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158-500: [REDACTED] 88th Division [REDACTED] Shanghai Special Naval Landing Force Taishō period Shōwa period The Battle of Sihang Warehouse ( Chinese : 四行倉庫保衛戰 ) took place from October 26 to November 1, 1937, and marked the beginning of the end of the three-month Battle of Shanghai in the opening phase of the Second Sino-Japanese War . Defenders of the warehouse held out against numerous waves of Japanese forces to cover Chinese forces retreating west during
316-655: A puppet state controlling limited amounts of territory. The United Front between the Kuomintang and the CCP had salutary effects for the beleaguered CCP, despite Japan's steady territorial gains in northern China, the coastal regions and the rich Yangtze River valley in central China. After 1940, conflicts between the Kuomintang and Communists became more frequent in the areas not under Japanese control . The Communists expanded their influence wherever opportunities presented themselves through mass organizations, administrative reforms and
474-590: A British officer. While the Japanese officer aboard stated they were heading up the creek to assist the Shanghai Fire Brigade, they were thought to be in fact planned for use in their attack on the Sihang Warehouse. British and Japanese consular authorities conferred over the matter, with the painnaces removed from the river for at 4:30 PM. The Japanese continued in their efforts to take the warehouse, peppering
632-521: A German-made M1935 Stahlhelm , a gas mask , and food pouch. There was a total of 27 light machine guns , mostly Czech ZB vz.26 , approximately one for each squad. The four water-cooled Type 24 Maxim guns were the only heavy weapons available to the battalion—a mortar platoon assigned to them was never mentioned by participants of the battle, and was therefore unlikely to have joined the battle. Captain Okochi Denshichi had been assigned command of
790-605: A Japanese searchlight would move around the wall to inspect the damage. A Chinese soldier attempted to destroy the searchlight by hurling a hand grenade from a window, but it fell short. As the Japanese barrage continued, the Chinese began their breakout near midnight. To reach the British settlement, the Chinese soldiers had to run across 20 yards over the New Lese Bridge whilst being exposed to Japanese fire. The Chinese planned to send
948-440: A blind spot at the south-west of the warehouse. Yang Ruifu noticed them, and along with several Chinese troops climbed onto the roof and hurled mortar rounds and grenades down at the Japanese, killing seven and wounding between twenty and thirty. A witnessing journalist estimated that around sixty Japanese were killed in total during the assault by machine gun fire and grenades. The defenders rushed to construct fortifications during
1106-500: A group of Japanese soldiers attempting to plant explosives at the base of the West Wall to breach it. Upon noticing this, 21-year old Chinese private Chen Shusheng strapped grenades to himself and jumped off the building into the Japanese squad, killing twenty Japanese soldiers in a suicide attack . Historian Stephen Robinson argues in favor of the account's accuracy, noting that the Chinese had used suicide attacks many times before during
1264-421: A large part in this battle. At around 4 a.m. she walked to the British guard post at the Chinese end of New Lese Bridge, where she noticed a British soldier throwing a pack of cigarettes into the warehouse. Yang asked the soldier what he was doing, and he answered that there were Chinese soldiers inside. She wrote a message and asked the British soldier to stuff it in a pack of cigarettes and throw it over. After
1422-409: A list of all the soldiers' names to announce to the entire country. As doing so would inform the Japanese of their real strength, Xie did not want to release this information. However, he did not want to disappoint Yang Huimin either. Instead, he asked someone to write down around 800 names from the original roster of the 524th Regiment, and this fake name list was given to her. According to Yang Ruifu,
1580-566: A number of casualties. During the assault on Sihang Warehouse the exact number of participating troops is unclear, however the Shanghai SNLF 10th Battalion numbering over 500 men at the time of its formation was reinforced with approximately 250 sailors of the Yokosuka 2nd Independent SNLF Company and over 200 sailors from the Kure 1st SNLF. The Shanghai SNLF’s 8th and 9th Companies, originally attached to
1738-477: A number of sources reported the fiercest fighting yet on October 31. From dusk the Japanese attackers, having announced their intentions to do so earlier in the day, launched an attack on the Warehouse with heavy machine guns, hand grenades, and artillery—scoring direct hits on the lost battalion's stronghold. Heavy fighting was reported in the early hours with shots flying all over the district. Several shells fell into
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#17328546064961896-692: A program of massive military and financial aid to the hard-pressed Nationalist Government . In January 1943, both the United States and the United Kingdom led the way in revising their unequal treaties with China from the past. Within a few months a new agreement was signed between the United States and the Republic of China for the stationing of American troops in China as part of the common war effort against Japan. The United States sought unsuccessfully to reconcile
2054-410: A protracted war were staggering. The economy deteriorated, sapped by the military demands of foreign war and internal strife, by spiraling inflation, and by Nationalist profiteering, speculation, and hoarding. Starvation came in the wake of the war, and millions were rendered homeless by floods and unsettled conditions in many parts of the country. On 25 October 1945, following the surrender of Japan ,
2212-413: A republic was established to replace the monarchy . The Qing dynasty that preceded the republic had experienced instability throughout the 19th century and suffered from both internal rebellion and foreign imperialism. A program of institutional reform proved too little and too late. Only the lack of an alternative regime prolonged the monarchy's existence until 1912. The Chinese Republic grew out of
2370-645: A variety of entities for the international community including the League of Nations along with its successor the United Nations and the Olympic Games . It was hoped by the government that participating in the Olympic Games this could give more legitimacy to the country in the eyes of the international community and "sports could also cultivate modern citizens and a strong nation". The Republic of China sent athletes to
2528-469: A while a message was thrown back saying that the soldiers in the warehouse wanted food, ammunition and lubricant for their firearms. She left the bridge and pleaded with the head of the Shanghai Chamber of Commerce , who initially did not believe her story, much to her frustration. Xie deployed the 1st Company on the right side of the warehouse along Tibet Road, the 3rd Company on the left across from
2686-560: The North-China Herald , an English-language newspaper based in Shanghai , China, and regarded as the most influential foreign newspaper of its time, reported heavily on the events. The presence of the Chinese defenders was made known in the October 28, 1937 issue of The North-China Herald reporting on the Japanese capture of Zhabei that occurred the day prior. While it was reported most of
2844-701: The 1911 Revolution , which overthrew the Manchu -led Qing dynasty and ended China's imperial history . From 1927, the Kuomintang (KMT) reunified the country and ruled it as a one-party state (" Dang Guo ") and made Nanjing the national capital. In 1949, the KMT-led government was defeated in the Chinese Civil War and lost control of the mainland to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The CCP established
