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71-591: Capacocha ceremonies took place under several circumstances. Some could be undertaken as the result of key events in the life of the Sapa Inca , the Inca Emperor, such as his ascension to the throne, an illness, his death, the birth of a son. At other times, Capacocha ceremonies were undertaken to stop natural disasters and performed in major festivals or processions at important ceremonial sites. The rationale for this type of sacrificial rite has typically been understood as

142-596: A wak'a , not only represented Inca symbols but were also previously legitimized in ceremonies conducted by the emperor himself. The fullest description of a capacocha comes from Cristóbal de Molina , who placed it in the context of a monarch's ascension. He wrote that all of the towns of the empire were called upon to send one or two boys and girls around 10 years of age to the capital, along with fine cloth, camelids, and figurines of gold, silver, and shell. The boys and girls were dressed in finery and matched up as if they were married couples. Priests were then dispatched to

213-423: A byssus . The two halves of their shells are joined with a ball-and-socket type of hinge, rather than with a toothed hinge as is more common in other bivalves. They also still retain vestigial anterior and posterior auricles ("ears", triangular shell flaps) along the hinge line, a characteristic feature of scallops, although not of oysters. As is the case in all scallops, Spondylus spp. have multiple eyes around

284-403: A CT scan indicated she was killed with a blow to the head. The other three capacocha sacrifices interred at Ampato were found marked by stone circles within the funerary complex, and were all between the ages of 8 and 12. Two girls and one boy were discovered, all three of which were likely sacrificed during the same ceremony based on the positionality and proximity of the burials. The burial of

355-550: A bundle with various artifacts within the bundle or next to it in the same grave. A number of offerings were often left with the sacrificed individuals at the sites of capacocha ceremonies. The human body itself was often finely dressed and clothed in a feathered headdress and other ornamentation such as a necklace or bracelet. The most elaborate artifacts were typically paired human statuettes and llama figurines that have been crafted with gold, silver, and spondylus shells . The combination of both male and female figurines alongside

426-514: A male. Spanish historian, Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa , wrote that by the time of Inca Yupanqui 's reign, these women were being used as his concubines. In Inca culture, the dead served as link between the Inca people and the gods. Capacocha served as way to appease the gods, who otherwise might cause natural disasters like floods, earthquakes, and famines as a punishment for the people's sins. Children sacrificed in capacocha ceremonies became servants of

497-404: A number of ceramics, bowls and spoons made of wood, various food items, figurines made out of gold, silver, and spondylus, and other metal objects such as pins. Due to the preservation of the children, a number of studies could be undertaken from their remains. Hair samples indicate that the diets of the children underwent a momentous change in the year before their deaths. This helps to indicate

568-607: A people, they demanded that the defeated leader surrender part of their land to continue in command, and whose people pay tribute in the form of labor ( mitʼa ) and taxes. The Sapa Inca also played a major role in caring for the poor and hungry, hence his other title huacchacoya or waqcha khuyaq "lover and benefactor of the poor". The Sapa was responsible for organizing food redistribution in times of environmental disaster, allocated work via state-sponsored projects, and most notably promoted major state-sponsored religious feasts that followed each successful harvest season. The Inca

639-683: A similar manner to gold nuggets, copper hatches, coca, salt, red pepper, and cotton cloth. The use of Spondylus shells is what led to an economy of sorts in the Central Andes and led to the development of a merchant class, "mercardes", in different cultures within the Central Andes. This caused the development of different styles of trade that went through evolutionary changes throughout pre-Columbian times. These are reciprocity (home based), reciprocity (boundary), down-the-line trade, central place redistribution, central place market exchange, emissary trading, and port of trade. These modes of trade dictate

710-583: Is a genus of bivalve molluscs , the only genus in the family Spondylidae . They are known in English as spiny oysters or thorny oysters (although they are not, in fact, true oysters , but are related to scallops). The many species of Spondylus vary considerably in appearance. They are grouped in the same superfamily as the scallops . They are not closely related to true oysters (family Ostreidae ); however, they do share some habits such as cementing themselves to rocks rather than attaching themselves by

781-604: Is also a great representation of the relationship between the Aztec empire and nature. To Aztec groups and peoples’, Spondylus was a gift from the deities to be celebrated. Certain Spondylus groups were formed as a result of when and where they may be found seasonally and tend to connect a particular group of Spondylus to specific religious symbols such as the Fertility goddess, the Moon goddess,

