royal estates of Pisac and Tipón , and carved stones in Machu Picchu (Funerary stone), Chincero (PumaQaqa) and Sacsayhuamán (Throne of the Inca) could have been ushnus, due their use as seats and altars for religious cults. As

10769-429: The other off balance. The females are usually only seen spitting to control other herd members. One may determine how agitated the llama is by the materials in the spit. The more irritated the llama is, the further back into each of the three stomach compartments it will try to draw materials from for its spit. While the social structure might constantly change, they live as a family and care for each other. If one notices

10890-462: The other taxa. The 19th-century discoveries of a vast and previously unexpected extinct Paleogene fauna of North America, as interpreted by paleontologists Joseph Leidy , Edward Drinker Cope , and Othniel Charles Marsh , aided understanding of the early history of this family. Llamas were not always confined to South America ; abundant llama-like remains were found in Pleistocene deposits in

11011-415: The people and from this town! Leave us!"» Guamán provides a picture of the pancuncus . After this, the men returned to their houses, to end the day eating sanco , which they also put on their faces and in places where they kept their food and clothes. They also threw sanco into the springs, wishing not to be ill and any illness to be kept out of their houses. Sanco was also given to the other members of

11132-409: The plaza is overlooked by the huge carved rock outcrop. The animal carvings may have been produced by the pre-Inca Chané culture (c. 800 CE) while the niches are typically Inca. In fact the south side of the outcrop shows five sculpted seats from which persons may have observed the events taking place in the plaza. This could have served as an ushnu for some high ranking individuals. Meyers has called

11253-417: The plaza, their tops were artificially flattened and walled with stones to a height of about 2 metres (6.6 ft). Both hills can be accessed through stone steps. In the south central part of the plaza stands the ushnu. Its shape is that of a single body slightly pyramidal truncated platform with a square plan 16 by 16 metres (52 by 52 ft) and a height of 2 metres (6.6 ft). It has an access through

11374-469: The production of fiber and meat . The Inca deity Urcuchillay was depicted in the form of a multicolored llama. Ushnu In the Inca Empire the ushnu (other spelling usnu , sometimes usñu ) was an altar for cults to the deities, a throne for the Sapa Inca (emperor), an elevated place for judgment and a reviewing stand of military command. In several cases the ushnu may have been used as

11495-416: The quantity that each animal produces is small. Alpacas are primarily descended from wild vicuña ancestors. In contrast, domesticated llamas are descended primarily from wild guanaco ancestors, although a considerable amount of hybridization between the two species has occurred. Differential characteristics between llamas and alpacas include the llama's larger size, longer head, and curved ears. Alpaca fiber

11616-414: The rams meat. All the nations danced the situwa taki , the special song for the situa festival. Then the representatives of the nations asked permission to return to their respective lands and were given a reward by the Inca for having participated to the festival. Molina reports several prayers recited during the situa both in Quechua and with a translation in Spanish. They are an important witness of

11737-405: The religious festivals held during the year. The ushnu was indeed somewhere in the middle of this square. Nevertheless nobody knows exactly where it stood. The description provided by the chroniclers are not consistent. Nevertheless the scholars agree that the ushnu was most probably standing almost in its middle, on top of the canalized Saphi river. In that position it allowed a direct access to

11858-435: The remaining rams sacrificed and cooked on the square. A great amount of chicha , prepared in due time from white maize for the purpose of the festival, was brought to the plaza and drank. Meantime the priests carried their huacas to the plaza on litters, while the nobility joined their two groups in one to make room for them. The local chiefs were then rubbed with sanco and they recited a joint prayer, after which they ate

11979-556: The rest and happiness and Cusipata (Kusipata) or square of the joy . The river was canalized and covered to allow free transit between the two parts. This huge space marked the center and represented the power of the Empire. In fact the four roads to the four Suyus (provinces), into which the Tawantinsuyu (empire of four parts united) was divided, stemmed from this square. It was also the limit between hanan (upper) and hurin (lower) Cusco. It had an important ritual role and hosted