3002-608: The 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris , 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles , 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin and the 1948 Summer Olympics but no athletes won any medals. For 1928 a single athlete was sent. Although athletes were sent to the 1924 games they did not participate in the games. The Republic of China was a member of the League of Nations and participated until it was dissolved. Those in
3160-684: The Arisaka was that it had better stopping power with the use of the 7.92x57 Mauser cartridge (.323 inch bullet diameter); the rifle also had a better rate of fire and a greater range than the Arisaka. The weapon was shorter, (similar in length to the Karabiner 98k) when compared with the Gewehr 98 and the Arisaka Type 38 but firing produced more blast and recoil. The rifle can have a HY1935 bayonet attached with
3318-535: The Bank of Communications building, and the 2nd Company on the other sides. Two heavy machine guns were installed on the roof, and the other machine guns were spread out to each company. At 1 p.m. a column of Japanese soldiers were observed marching towards the warehouse in what appeared to be a victory parade , brandishing a large Rising Sun banner. Once they were close enough, the Chinese defenders ambushed them. Five Japanese soldiers were killed instantly by gunfire, while
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#17328546064963476-523: The Central Plains War . In 1931, the Japanese invaded Manchuria . They continued a series of smaller territorial encroachments until 1937, when they launched a full-scale invasion of China. World War II devastated China, leading to enormous loss of life and material destruction. The war between China and Japan continued until the surrender of Japan at the end of World War II in 1945, which led to Taiwan being placed under Chinese administration. In
3634-688: The Chinese Civil War . Chinese Sergeant Tung Chih Yeh claimed to have shot and killed over 100 Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) soldiers using a Chiang Kai-shek rifle with and without a scope in the Yangtze area. In 1941 the Chinese Communists managed to make copies of this rifle, dubbing theirs the Type 55 rifle in honour of Eighth Route Army Commander-in-chief Zhu De 's (later Marshal ) 55th birthday. About 600,000 of all models were produced between 1935 and 1949, of which ~400,000 had been produced during
3792-676: The Chinese Type 56 carbine ) and became a supplemental ceremonial weapon (the main ceremonial rifle is the SKS ) for the People's Liberation Army to the present day. Many of these rifles (along with other PLA and People's Militia small arms) were used by various Red Guard factions during the Cultural Revolution in the mid- to late 1960s. The major advantage of the Type Chiang Kai-shek over
3950-641: The Gongxian Arsenal in July 1935, China's limited industrial capacity meant that the rifle was built in relatively low numbers. Initial CKS rifles were made. The name of the rifle was changed from Type 24 to Type Chiang Kai-shek after a visit of the Generalissimo to the factory. As the war progressed, however, China's industry in western cities like Chongqing and Kunming allowed more and more of these rifles to be produced, although quality controls persisted due to
4108-655: The Kumul Rebellion , the Sino-Tibetan War , and the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang . Large areas of China proper remained under the semi-autonomous rule of local warlords such as Feng Yuxiang and Yan Xishan , provincial military leaders, or warlord coalitions. Nationalist rule was strongest in the eastern regions around the capital Nanjing. The Central Plains War in 1930, the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, and
4266-514: The Nanjing decade . Sun Yat-sen envisioned three phases for the KMT rebuilding of China – military rule and violent reunification; political tutelage [ zh ] ; and finally a constitutional democracy. In 1930, after seizing power and reunifying China by force, the "tutelage" phase started with the promulgation of a provisional constitution. In an attempt to distant themselves from
4424-556: The Republic of China ( 中華民國 ) and Republic of Korea ( 大韓民國 ) are unique in the choice of the term 民國 ('people's country') as an equivalent to "republic" in other languages. The country was in English known at the time as "the Republic of China" or simply "China". In China today, the period from 1912 to 1949 is often called the "Republican Era" ( simplified Chinese : 民国时期 ; traditional Chinese : 民國時期 ), because from
4582-558: The Shanghai North Railway Station , received orders to withdraw to the divisional headquarters at Sihang Warehouse. 1st Battalion commander Yang Ruifu was distraught at having to abandon a position he had held for more than two months. Initially containing around 800 men, the 1st was technically an over-strength battalion, but casualties suffered over the course of the Battle of Shanghai reduced its actual strength just prior to
4740-667: The Soviet Union , Spain , the United Kingdom , the United States , and the Holy See . The Republic of China was able to maintain most of these diplomatic ties, at least initially following the retreat to Taiwan. Chiang Kai-shek had vowed to quickly return and "liberate" the mainland, an assurance that became a cornerstone of the ROC's post 1949 foreign policy. The ROC did try to participate in
4898-837: The Supreme Court , Control Yuan , and the General Academy. With the promulgation of the Organic Law of the Nationalist Government in October 1928, the government was reorganized into five different branches, or yuan , namely the Executive Yuan , Legislative Yuan , Judicial Yuan , Examination Yuan as well as the Control Yuan. The Chairman of the National Government was to be the head-of-state and commander-in-chief of
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5056-1086: The United Nations (including its Security Council seat) where it maintained until 1971, when the PRC took over its membership in the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758 . It was also a member of the Universal Postal Union and the International Olympic Committee . With a population of 541 million in 1949, it was the world's most populous country . Covering 11.4 million square kilometres (4.4 million square miles) of claimed territory, it de jure consisted of 35 provinces , 1 special administrative region , 2 regions, 12 special municipalities , 14 leagues, and 4 special banners. The Republic of China's first president, Sun Yat-sen , chose Zhōnghuá Mínguó ( 中華民國 ; 'Chinese People's State') as
5214-579: The Wuchang Uprising against the Qing government, on 10 October 1911, which is now celebrated annually as the ROC's national day , also known as " Double Ten Day ". Sun Yat-sen had been actively promoting revolution from his bases in exile. He then returned and on 29 December, Sun Yat-sen was elected president by the Nanjing assembly, which consisted of representatives from seventeen provinces. On 1 January 1912, he
5372-775: The Yalta Conference in February 1945—dismantled and removed more than half the industrial equipment left there by the Japanese. Although the Chinese had not been present at Yalta, they had been consulted and had agreed to have the Soviets enter the war, in the belief that the Soviet Union would deal only with the Kuomintang government. However, the Soviet presence in northeast China enabled the Communists to arm themselves with equipment surrendered by
5530-399: The 1st battalion were spread out across the front lines that night. Yang Ruifu sent the 1st Company to Sihang Warehouse and personally led the 2nd Company. The 3rd Company, Machine Gun Company and part of the 1st Company could not be contacted. What initially seemed a disastrous start to the defense was averted at nine in the morning, when these companies turned up at the warehouse, having heard
5688-581: The 4th Battalion (Artillery Battalion), would also provide support with howitzers and mountain guns. Western historians including Eric Niderost and Stephen Robinson have stated the Warehouse was attacked by the Imperial Japanese Army's 3rd Division. However, period Japanese military reports, Senshi Sosho —the official war monographs of the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy authored by the Japanese National Institute for Defense Studies, and