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852-576: Is fished primarily for its adductor muscle, or "callus", which is a high-value foodstuff. Some Mediterranean species are edible and are commonly consumed, with S. gaederopus in particular being popular in Sardinia . Tropical species, however, tend to bioaccumulate saxitoxin . The Romans ate Spondylus species. Macrobius in Saturnalia III.13 describes a dinner party in 63 BCE in which there were two courses of Spondylus . In addition to its significance in

923-453: Is reflected in the construction of storehouses scattered throughout the empire and vast food and resource redistribution systems. The commander and chief of the standing army founded military colonies to expand the culture and control, while simultaneously ensuring the preservation of that network. At the religious level, they were symbolic of the sun and promoted the worship of Inti, who was regarded as their ancestral father, and organized

994-418: The mama-kuna , in the "House of Chosen Women" ( aqlla wasi ). Chosen for their looks, the girls stayed at this institution for an extended period of time and were taught, under the tutelage of priestesses, how to weave, sew, and prepare special ritual beverages called chicha . The mama-kuna women were compared to nuns by many Spanish men, as they lived celibate lives, serving the gods. Typically around

1065-588: The Aegean Sea , but were transported far into the center of the continent. In the LBK and Lengyel cultures , Spondylus shells from the Aegean Sea were worked into bracelets and belt buckles. Over time styles changed with the middle Neolithic favouring generally larger barrel-shaped beads and the late Neolithic smaller favoring flatter and disk-shaped beads. Significant finds of jewelry made from Spondylus shells were made at

1136-679: The Varna Necropolis . During the late Neolithic the use of Spondylus in grave goods appears to have been limited to women and children. S. crassisquama is found off the coast of Colombia and Ecuador and has been important to Andean peoples since pre-Columbian times, serving as both an offering to the fertility goddess Pachamama and as currency. In fact, much like in Europe, the trade in Spondylus shells also reached far and wide, as pre-Hispanic Ecuadorian peoples traded them with peoples as far north as present-day Mexico and as far south as

1207-479: The ceque lines that left Cuzco and went to the wak'akuna . This was a long and tedious journey, crossing valleys, rivers and mountains, which could take months. Once at the summit, the young victims would then be administered an intoxicating drink or other substance to either induce sleep or a stupor, ostensibly to let the final ritual go on smoothly. If the ceremony was carried out in a particularly cold place, they could die from hypothermia. In other cases, death

1278-443: The pre-Columbian times, Spondylus crassiquama was also an important part of Aztec culture. Spondylus uses amongst Aztecs included: art, jewelry, statues, religious motifs, and at times, as currency. One example of Spondylus used in art is the double-headed serpent that may be seen amongst images on the right of the page. As stated above, Spondylus held immense religious value amongst Aztec culture pre-columbian times and

1349-535: The Central Andes stems from supply and demand. There was a great demand for Spondylus shells due to the "fetishistic needs to the south". Even today, there are collectors of Spondylus shells, and a commercial market exists for them. Additionally, some species (especially S. americanus ) sometimes are found in the saltwater aquariums. S. limbatus was commonly ground for mortar in Central America, giving raise to its junior synonym, " S. calcifer" . Spondylus

1420-656: The Hurin moiety and their rule did not extend beyond the Kingdom of Cusco . Their origins are tied to the mythical establishment of Cusco and are shrouded in the later foundation myth . The dynasty was supposedly founded by Manco Cápac , who is considered the son of the Sun god Inti in Inca mythology . As a rough guide to the later reputation of the early Sapa Incas, in later years capac meant warlord and sinchi meant leader. The second dynasty

1491-414: The Inca realm and certificate if they still maintained its power or had lost it, on occasions destroying the discredited wak'a . Travel to these sites would have involved a procession of priests, the children who would be sacrificed, and a number of other important individuals throughout the empire. Different peoples would assist with the procession as the group moved throughout the different regions of

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1562-400: The Inca trying to ensure that humanity's best were sent to join their deities. The children chosen for sacrifice in a capacocha ceremony were typically given alcohol and coca leaves and deposited at the place of the ceremony. Sacrifice was primarily carried out through four methods: strangulation, a blow to the head, suffocation, or being buried alive while unconscious, though if the ceremony