12100-490: The river water, lighting large straw torches (like large balls, called panconcos ) and preparing and eating the ritual maize buns called sanco ( sankhu in Quechua) whose dough was often mixed with blood. All were allowed to drink chicha ( fermented beverage , corn beer ) during the four days festival «without stopping». A great number of persons and beasts gathered in the main plaza of Cusco ( Haucaypata ), which in Inca times

12221-579: The rock a giant ushnu . This assumption is quite complex because the rock has seats and niches facing different cardinal points and only a few of them could have been used as ushnu for rituals to be kept in the plaza which remains quite far away. El Shincal de Quimivil was most probably the capital of one of the districts of the Collasuyu province of the Inca empire. The archaeological investigations, started in 1901, revealed ancient buildings, out of which about one hundred can be found today, that were part of

12342-466: The rumen, omasum, and abomasum. In addition, the llama (and other camelids) have an extremely long and complex large intestine (colon). The large intestine's role in digestion is to reabsorb water, vitamins, and electrolytes from food waste passing through it. The length of the llama's colon allows it to survive on much less water than other animals. This is a major advantage in arid climates where they live. Llamas have an unusual reproductive cycle for

12463-415: The running water might carry the ills they had driven out of their houses and out of the city down to the sea.» Felipe Guamán Poma de Ayala , who describes the situa in his manuscript El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno (First New Chronicle and Good Government), states «Men armed as if they were going to fight a war, throwing fire slings, saying in a loud voice: "Leave sicknesses and pestilences from

12584-410: The sea, and so [the rivers] would carry the illnesses [away]». While the warriors passed along the ceques , the sacred paths radiating from Cusco joining the huacas , people stood out of their houses shaking their clothes and blankets while shouting for the illnesses to leave the city and asking for a prosperous year. Bauer points out that «during Inca times, the ritualized cleansing of evil ended with

12705-414: The situa, among the most important, was suppressed. It became a sort of folkloric memorial rather than a religious feast. Polo de Ondegardo states in 1559 that the bathing, the drunkenness and some trace of the situa still lasted four days with somewhat differentiated ceremonies, and with a lot of secrecy. Garcilaso confirms in 1609 that the celebration was still practiced, in a reduced form as compared with

12826-432: The size of a small apple, was used in ceremonies as sacred food and it was left half cooked. A variety of Sanco was additionally prepared with blood in the dough (in Quechua yawar sankhu , where yawar means blood), which Garcilaso affirms was taken from children between five and ten, by bloodletting through a cut in the middle of the eyebrows,. The two kinds of sanco were cooked separately. Polo de Ondegardo reveals that

12947-458: The sky. Hyslop states that the ushnus were a form to unite the Inca capital to the provincial and administrative centers of the empire. This strategy was working through the Capacocha ceremonies (rites that might involve also the sacrifice of children) which took place on top of or beside the ushnus and «connected the point of sacrifice with the child's origin by straight routes». There was also

13068-507: The statues of the Creator the Sun and the Thunder, were taken out of their respective temples and the priests warmed them with sanco . On the next morning the priests brought fine foods to be presented to the statues of the Creator, the Sun, and the Thunder in their respective temples. The priests of the huacas received this food and burned it as a sacrifice to the deities. As in other cultures,

13189-399: The top basin as an offer to his father the Sun god and those who attended the ceremonies could drink it at a lower outlet. Sacrifices were also held in proximity of or at the ushnu. While in the capital the ushnu was the axis of the Inca ceremonies, in the provinces of the empire they represented the central power and had a public role and were generally quite large structures, bigger than

13310-415: The top of the wall produces a cornice around the top of the ushnu. This enclosure leaves two entrances, each one almost 3 metres (9.8 ft) wide, that allow access from the stairway to the platform. The wall around the top of the ushnu contained 10 niches, 6 of which are still clearly visible. These niches had no toppings and could easily have served as seats. The space corresponding to the ushnu marked