5846-727: The American M1 Garand) is still used by the ROC Army as a ceremonial/parade rifle to this very day. The Chinese People's Volunteer Army used the Type Zhongzheng rifle during the Korean War alongside other small arms that were provided as military aid to the PRC by the Soviet Union. Among the weapons provided to Chinese Communist forces in Korea by the Soviet Union included Soviet capture Mauser Karabiner 98k rifles. The Type Zhongzheng rifle
6004-409: The Battle of Shanghai, such as the case of a soldier in the 36th Division destroying a Japanese tank with an explosive belt at the cost of his own life. The fighting lasted until dark, with Japanese waves now supported by armoured fighting vehicles and artillery fire against the fortified Chinese positions, but to no progress and with heavy casualties. At one point, Japanese marines attempted to flank
6162-492: The Battle of Shanghai. Accounts from Chinese/Western and Japanese sources on the Defense of Sihang Warehouse vary in nature, with both Chinese and Western accounts remembering the conflict as an excellent defense against a vastly numerically superior enemy, while Japanese records point to the defense being a relatively unremarkable event within the entire Battle of Shanghai. Regardless of the integrity of Chinese and Japanese claims,
6320-535: The British lines and laid down their arms and that several buildings in the downtown district were hit by Japanese shells during the fighting. Another western observer, Writer George C. Bruce, reported that in the aftermath 327 soldiers came out unhurt, another 28 wounded, while the survivors stated they had left 100 comrades killed within the building. Bruce also noted the defenders had brought out almost all of their large stores of weapons and munitions which were then handed over to British troops. The various companies of
6478-551: The British troops while ambulances were rushed in for another 50 wounded. A Japanese Special Naval Landing Party was subsequently reported to be in possession of the building. Similarly the American Consul General at Shanghai reported that during the night of the 30th the Japanese succeeded in dislodging the Chinese soldiers holding out in Zhabei with the use of their artillery. Further noting 300 Chinese survivors had crossed to
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6636-520: The CCP established the People's Republic of China . Remnants of the ROC government would hang on in mainland China until late 1951. The KMT dominated ROC politics for 72 years and ruled the island of Taiwan for around 54 years until they lost the presidential election in 2000 to the Taiwanese nationalist Democratic Progressive Party (DPP). The ROC was a founding member of the League of Nations and later
6794-402: The Central district around 1:45 AM, one hitting the North-China Daily News building and injuring three Chinese. A number of combat casualties were reported to have been sustained during the fighting in the early dawn, although a precise figure could not be calculated. At 2am it was reported that the warehouse had caught fire from the Japanese bombardment. About 370 Chinese troops were taken in by
6952-431: The Chamber of Commerce decided to send the soldiers a flag of the Republic of China . Regiment-sized Chinese units did not carry army or national flags during the war, so when Yang Huimin delivered the flag to the warehouse, Xie had to personally accept the flag as the highest-ranking officer present. Yang Huimin asked for the soldiers' plans, to which the answer "Defend to the death!" was given. Yang Huimin, moved, asked for
7110-448: The Chinese National Revolutionary Army (NRA, or Nationalists). Like the Karabiner 98k , it was a shortened and lightened version of the Gewehr 98 , specifically, a copy of the Oberndorf Export Mauser named Standard Modell . 10,000 had been bought by China in 1934 and the Germans provided the tooling to produce the Type 24. The 1934 materials proved to be incorrect and new tools were sent in early 1935. Although it entered production at
7268-440: The Chinese Civil War, revolts by the KMT's warlord allies, and steady territorial encroachments by Japan. Although heavily damaged by the purge, the CCP gradually rebuilt its strength by focusing on organizing peasants in the countryside. Warlords who resented Chiang's attempts to take away their autonomy and incorporate their military units into the National Revolutionary Army repeatedly led devastating uprisings, most significantly
7426-432: The Chinese forces had abandoned the city, a Chinese unit was observed in a warehouse near North Tibet Road along the Suzhou Creek. The unit of stragglers still held strong and all efforts by the Japanese to dislodge them had so far proved ineffective. Noting their heroism and gallantry, the issue further described these defenders as a battalion of 500 men from the 88th Division, with 150 thought to have barricaded themselves in
7584-497: The Chinese government's perspective the ROC ceased to exist in 1949. In Taiwan, these years are called the "Mainland period" ( 大陸時期 ; 大陆时期 ), since it was when the ROC was based on the mainland. A republic was formally established on 1 January 1912 following the Xinhai Revolution, which itself began with the Wuchang uprising on 10 October 1911, successfully overthrowing the Qing dynasty and ending over two thousand years of imperial rule in China. From its founding until 1949,
7742-399: The Chinese to cease resisting. On the 29th the foreigners submitted a petition to the Nationalist Government to stop the fighting "for humanitarian concerns". To Chiang, the battle was already won as most of the Chinese forces in Shanghai had successfully been redeployed to defend more favourable positions, and the defense of the warehouse now had the attention of the western world, so he gave
7900-405: The Constitution. This Constitution was promulgated on 25 December 1946 and came into effect on 25 December 1947. Under it, the Central Government was divided into the presidency and the five yuans, each responsible for a part of the government. None was responsible to the other except for certain obligations such as the president appointing the head of the Executive Yuan. Ultimately, the president and
8058-564: The Fourth Plenary Session of the 2nd Kuomintang National Congress, held in Nanjing, passed the Reorganization of the Nationalist Government Act. This act stipulated that the Nationalist Government was to be directed and regulated under the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang, with the Committee of the Nationalist Government being elected by the KMT Central Committee. Under the Nationalist Government were seven ministries—Interior, Foreign Affairs, Finance, Transport, Justice, Agriculture and Mines, and Commerce, in addition to institutions such as
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#17328546064968216-462: The IJA 3rd Division's unit history all make no mention of their involvement at Sihang Warehouse, instead noting the Division was in engaged in the Suzhou River Crossing Operation at the time. With the Sihang Warehouse sitting directly opposite to the International Settlement across the Suzhou River, the struggle of the Lost Battalion of Chinese defenders held up in the warehouse became a spectacle for foreigners in Shanghai. Multiple newspapers, including
8374-427: The Japanese during the Second Sino-Japanese War . Neither Gu, Sun nor Zhang were about to disobey Chiang's orders, but Sun (via Zhang) suggested to Gu that the number of troops left to cover the withdrawal would not matter for such a show of determination. In his words, "How many people we sacrifice would not make a difference; it would achieve the same purpose." At 10 p.m. on 26 October, the 524th Regiment, based at
8532-480: The Japanese in the Second United Front , an event now known as the Xi'an Incident . Chinese resistance stiffened after 7 July 1937, when a clash occurred between Chinese and Japanese troops outside Beijing near the Marco Polo Bridge . This skirmish led to open, although undeclared, warfare between China and Japan. Shanghai fell after a three-month battle during which Japan suffered extensive casualties in both its army and navy. Nanjing fell in December 1937, which