1633-611: The Sun god, and the mountain spirits. This led to certain groups of Spondylus being associated with seasonal weather events such as heavy rains or increases in sea temperature along the coast, as those events were closely associated with particular deities or spirits in Aztec culture [1] . Spondylus had several key uses in pre-Columbian Aztec history, most predominantly its importance in jewelry, art, and sculpture. Another use of Spondylus , that had to be executed with extreme detail and precision,

1704-481: The age of 14 the girls would be divided into three groups. Some girls were consecrated as priestesses and went on to raise the girls brought after them, and the prettiest were often sent as tribute to be sacrificed in state capacocha ceremonies. Otherwise, the girls were offered to the emperor in Cuzco as servants or concubines; or were distributed amongst the noblemen as secondary wives. The capacocha sacrifice started at

1775-531: The archaeological finds described. The principal offerings recovered from those sites – gold, silver, spondylus shell, and children – also accurately match the priest's account. According to Spanish chronicler Pedro Cieza de León who visited Cuzco in 1550, the chosen Virgins of the Sun god, whose task it was to weave and dye woollen cloth for the service of the temple near Cuzco and to prepare chichas , could also be buried alive (sacrificed) if they had violated their celibacy by engaging in sexual intercourse with

1846-414: The area included textiles, pottery shards, food, and the remains of a sacrificed camelid. Additionally, a small bundle of offerings was discovered containing sandals, cutlery, wooden and ceramic dishes, food items, a comb, and coal. Furthermore, a damaged tunic and a small female figurine made of spondylus shell (dressed in miniature versions of cumbi clothes) was recovered from the platform. The presence of

1917-525: The body was identified as the remains of an approximately 12-year-old female. However, partial destruction of the body by dynamite made it impossible to determine her cause of death. It is believed that the sacrificial victim was buried with the clothing she wore at the moment of her death, and then wrapped post-mortem into a bundle with outer textiles. This trend has also been documented in the Llullaillaco and Aconcagua sites. Scattered offerings recovered from

1988-476: The calendar. At the political level, they sent inspectors to oversee the loyalty and efficiency of civil servants and collect tribute from the subjugated peoples. The emperors promoted a unified and decentralized government in which Cuzco acted as the articulating axis of the different regions or suyu . They appointed highly trusted governors. At the economic level, they decided how much each province should pay according to its resources. They knew how to win over

2059-575: The capital city of Cuzco , on the order of the Sapa Inca . The first Sapa Inca to do this sacrifice was Pachacuti . During the festivities of the Capacocha in Cuzco, it was decided what type and quantity of offerings each shrine or wak'a would receive, of which the Incas maintained a clear record. The tributes were fed well, and those too young to eat would have their mothers with them to breastfeed. This

2130-445: The care with which children were treated during their travels throughout the empire prior to their ultimate sacrifice. Other changes in the isotopes found in the hair samples indicate that the children began their procession to the mountain several months prior to their death. Another noteworthy capacocha site is present near the summit of the extinct Quehuar volcano, reaching an altitude of 6,130 meters in northwestern Argentina. At

2201-427: The case of Cerro El Plomo, the sacrificial victim was wrapped in a complex funerary bundle of several pieces with a specific function and message, as in the case of Aconcagua. When the sacrifices of children and material offerings were buried, the holes could not be made using any metal, but dug out using sharpened sticks during the ceremony. Once dead, the children would then be buried in a fetal position, wrapped up in

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2272-512: The central Andes . The Moche people of ancient Peru regarded the sea and animals as sacred; they used Spondylus shells in their art and depicted Spondylus in effigy pots. Spondylus also were harvested from the Gulf of California and traded to tribes throughout Mexico and the American Southwest. Spondylus shells were the driving factor of trade within the Central Andes and were used in

2343-422: The collapse of her funerary platform. She was wrapped in high quality decorated textiles and surrounded by her funerary assemblage, including pottery, chuspas (some containing coca leaves or hair), llama bones, and four female figurines crafted from spondylus shell. A needle biopsy of Juanita's stomach revealed that she had been fed a large meal of vegetables around 6 to 8 hours before her sacrifice. Additionally,

2414-425: The construction of great engineering works, such as Sacsayhuamán , a fortress that took 50 years to complete; or the urban plan of the cities. However, among their most notable works, was the network of roads that crossed the entire empire and allowed a rapid journey for the administrators, messengers, and armies provided with hanging bridges and tambos . They made sure to always be supplied and well cared for, as