13431-430: The torches or pancunu [sic], but did not see the nocturnal rite, because it was very late and I had already gone to bed». Llama Camelus glama Linnaeus, 1758 The llama ( / ˈ l ɑː m ə / ; Spanish pronunciation: [ˈʎama] or [ˈʝama] ) ( Lama glama ) is a domesticated South American camelid , widely used as a meat and pack animal by Andean cultures since

13552-513: The underworld through undergroud waterways. This concept is underlined by Zuidema who considers the ushnu as a gate to the Earth that sucks in the rainwater and the offerings. The presence of the river just under the ushnu allowed this opening to function properly. … in the large plaza of the city of Cuzco, there stood the stone of the war that was large, in the shape and make of a sugarloaf, well stuck and filled with gold ... In 1534 Pizarro, after conquering Cusco, decided to convert it into

13673-519: The upper jaw, a compressed, sharp, pointed laniariform incisor near the hinder edge of the premaxilla is followed in the male at least by a moderate-sized, pointed, curved true canine in the anterior part of the maxilla. The isolated canine-like premolar that follows in the camels is not present. The teeth of the molar series, which are in contact with each other, consist of two very small premolars (the first almost rudimentary) and three broad molars , generally constructed like those of Camelus . In

13794-437: The ushnu in Cusco. The shape of the ushnu varied in the vast extension of the Inca conquered territory. The one in Cusco, considered to be the center of the whole empire, was a sugarloaf-shaped stone pillar, covered with gold. In the administrative centers, the ushnus had the shape of elevated platforms or truncated pyramids with one or more superposed platforms and a stairway climbing to the top. Some ushnus, which have been

13915-461: The usnhu in different ways. For the Incas, the world was composed of three planes: In Quechua the word pacha means both time and space. Thus the Sapa Inca or his representative, on top of the ushnu, was seating in a central position connecting all the sacred ceques directions. This represented a three-dimensional and a temporal connection between the world below and the surface, with an eye to

14036-445: The way llamas might contribute to the fight against coronaviruses, including MERS and SARS-CoV-2 (which causes COVID-19 ). Scholar Alex Chepstow-Lusty has argued that the switch from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to widespread agriculture was only possible because of the use of llama dung as fertilizer . The Moche people frequently placed llamas and their parts in the burials of important people as offerings or provisions for

14157-462: The west side front, formed by a stone stairway with 9 steps, which leads to a trapezoidal opening placed in the center of the façade. A bench with stone walls filled with mortar and a seat made of flat slates can be observed on the northern sector of the platform. The construction process of the ushnu is part of an accurate planning of the plaza. Its walls are double with mud filling inside and their blocks were extracted and transported alternately from

14278-475: Was a very important apu (protective deity of the mountains). The ushnu of Huánuco Pampa served as the center of the public ceremonial activities that took place during the year. The public activities that were carried out around the ushnu of Huánuco Pampa constituted, possibly, a symbolic way of rewarding the attending people through the libation rituals. It was also a sign through which alliances for state purposes with local populations were achieved. Located in

14399-400: Was much larger than the current Plaza de Armas . Figures of the deities from the huacas (shrines) were carried to their respective temples they had in Cusco. To obtain proper cleanliness of the city, all foreigners and with those with physical defects were banished from the city for a distance of two leagues. According to Molina, Pachacuti Inca was the sovereign who defined the way

14520-480: Was symbolic, but a final effect in terms of architecture is that it really can and does shape human activities and relationships». There are hundreds of ushnu in the territory of the former Inca empire, many of them have been excavated and described in archaeological publication. Several have been restored and others are being considered for further research especially under the Proyecto Qhapaq Ñan carried out by

14641-594: Was the original home of camelids and that the ancestors of Old World camels crossed over via the Bering Land Bridge from North America. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama three million years ago allowed camelids to spread to South America as part of the Great American Interchange , where they evolved further. Meanwhile, North American camelids died out at the end of the Pleistocene . A full-grown llama can reach

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