8690-400: The Japanese reached the edge of the warehouse, they were met with Chinese hand grenades and forced to take cover under the ledge. Chinese machine gun fire from one of the windows drove the Japanese to abandon their cause. Casualties were reported for both sides. At one point during the battle, foreign correspondents witnessed a group of Japanese soldiers slowly approaching the warehouse through
8848-410: The KMT and the two parties cooperated to build a revolutionary base in Canton. Sun planned to use this base to launch a military campaign northwards and reunify the rest of China. Sun's death in 1925 precipitated a power struggle that eventually resulted in the rise of General Chiang Kai-shek to KMT chairmanship . Thanks to strategic alliances with warlords and help from Soviet military advisors, Chiang
9006-553: The KMT were offered 1,000 pounds . Yuan maintained power locally by sending generals to be provincial governors or by obtaining the allegiance of those already in power. When Yuan died, the parliament of 1913 was reconvened to give legitimacy to a new government. However, the real power passed to military leaders, leading to the warlord period. The impotent government still had its use; when World War I began, several Western powers and Japan wanted China to declare war on Germany, to liquidate German holdings in China. In February 1928,
9164-481: The KMT. These elections, though praised by at least one US observer, were poorly received by the Communist Party, which would soon start an open, armed insurrection. Before the Nationalist government was ousted from the mainland, the Republic of China had diplomatic relations with 59 countries , including Australia, Canada, Cuba , Czechoslovakia , Estonia , France , Germany , Guatemala , Honduras , Italy , Japan , Latvia , Lithuania , Norway , Panama , Siam ,
9322-429: The League of Nations, China wanted to see the unequal treaties revised. The ROC thought that by being in the League they could improve their international standing. Under the Charter of the United Nations , the Republic of China was entitled to a permanent seat on the UN Security Council (UNSC). Though multiple objections were raised that the seat belonged to the lawful government of China, which had to many become
9480-411: The Nanjing government nor the earlier Beiyang government succeeded in consolidating governance in rural China. In 1945, at the end of World War II , the Empire of Japan surrendered control of Taiwan and its island groups to the Allies ; and Taiwan was placed under the Republic of China's administrative control. The communist takeover of mainland China in 1949, after the Chinese Civil War, left
9638-405: The National Revolutionary Army. Chiang Kai-shek was appointed as the first chairman, a position he would retain until 1931. The Organic Law also stipulated that the Kuomintang, through its National Congress and Central Executive Committee, would exercise sovereign power during the period of "political tutelage", that the KMT's Political Council would guide and superintend the Nationalist Government in
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#17328546064969796-405: The Northern Expedition ruled the country as a one-party state under the Kuomintang, and subsequently received international recognition as the representative legitimate from China. The Nationalist government can also be referred as the Second Republic of China . While there was relative prosperity during the following ten years under Chiang Kai-shek, the ROC continued to be destabilized by
9954-436: The PRC even arguably prior to the official conclusion of the Chinese Civil War, the ROC retained the permanent seat reserved for China on the UNSC until 1971 when it was supplanted by the PRC. The Republic of China retained hereditary nobility like the Han Chinese nobles Duke Yansheng and Celestial Masters and Tusi chiefdoms like the Chiefdom of Mangshi , Chiefdom of Yongning , who continued possessing their titles in
10112-434: The People's Republic of China (PRC) while the ROC was forced to retreat to Taiwan and retains control over the " Taiwan Area "; the political status of Taiwan remains in dispute to this day. The Republic of China was officially proclaimed on 1 January 1912 by the revolutionaries and Sun Yat-sen , the first provisional president of the new republic, following the success of the Xinhai revolution. Puyi , who had reigned as
10270-439: The Red Army's Long March in 1934 led to more power for the central government, but there continued to be foot-dragging and even outright defiance, as in the Fujian Rebellion of 1933–1934. Reformers and critics pushed for democracy and human rights, but the task seemed difficult if not impossible. The nation was at war and divided between Communists and Nationalists. Corruption and lack of direction hindered reforms. Chiang told
10428-433: The Republic of China from the previous dynasties. Chiang Kai-shek rifle The Type Chiang Kai-shek rifle ( Chinese : 中正式 ), also known as the Generalissimo rifle , and Type 24 (二四式), named after the Chinese Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek , was a Chinese-made copy of the German Standardmodell rifle , the forerunner of the Karabiner 98k . Preproduction of the Chiang Kai-shek rifle started in 1935 (year 24 of
10586-432: The Republic with his own imperial dynasty until popular unrest forced him to back down. When Yuan died in 1916, the country fragmented between the various local commanders of the Beiyang Army. This began the Warlord Era defined by decentralized conflicts between rival cliques. The most powerful of these cliques, notably the Zhili and Fengtian cliques , at times used their control of Beijing to assert claims to govern
10744-418: The Republican calendar, hence the Type 24). It was designated the Type 79 by the Chinese Communists . The rifle was in full-scale production as early as late 1935. However, full standardization for the production of the Type Chiang Kai-shek rifle only started during the Second Sino-Japanese war and the Hanyang 88 rifle was produced in greater numbers. The weapon served as one of the main battle rifles for
10902-416: The Shanghai SNLF on November 16, 1936, and was promoted to Rear Admiral at the beginning of the following month. Prior to the Battle of Shanghai the Shanghai SNLF had a strength of just over 2300 men, but in response to the Oyama Incident on August 9, 1937, the force would be hastily reinforced with Special Naval Landing Forces and ship crews deployed on land. Reinforcements would continue to arrive throughout
11060-410: The Soviets, the Chinese government sought assistance from Germany . According to Lloyd Eastman, Chiang Kai-shek was influenced by European fascist movements, and he launched the Blue shirts and the New Life Movement in imitation of them, in an effort to counter the growth of Mao's communism as well as resist both Western and Japanese imperialism. According to Stanley Payne , however, Chiang's KMT
11218-418: The State Council: "Our organization becomes worse and worse... many staff members just sit at their desks and gaze into space, others read newspapers and still others sleep." Few Chinese had any illusions about Japanese desires on China. Hungry for raw materials and pressed by a growing population, Japan initiated the seizure of Manchuria in September 1931, and established the former emperor Puyi as head of
11376-674: The West. In 1919, a student protest against the government's weak response to the Treaty of Versailles , considered unfair by Chinese intellectuals, led to the May Fourth movement , whose demonstrations were against the danger of spreading Western influence replacing Chinese culture. It was in this intellectual climate that Marxist thought began to spread. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was founded in 1921. After Sun's death in March 1925, Chiang Kai-shek became
11534-630: The Xuantong Emperor of the Qing dynasty, abdicated on 12 February 1912. Sun Yat-sen, the ROC's founder and provisional president, served only briefly before handing over the presidency to Yuan Shikai , the leader of the Beiyang Army . Yuan quickly became authoritarian and used his military power to control the administration, which consequently became known as the " Beiyang government " (or the First Republic of China ). Yuan even attempted to replace