2485-501: The curacas to ensure control of the communities. These were the intermediaries through whom they collected taxes. Traditionally, every time an emperor died or resigned, his successor was disinherited from his father's inheritance and formed his own lineage royal clan or panaka , his father's lands, houses and servants were passed to his other children remaining on the previous panaka. The new Sapa Inca had to obtain land and spoils to bequeath to his own descendants. Each time they subdued

2556-450: The deities and also placed an imperial stamp on areas important to local beliefs, fulfilling both religious and political goals. In a number of instances, typically at the most important of these mountains, these sites contain the mummified remains of children sacrificed in capacocha ceremonies. Capacocha ceremonies at these important locations held a great deal of weight. Inca priests would periodically visit wak'a distributed across

2627-663: The edges of their mantle , and they have relatively well-developed nervous systems . Their nervous ganglia are concentrated in the visceral region, with recognisable optic lobes connected to the eyes. The genus Spondylus appeared in the Mesozoic era , and is known in the fossil records from the Triassic Cassian beds in Italy (235 to 232 million years ago) onward. Approximately 40 extinct species are known. Fossils of these molluscs may be found in fossiliferous marine strata all over

2698-419: The empire. These sites were difficult to reach and even more difficult to work on. In order to increase the ease with which these mountaintop locations could be reached, the Incas built staging stations lower on the mountains and also made paths that lead up to the summit. Some preparation would likely have occurred at tambos ( Quechua : tampukuna ) situated nearby. One particularly noteworthy site

2769-429: The first Inca monarch, adopted the title capac or qhapaq (roughly translated as " king "). Inca Roca , the sixth Inca monarch, was evidently the first to bear the title sapa Inca ("emperor") officially. There were two known dynasties , led by the Hurin and Hanan moieties respectively. The latter was in power at the time of Spanish conquest . The last effective Sapa Inca of Inca Empire

2840-413: The first girl found at the site was unusual compared to other capacocha burials, as six pots had been ritually broken on her grave. Her body was dressed with a macaw feather headdress and sandals, and was buried with numerous ceramic vessels, figurines, cups, spoons, and weaving tools. The male child was adorned with a vegetable fiber headdress and had elongated pierced earlobes, indicating he may have been

2911-411: The four suyu regions. He would then order the priests to make their sacrifices at their main wak'akuna . After the ceremonies at Cuzco, the children, the priests and their entourage of companions undertook the trip back to their communities. When they returned, they did not follow the royal road, or the Inca road, as they had gone, but they had to follow a path in a straight line, possibly following

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2982-422: The four quarters with sacrificial items and orders to make offerings to all wak’a according to their rank. The parties left the city in straight-line paths, deviating for neither mountain nor ravine. At some point, the burdens were transferred to other porters, who continued along the route. The children who could walk would do so, while those who could not were carried by their mothers. The Inca himself traveled

3053-417: The gods, as in the afterlife they would function as the people's representatives. For many families it was a great honor to have one's child chosen for the ceremony, and it was often children from noble families that were sacrificed in an effort to gain political favor with the emperor. While the boys were immediately brought to Cuzco, the young girls, called aclla , taken for sacrifice were often entrusted to

3124-468: The gods, or, in capacocha ceremonies following an emperor's death, servants to the emperor. They also served as guardians of the areas where they were sacrificed. Children sacrificed in capacocha ceremonies were also commemorated by their home communities, or ayllukuna . Having a child sacrificed in a capacocha ceremony was also considered a great honor to the family, and parents sometimes volunteered their children for sacrifice. Special attention

3195-422: The intention of securing his succession, for example, Huiracocha Inca associated Inca Urco to the throne. The coya, or sapa Inca's primary wife, had significant influence upon making this decision of which son is apt to succeed his father. The Sapa Inca was the absolute ruler of the empire and accumulated in his power the political, social, military, and economic direction of the state. He ordered and directed

3266-477: The latter, they are protected by spines and a layer of epibionts and, like the former, they can produce pearls . The type of substrate they use depends on the species: many only attach to coral, and the largest diversity of species is found in tropical coral reefs; others, (particularly S. spinosus) however, easily adapt to manufactured structures such as boats, pipes, and docks thereby becoming significant invasive species . Often other species are found attached to

3337-422: The main ceremonial structure, a rectangular platform, revealed the burials of a young girl of about 14 years of age, a girl of about 6 years of age, and a boy of about 7 years of age along with over 100 offerings of various materials. Due to the frigid conditions, both the mummies and the materials were well preserved. Some of the notable artifacts found at the site include a feathered headdress, well-made clothing,