11692-405: The administration of Taiwan and Penghu Islands were handed over from Japan to China. After the end of the war, United States Marines were used to hold Beijing and Tianjin against a possible Soviet incursion, and logistic support was given to Kuomintang forces in north and northeast China. To further this end, on 30 September 1945 the 1st Marine Division , charged with maintaining security in
11850-557: The aftermath of World War II, civil war resumed between the areas liberated by the KMT and those liberated by the CCP. The CCP's People's Liberation Army began to gain upper hand in 1948 over a larger and better-armed Republic of China Armed Forces due to better military tactics and internal corruption of the ROC leadership. In 1949, the ROC repeatedly moved its capital to avoid the Communist advance—first to Guangzhou, followed by Chongqing , Chengdu , and lastly to Taipei . In October 1949,
12008-472: The allegiance of sections of the population. The United States aided the Nationalists with massive economic loans and weapons but no combat support. Belatedly, the Republic of China government sought to enlist popular support through internal reforms. However, the effort was in vain, because of rampant government corruption and the accompanying political and economic chaos. By late 1948 the Kuomintang position
12166-513: The areas of the Shandong Peninsula and the eastern Hebei , arrived in China. In January 1946, through the mediation of the United States, a military truce between the Kuomintang and the Communists was arranged, but battles soon resumed. Public opinion of the administrative incompetence of the Nationalist government was incited by the Communists during the nationwide student protest against
12324-409: The battle to 452 men (some sources give 423), including officers. Because of the confusion of the general retreat, some units may have failed to make it to the warehouse, which caused a further reduction in strength, down to only 414 men present at the beginning of the battle. Two months of intense fighting had also whittled down the original German-trained troops, and after five rounds of reinforcements,
12482-449: The building with rifle and grenade fire while reinforcing their machine gun position on North Suzhou Road. In the afternoon the Japanese intensified their attacks, shelling the warehouse with a barrage of four rounds from their field guns at 3 PM. At around 4 PM one Japanese soldier rushed into the open and fired a number of shots into the corner of the warehouse, causing the defenders to take cover "with lightning speed." Although wounded from
12640-544: The complicated nation-building process in China during his time, especially given the wide range of both domestic and foreign challenges it faced on many different concurrent fronts. Several major government institutions were founded during this period, including the Academia Sinica and the Central Bank of China . In 1932, China sent its first team to the Olympic Games . Campaigns were mounted and laws passed to promote
12798-518: The country's foreign relations were among the most stable of those working in the government in terms of composition. The ROC was a non-permanent member of the League Council for the League of Nations being a non-permanent member of the League Council from: 1921–1923, 1926–1928, 1931–1932, 1934, and 1936. Although the ROC lobbied to be a permanent member of the League Council it never became one. At
12956-642: The country's official Chinese name. The name was derived from the language of the Tongmenghui 's 1905 party manifesto, which proclaimed that the four goals of the Chinese revolution were "to expel the Manchu rulers, revive China ( Zhōnghuá ), establish a people's state ( mínguó ), and distribute land equally among the people." On 15 July 1916, in his welcoming speech to the Cantonese delegates in Shanghai, Sun explained why
13114-484: The course of the battle, eventually bringing the force to just over 10,000 men in strength by October 1937. On October 27, 1937, the Shanghai SNLF began their advance on Zhabei , organizing their 2nd, 3rd, 6th, 10th, and 12th Battalions into the "Zhabei Force" for the operation. The Shanghai SNLF 10th Battalion would be assigned to the Zhabei Force’s Southern Section and serve as the main force opposing
13272-425: The deal. On 12 February 1912, regent Empress Dowager Longyu signed the abdication decree on behalf of Puyi, ending several millennia of monarchical rule. In 1913, elections were held for provincial assemblies, which would then chose delegates for a new National Assembly. The Kuomintang emerged as the formal political party that replaced the revolutionary organization Tongmenghui , and at the 1913 elections, it won
13430-580: The defenders of Sihang Warehouse. The 10th Battalion had been raised in August 1937 from some 520 reservists at the Sasebo and Kure Naval Districts. Lieutenant Commander Haji Kitaro, an instructor at the Naval Gunnery School in Yokosuka was appointed as to the Shanghai SNLF to serve as the battalion's commander. Since landing in Shanghai on August 19, the battalion had engaged in intense urban combat and suffered
13588-471: The defenders retreat, but later reneged on the deal. Xie, on the other hand, wanted to remain in the warehouse and fight to the last man. Zhang Boting finally convinced Xie to retreat. In the late night of October 30, the Japanese moved their artillery even closer to the warehouse and escalated the bombardment of the building. Observers across the creek watched the Japanese batteries fire intense barrages, which were only broken by intermittent pauses during which
13746-418: The defenders. Groups of Japanese soldiers tried to scale the warehouse's walls to the second floor with ladders, but Chinese defenders pushed them over and returned fire with rifles and machine guns. Xie just happened to be at the window where one of the ladders appeared from. He grabbed the first Japanese soldier's rifle, choked him with the other hand, pushed him off, and finally shot another Japanese soldier on
13904-460: The defense of the warehouse and media reporting of the event provided a morale -lifting consolation to the Chinese army and people in the demoralizing aftermath of the Japanese invasion of China. The warehouse's location just across the Suzhou Creek from the foreign concessions in Shanghai meant the battle took place in full view of the western powers . By 26 October 1937, Chinese resistance in
14062-606: The defenses constructed by the soldiers. While on the roof, he noticed a group of Japanese soldiers along the Suzhou River , which according to Yang Ruifu's memoirs was some 1 km (1,100 yd ) away. Xie grabbed a rifle from a sentry and shot; one of them promptly fell dead. Meanwhile, the Shanghai Chamber of Commerce was overjoyed at the news of Chinese defenders left in Zhabei, and news of this spread quickly through radio. Crowds numbering around thirty thousand gathered on
14220-488: The district of Zhabei was faltering. Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek wanted to withdraw all forces in the area to defend the rural western regions of Shanghai, and ordered Gu Zhutong , acting commander of the 3rd Military Region, to leave the 88th Division behind to buy time and canvass international support by showing the other nations of the Nine Powers (which were to convene on 6 November) China's determination to resist
14378-511: The enemy," killing another five Japanese soldiers in the ensuing explosions. One hour later at 2 p.m., a group of Chinese reconnaissance troops, led by platoon leader Yin Qiucheng (尹求成), exchanged fire with around fifty Japanese soldiers, killing four of them according to a Chinese journalist. Chinese defenders continued developing defenses by sealing the warehouse's doors, windows and entry points, as well as constructing makeshift dummy positions on
14536-518: The entire Republic. Meanwhile, the nationalist KMT under Sun's leadership attempted multiple times to establish a rival national government in Guangzhou . Sun was finally able to take Guangzhou with the help of weapons, funding, and advisors from the Soviet Union . As a condition of Soviet support, the KMT formed the " First United Front " with the Chinese Communist Party. CCP members joined
14694-535: The event unfold and some were observed carrying food for the defenders. One Chinese observer, a 31-year old Shanghai City Government employee, was mistaken for a Japanese spy and beaten to death by a mob before authorities could arrive to save him. Two Japanese pinnaces carrying some 30 Naval Landing Force troops travelled up the Suzhou River but were stopped at the North Chekiang Road Bridge at 2:45 PM by
14852-646: The execution of important national affairs, and that the Political Council has the power to interpret or amend the Organic Law. Shortly after the Second Sino-Japanese War, a long-delayed constitutional convention was summoned to meet in Nanjing in May 1946. Amidst heated debate, this convention adopted many constitutional amendments demanded by several parties, including the KMT and the Communist Party, into
15010-530: The flag. Because of heavy anti-aircraft fire and fear of hitting the foreign concessions, the planes soon left without destroying the flag. Meanwhile, two days of fighting had damaged or destroyed many field fortifications around the warehouse, and the warehouse itself was also damaged. At noon the Japanese mounted the largest assault thus far. Hundreds of Japanese infantry attacked the warehouse from all directions with artillery fire and support from five Type 94 Te-Ke tankettes, who Yang Ruifu observed advancing down
15168-578: The form of a parallelism : an emperor's country is ruled by only one emperor ( 帝國是以皇帝一人為主 ), a people's country is ruled by all four hundred million people ( 民國是以 四萬萬 人為主 ). Both the " Beiyang government " (from 1912 to 1928), and the " Nationalist government " (from 1928 to 1949) used the name "Republic of China" as their official name. In Chinese, the official name was often shortened to Zhōngguó ( 中國 ; 'Middle Country'), Mínguó ( 民國 ; 'People's Country'), or Zhōnghuá ( 中華 ; 'Middle Huaxia '). The choice of
15326-424: The go-ahead for the regiment to retreat on 31 October. A meeting was arranged with the British general Telfer-Smollett through the commandant of Shanghai Auxiliary Police (上海警備), Yang Hu (楊虎), and it was decided the 524th would retreat to the foreign concessions and then rejoin the rest of the 88th Division, which had been fighting in west Shanghai. The Japanese commander Matsui Iwane also agreed and promised to let
15484-427: The ladder before pushing the ladder off. Japanese fire from a field gun was met with rifle fire from the warehouse roof. The Japanese were reported to have assaulted the warehouse again and again with infantry charges, but each time were repelled by showers of hand grenades and machine-gun fire. At one point, the Japanese were reported to have attempted to "dynamite" the warehouse, but failed. The attempt in question saw
15642-675: The land- and tax-reform measures favoring the peasants and, the spread of their organizational network, while the Kuomintang attempted to neutralize the spread of Communist influence. Meanwhile, northern China was infiltrated politically by Japanese politicians in Manchukuo using facilities such as the Manchukuo Imperial Palace . After its entry into the Pacific War during World War II, the United States became increasingly involved in Chinese affairs. As an ally, it embarked in late 1941 on
15800-531: The largest share of seats in both houses of the National Assembly and in some provincial assemblies. Song Jiaoren led the Kuomintang Party to electoral victories by fashioning his party's program to appeal to the gentry, landowners, and merchants. Song was assassinated on 20 March 1913, at the behest of Yuan Shikai. Yuan was elected president of the ROC in 1913. He ruled by military power and ignored
15958-412: The latest batch recruited after the outbreak of war on 7 July. The regiment was assigned used equipment from the front-line troops of the 88th, and was well equipped considering the poor equipment that most Chinese forces had. Photos and records show that soldiers were each issued a rifle , likely a Hanyang 88 or Chiang Kai-shek rifle , 300 rounds of 8 mm Mauser , two crates of M24 stick grenades ,
16116-528: The leader of the Kuomintang . In 1926, Chiang led the Northern Expedition with the intention of defeating the Beiyang warlords and unifying the country. Chiang received the help of the Soviet Union and the CCP. However, he soon dismissed his Soviet advisers, being convinced that they wanted to get rid of the KMT and take control. Chiang decided to purge the Communists, massacring thousands in Shanghai . At
16274-467: The long war with Japan and in-fighting among various generals. They were also losing the propaganda war to the Communists, with a population weary of Kuomintang corruption and yearning for peace. In January 1949, Beiping was taken by the Communists without a fight, and its name changed back to Beijing. Following the capture of Nanjing on 23 April, major cities passed from Kuomintang to Communist control with minimal resistance, through November. In most cases
16432-552: The majority of soldiers and officers in the battalion were garrison troops from the surrounding provinces. Most of the men were from the 1st Battalion, 5th Regiment of the Hubei Provincial Garrison. Hubei did not want to send its best troops to Shanghai, as these had trained over a decade to fight against the Chinese Communists . Thus, many of the soldiers sent as reinforcements to Shanghai were green recruits, with
16590-530: The mishandling of the Shen Chong rape case in early 1947 and during another national protest against monetary reforms later that year. The United States—realizing that no American efforts short of large-scale armed intervention could stop the coming war—withdrew Gen. George Marshall's American mission . Thereafter, the Chinese Civil War became more widespread; battles raged not only for territories but also for
16748-545: The need to move machinery in order to avoid being captured or destroyed by Japanese troops. Together with the Mauser C96 handgun and the M35 Helmet , these weapons have become recognizable features of the Generalissimo's National Revolutionary Army during China's turbulent early 20th century. In an ironic twist, the rifle, although named after Chiang Kai-shek, was also heavily used by the Communists that he fought against during
16906-406: The night; nobody was given any sleep. In the morning Xie contacted the Shanghai Chamber of Commerce, whose telephone number was provided by Yang Huimin. At 7 a.m. a flight of Japanese bombers circled the warehouse but did not drop any bombs, for fear of hitting the concessions. They were driven away from the warehouse by anti-aircraft fire. At 8 a.m. Xie gave a pep talk to the defenders and inspected
17064-422: The orders through word of mouth from other forces that had retreated from Zhabei. That these men essentially volunteered for this suicidal mission was later noted by Chiang Kai-shek as exemplary soldierly conduct. In the early morning, news circulated throughout Shanghai that there were still Chinese forces defending Zhabei at Sihang Warehouse. This piqued the interest of Girl Guide Yang Huimin , who later played
17222-457: The people. Later on 20 October 1923, at a national conference for youths in Guangzhou, to explain the core idea behind mínguó ( 民國 ; 'people's country'), he pithily compared the phrase "Empire of China" ( 中華帝國 ; Zhōnghuá Dìguó ; 'Chinese Emperor's Country') to "Republic of China" ( 中華民國 ; Zhōnghuá Mínguó ; 'Chinese People's Country') in
17380-451: The perimeter to draw Japanese fire and waste ammunition. A short while after, a Japanese company consisting of 194 infantry with machine gun and light artillery support attacked the warehouse from the west, eventually forcing the defenders to retreat inside the warehouse. 3rd Company commander Shi Meihao was shot in the face but continued to command the defense until he was shot again in the leg. About seventy Japanese soldiers had taken cover in
17538-476: The provincial system; however, this move angered the gentry along with the provincial governors, who were usually military men. Yuan's changes to government caused many provinces to declare independence and become warlord states. Increasingly unpopular and deserted by his supporters, Yuan abdicated in 1916 and died of natural causes shortly thereafter. China then declined into a period of warlordism. Sun, having been forced into exile, returned to Guangdong in