3408-547: The napa, covered with a red blanket and adorned with gold earrings. With textiles representing a form of status and wealth, it has been speculated that the Sapa Inca never wore the same clothes twice. The community even revered the Sapa after his death, mummifying him and frequently visiting his tomb to "consult" him on pressing affairs. Little is known of the rulers of the first dynasty of Sapa Incas. Evidently, they were affiliated with

3479-455: The only emperor ' ) was the monarch of the Inca Empire ( Tawantinsuyu "the region of the four [provinces]"), as well as ruler of the earlier Kingdom of Cuzco and the later Neo-Inca State . While the origins of the position are mythical and originate from the legendary foundation of the city of Cuzco , it seems to have come into being historically around 1100 AD. Although the Inca believed

3550-432: The royal road, as did the flocks. Archaeologically, the evidence to support sacrifices at that scale is lacking. In his fieldwork among the wak’akuna of Cuzco, Bauer found surface evidence of human burial at three shrines, but nothing approaching the thousands of victims described in the chronicles has yet been reported. Even so, Molina's comment that the rituals paid special attention to high peaks has been supported by

3621-424: The sapa Inca to be the son of Inti (the Sun god) and often referred to him as Inti churi "solar son" or Intip churin "son of the Sun", the position eventually became hereditary , with son succeeding father . The principal wife of the Inca was known as the coya or quya . The Sapa Inca was at the top of the social hierarchy, and played a dominant role in the political and spiritual realm. Manco Capac ,

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3692-517: The shells of other species, perhaps the most common being found attached to the genus Malleus . Archaeological evidence indicates that people in Neolithic Europe were trading the shells of S. gaederopus to make bangles and other ornaments throughout much of the Neolithic period. The main period of Neolithic use appears to have been from around 5350 to 4200 BC. The shells were harvested from

3763-434: The son of an elite family. He was buried with ceramic vessels, cups, and a male figurine. The second female body found was also buried with multiple ceramic vessels, as well as a female figurine crafted from spondylus shell. All three mummies had been damaged by lightning strikes, preventing soft tissue research from being done on their bodies. Sapa Inca The Sapa Inca (from Quechua sapa inka ; lit.   '

3834-400: The spondylus shell at the site is thought to be an offering for fertility, and is also characteristic of the Llullaillaco, Esmeralda, Chuscha, and Aconcagua sites. The Ampato summit rises up to 6,312 meters in southern Peru, with a funerary complex located at 5,852 meters. Four capacocha sacrifices were found at this site, representing two distinct ceremonies. The first sacrifice discovered

3905-431: The state as tribute by local communities on a yearly basis. No region was exempt from the recruitment of these child sacrifices; they could come from any region of the empire. The male victims were no older than ten and girls could be up to age sixteen but must be a virgin when chosen; they had to be perfect, unblemished by even a freckle or scar. The Inca believed that only the purest children were worthy enough to be sent to

3976-403: The top of the mountain is a raised ceremonial platform, or ushnu , attached to a frontal ramp near a circular walled structure. Various offerings and a sacrificial victim were found contained within the walled structure. However, prior to archeological excavation, the platform, the walled structure, and its contents had been damaged by looters with dynamite. Through DNA and x-ray long bone analysis

4047-463: The use of both gold and silver was likely meant to pay tribute to the male Sun and the female Moon. Several sets of ceramics as well as gold, silver, and bronze pins were relatively commonplace too. A large amount of cloth was a typical find at capacocha sites too. Some objects that often appear such as plates and bowls have often been found in pairs. Alongside these objects are sometimes found food items. All objects, animals, and people sacrificed to

4118-413: The way that the Spondylus shells are traded, as well as who is benefiting the most from the trades. Modes such as central place redistribution require the entity that is the central place to be the one that gains the most benefit from the trade, and modes such as emissary trading and port of trade are the modes that started the "mercardes" class within the Central Andes. The value of Spondylus shells in

4189-671: The world. For example, they are present in Cretaceaous rocks in the Fort Worth Formation of Texas , and in the Trent River Formation of Vancouver Island , as well as in other parts of North America. Spiny oysters are found in all subtropical and (especially) tropical seas, usually close to the coasts. Spondylus are filter feeders . The adults live cemented to hard substrates, a characteristic they share, by convergent evolution, with true oysters and jewel boxes . Like

4260-466: Was Atahualpa , who was executed by Francisco Pizarro and his conquistadors in 1533, but several successors later claimed the title. Other terms for sapa Inca include apu ("lord"), qhapaq Inka ("mighty Inca") or simply sapa ("the only one"). Chronicles identify the Inca as the highest ruler equivalent to European kings of the Middle Ages. However, the original access to that position

4331-401: Was a girl estimated to be between 13 and 15 years old (based upon her tooth development), popularly referred to as " Juanita " or "The Ampato Ice Maiden." DNA testing determined that Juanita was related to individuals living in northern Peru and Argentina, and was likely not related to villages near Ampato. Juanita's body was discovered 70 meters below the summit, where she presumably landed after

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4402-595: Was affiliated with the Hanan moiety and was founded under Inca Roca , the son of the last Hurin Sapa Inca, Cápac Yupanqui . After Cápac Yupanqui's death, another of his sons, Inca Roca's half-brother Quispe Yupanqui , was intended to succeed him. However, the Hanan revolted and installed Inca Roca instead. Ninan Cuyochi , who was Inca for only a few days in 1527, is sometimes left off the list of Sapa Incas because news of his death from smallpox arrived in Cusco very shortly after he

4473-544: Was carried out in a particularly cold place, they could die from hypothermia. Some Spanish records tell of Incas removing victims' hearts, but no evidence of this has been found in the archaeological record; it seems more likely that this practice was witnessed by the Spaniards among the Aztecs and wrongly attributed to the Incas as well. Children selected for sacrifice in capacocha ceremonies were of both sexes, and were provided to

4544-542: Was caused in a more violent manner. This was the case of the Aconcagua child, with a strong blow to the head, as well as that of the girl at Sara Sara and the young woman from the snowy Ampato, while the cause of death of the "Queen of the Hill" was a puncture wound in the right hemithorax, which entered through her back. While in some cases, as in Llullaillaco, the bodies were deposited in a burial chamber and covered with gravel, or, in

4615-545: Was declared Sapa Inca. He had witnessed the death of his father Huayna Cápac. The death of Ninan, the presumed heir, led to the Inca Civil War between Huáscar and Atahualpa, a weakness that the conquistadors exploited when they conquered the Inca Empire . This last Sapa Inca must not be confused with Túpac Amaru II , who was leader of an 18th-century Peruvian uprising . Spondylus See text Spondylus

4686-409: Was divinized both in their actions and their emblems. In public he carried the topayauri ("scepter"), ushno (golden throne), suntur páucar (feathered pike), and the mascapaicha (royal insignia) commonly carried in a llauto (headband), otherwise, the mascapaicha could also be carried on an amachana chuku (military helmet). In religious ceremonies he was accompanied by the sacred white flame,

4757-532: Was found near the summit of Mount Llullaillaco , a volcano in Argentina that lies near the Chilean border. This mountain appears to have been the site of the conclusion of a capacocha ceremony, taking place at an elevation of around 6,739 meters above sea level. In 1999, the mummies of three relatively young individuals were found at the top of the mountain alongside a diverse assemblage of artifacts. Excavations around

4828-460: Was not linked to the inheritance of the eldest son, as is for a monarchy, but to the perceived selection of the gods by means of rigorous challenges, to which the physical and moral aptitudes of the pretender were tested. These trials were accompanied by a complex spiritual ritual through which the Sun god, Inti nominated the one who should assume the Inca position. Eventually, with the passage of time, Incas named their favorite son as co-governor with

4899-496: Was paid by the Inca to a number of ceremonial wak'a sites at very high elevations. Over 100 ceremonial centers and shrines were built within Inca territories on or near the high summits of the Andes Mountains . These sites were often meant to function both religiously and politically. Some mountains were viewed as origin places or the home to important mountain deities. Building shrines on these mountains both paid homage to

4970-401: Was to create breathtaking masks, vests, and other items individuals would use to express how important or wealthy they were in life and death. Having the most beautiful Spondylus pieces, meant that individual had immense power within the community. Spondylidae taxonomy has undergone many revisions, mostly due to the fact that identification is traditionally based on the shell alone, and this

5041-608: Was to ensure that they would be well fed and happy when they prepared to reach the gods. The children were paired off, girl and boy, and dressed finely like little royals. They were paraded around four large statues, of the Creator, the Sun God, the Moon God, and the Thunder God. The Sapa Inca would then say to the priests to divide the children, along with the other sacrifices, in four, for each of

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