17696-464: The puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932. The loss of Manchuria, and its potential for industrial development and war industries, was a blow to the Kuomintang economy. The League of Nations , established at the end of World War I, was unable to act in the face of Japanese defiance. The Japanese began to push south of the Great Wall into northern China and the coastal provinces. Chinese fury against Japan
17854-473: The republic was based on mainland China. Central authority waxed and waned in response to warlordism (1915–1928), a Japanese invasion (1937–1945), and a full-scale civil war (1927–1949), with central authority strongest during the Nanjing Decade (1927–1937), when most of China came under the control of the authoritarian, one-party military dictatorship of the nationalist Kuomintang party (KMT). Neither
18012-474: The republican institutions established by his predecessor, threatening to execute Senate members who disagreed with his decisions. He soon dissolved the ruling Kuomintang (KMT) party, banned "secret organizations" (which implicitly included the KMT), and ignored the provisional constitution. Ultimately, Yuan declared himself Emperor of China in 1915. The new ruler of China tried to increase centralization by abolishing
18170-471: The rest of the column scattered for cover. The Japanese then quickly occupied the Bank of Communications to the immediate west of the warehouse. However, upon attempting to secure some abandoned fortifications, several Japanese soldiers stumbled into a trap : the Chinese, having preemptively rigged a bunker with grenades and a mortar round, "pulled the grenade rope, which made a few bangs and caused heavy casualties to
18328-421: The retreat, Western journalists observed the Chinese rearguard exchanging gunfire with Japanese soldiers from seven "rifle-ports" in the Warehouse's west wall, occasionally throwing hand grenades at Japanese soldiers trying to approach and enter the building. Republic of China (1912%E2%80%931949) The Republic of China ( ROC ) began as a sovereign state in mainland China on 1 January 1912 following
18486-438: The returning Chinese fire, the Japanese attacker escaped. Another western observer noted Chinese had broken holes through the large black characters on the west wall for use as vantage points. Several Japanese soldiers were seen being hit before they realized the danger. Japanese machine gunners returned fire but with difficulty due to the holes being concealed by the black background of the characters. The North-China Herald among
18644-476: The rights of women. In the 1931 Civil Code, women were given equal inheritance rights, banned forced marriage and gave women the right to control their own money and initiate divorce. No nationally unified women's movement could organize until China was unified under the Kuomintang Government in Nanjing in 1928; women's suffrage was finally included in the new Constitution of 1936, although the constitution
18802-548: The rival Kuomintang and Communists, to make for a more effective anti-Japanese war effort. In December 1943, the Chinese Exclusion Acts of the 1880s, and subsequent laws, enacted by the United States Congress to restrict Chinese immigration into the United States were repealed. The wartime policy of the United States was meant to help China become a strong ally and a stabilizing force in postwar East Asia. During
18960-402: The river helped the soldiers by writing on large posters, warning of the Japanese army's movements. The Japanese launched a new wave of attacks at 7 a.m. on the 30th. There were fewer infantry assaults at the warehouse this time; the Japanese attack was mainly concentrated artillery fire. Because of the sturdy construction and the abundance of sandbags and materials with which to fortify and mend
19118-411: The road. Warned of the attack by spectators, Chinese soldiers resisted the assault from all three sides under intense artillery fire. The Japanese assault pushed the 3rd Company out of their defensive line at the base of the warehouse and forced them into the warehouse itself. The west side of the warehouse originally lacked windows, but the Japanese artillery attacks conveniently opened up firing holes for
19276-407: The rubble, taking 50 minutes to cover 50 yards. However, the Chinese defenders, who had been watching the Japanese approach from hidden vantage points the entire time, rained hand grenades down on the group the moment they were close enough. After the dust had settled, survivors were finished off with rifles, and several Japanese who ran to rescue the wounded were killed too. The situation across from
19434-455: The ruling Kuomintang with control over only Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, and other minor islands . With the loss of the mainland, the ROC government retreated to Taiwan and the KMT declared Taipei the provisional capital . Meanwhile, the CCP took over all of mainland China and founded the People's Republic of China (PRC) in Beijing. In 1912, after over two thousand years of dynastic rule,
19592-546: The same time, other violent conflicts were taking place in China: in the South, where the CCP had superior numbers, Nationalist supporters were being massacred. Chiang Kai-shek pushed the CCP into the interior and established a government, with Nanjing as its capital, in 1927. By 1928, Chiang's army overthrew the Beiyang government and unified the entire nation, at least nominally, beginning
19750-484: The south in 1917 and 1922, with the help of warlords, and set up successive rival governments to the Beiyang government in Beijing, having re-established the KMT in October 1919. Sun's dream was to unify China by launching an expedition against the north. However, he lacked the military support and funding to turn it into a reality. Meanwhile, the Beiyang government struggled to hold onto power, and an open and wide-ranging debate evolved regarding how China should confront
19908-420: The south wall of the building. As one of the men attempted to smash a window to the warehouse, a Chinese soldier dropped a hand grenade from a third story window, which exploded behind them in the street. The same observer noted while the Japanese had encircled the warehouse and sporadic fighting occurred throughout the day, the Japanese apparently were making no determined effort to take the building by assault, as
20066-456: The southern bank of the Suzhou River in the rain, cheering the defenders on. More than ten truckloads of aid were donated by Shanghai's citizens. At 3pm, the Japanese mounted a second assault on the warehouse, bombarding the building with five artillery pieces and machine gun fire from the Bank of Communications rooftop. The Chinese retaliated with machine gun fire of their own and showered hand grenades onto Japanese soldiers attempting to approach
20224-537: The surrounding countryside and small towns had come under Communist influence long before the cities. Finally, on 1 October 1949, Communists led by Mao Zedong founded the People's Republic of China . Chiang Kai-shek declared martial law in May 1949, whilst a few hundred thousand Nationalist troops and two million refugees, predominantly from the government and business community, fled from mainland China to Taiwan. There remained in China itself only isolated pockets of resistance. On 7 December 1949, Chiang proclaimed Taipei
20382-522: The temporary capital of the Republic of China. During the Chinese Civil War both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants killed by both sides. Benjamin Valentino has estimated atrocities in the civil war resulted in the death of between 1.8 million and 3.5 million people between 1927 and 1949, including deaths from forced conscription and massacres. The first Republic of China national government
20540-526: The term mínguó ( 民國 ; 'people's country') was chosen over the Japanese-derived gònghéguó ( 共和國 ). He associated the label gònghé ( 共和 ) with the limiting and authoritarianism-prone Euro-American models of representative republicanism. What he strived for was a more grass-roots model, which he termed zhíjiē mínquán ( 直接民權 ; ' direct people's rights '), and which he thought would allow more checks and balances by
20698-585: The term mínguó ( 民國 ; 'people's country'; "republic") in 1912, as well as its similar semantic formation to dìguó ( 帝國 ; 'emperor's country'; "empire"), may have influenced the choice of the Korean term minguk ( 민국/民國 ) by the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea (founded in 1919 within the Republic of China), which replaced Daehan Jeguk ( 대한제국/大韓帝國 ) with Daehan Minguk ( 대한민국/大韓民國 ). Today,
20856-676: The war, China was one of the Big Four Allies, and later one of the Four Policemen , which was a precursor to China having a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council . In August 1945, with American help, Nationalist troops moved to take the Japanese surrender in North China. The Soviet Union—encouraged to invade Manchuria to hasten the end of the war and allowed a Soviet sphere of influence there as agreed to at
21014-454: The war. By the end of the 1940s, the Type Chiang Kai-shek rifle was phased out from frontline service in favor of superior American aid equipment, such as the semiautomatic M1 Garand , M1 carbine , and Thompson submachine gun for the Nationalists. Despite being replaced by more modern infantry weapons, the Type Zhongzheng still served the ROC armed forces well into the 1970s as a rifle for reserve forces. The Type Zhongzheng Rifle (along with
21172-665: The warehouse from the river, but were stopped by a makeshift boom fashioned out of Chinese junks at the Zhejiang Road Bridge. British troops in the Settlement refused to move the boom due to the violation of the British Settlement sector, and escorted the Japanese sailors back. Finally, after all else had failed, the Japanese used an excavator and tried to dig a tunnel towards the warehouse. in conjunction with tank assaults. During this day's battle, Chinese citizens across
21330-451: The warehouse on October 28 was described as a "touching scene" as crowds of spectators had gathered to observe the action and offer cheers of encouragement to the brave defenders. Japanese troops were reported to have been making efforts to take the warehouse but were beaten back each time by the Chinese after brief exchanges of fire. The Japanese were reported to have assaulted the warehouse again and again with infantry attacks, but each charge
21488-490: The warehouse's fortress-like nature would make doing so a costly endeavor. It was reported that early in the morning of October 29 the defenders had smuggled their national flag into the warehouse and raised it upon the rooftop. The flag was larger than any of the Japanese flags in the area and flew symbolically upon its high perch far above any of the Japanese-held buildings in the vicinity. Crowds continued to gather to watch
21646-412: The warehouse, the defenders simply repaired the warehouse while the Japanese tried to destroy it. Artillery fire was so rapid, recalled Yang Ruifu, that there was approximately one shell every second. The foreigners in the concessions in Shanghai did not want the site of combat to be so close to them. With that consideration in mind, and faced with pressure from the Japanese, they agreed to try to convince
21804-532: The warehouse, which was reported on by the English newspaper North China Daily News . The combat was witnessed by some 30,000 Chinese and foreigners across the Suzhou Creek, who relayed enemy assembly locations and operations to the defenders using large blackboards. After two hours, the Japanese gave up the assault, but cut off water and electricity to the warehouse, forcing Yang to institute rationing. The same night,
21962-593: The warehouse. Authorities attempted to persuade the defenders to lay down their weapons and surrender in the International Settlement, but the defenders stated they were "determined to die for China." The battalion commander also requested Mayor Yui supply his men with 500 lb. salt, 500 lb. sugar, and 50,000 Chinese biscuits. The Japanese attackers—noted as members of the Japanese Naval Landing Party or Japanese marines —received reinforcements and
22120-442: The warehouse. Therefore, the flag was hoisted on a makeshift pole made of two bamboo culms tied together. Only a small group of soldiers attended the flag-raising ceremony . The crowd gathered across the river, reportedly thirty thousand strong, was jubilant, shouting "Long live the Republic of China!" ( Chinese : 中華民國萬歲！ ; pinyin : Zhōnghuá Mínguó wànsuì！ ), while the Japanese were furious and sent aircraft to attack
22278-399: The withdrawing Japanese army. In 1945, after the end of the war, the Nationalist Government moved back to Nanjing. The Republic of China emerged from the war nominally a great military power but actually a nation economically prostrate and on the verge of all-out civil war. The problems of rehabilitating the formerly Japanese-occupied areas and of reconstructing the nation from the ravages of
22436-403: The world, but it is not clear that the group possessed the full qualities of an intrinsic fascist movement....The Blue Shirts probably had some affinity with and for fascism, a common feature of nationalisms in crisis during the 1930s, but it is doubtful that they represented any clear-cut Asian variant of fascism." Still other historians have noted that Chiang and the KMT's exact ideology itself
22594-419: The wounded first, followed by the 1st Company and Machine Gun Company in small groups under Xie Jinyuan, then by the 2nd and 3rd Companies under Yang Ruifu. To cover the retreat, the Chinese formed a rearguard of a platoon from the 1st company along with some twenty-seven troops too heavily wounded to be moved easily; these men agreed to stay behind to man heavy machine guns and cover the remaining forces. During
22752-399: The wounded soldiers sent out earlier that night were also ordered to say 800 if questioned about their strength. Thus the story of the "800 Heroes" spread. In the early morning of 29 October, residents of Shanghai found a 4-metre-wide (13 ft) flag of the Republic of China flying atop Sihang warehouse. Yang Huimin had only brought the flag, and the defenders did not have a flag pole in
22910-455: The yuans reported to the National Assembly, which represented the will of the citizens. Under the new constitution the first elections for the National Assembly occurred in January 1948, and the assembly was summoned to meet in March 1948. It elected the president of the republic on 21 March 1948, formally bringing an end to the KMT party rule started in 1928, although the president was a member of
23068-522: Was "normally classified as a multi-class populist or 'nation-building' party but not a fitting candidate for fascism (except by old-line Communists)." He also stated that, "Lloyd Eastman has called the Blue Shirts, whose members admired European fascism and were influenced by it, a Chinese fascist organization. This is probably an exaggeration. The Blue Shirts certainly exhibited some of the characteristics of fascism, as did many nationalist organizations around
23226-466: Was able to lead a successful " Northern Expedition " from 1926 to 1928. By 1927, Chiang felt secure enough to end the alliance with the Soviet Union and purged the Communists from the KMT. In 1928, the last major independent warlord pledged allegiance to the KMT's Nationalist government in Nanjing. China was then nominally reunified in 1928 by the Nanking -based government led by Chiang Kai-shek, who after
23384-556: Was also seen in the hands of the Viet Minh during the final stage at First Indochina War and of the Viet Cong during the Vietnam War . The Chinese People's Militia were using Chiang Kai-shek rifles (as well as Arisakas , M1903 Springfields and Mosin–Nagants ) up until the early 1980's before it was replaced with more modern small arms (e.g. the Chinese Type 56 assault rifle and
23542-452: Was bleak. The demoralized and undisciplined National Revolutionary Army proved to be no match for the Communists' motivated and disciplined People's Liberation Army . The Communists were well established in the north and northeast. Although the Kuomintang had an advantage in numbers of men and weapons, controlled a much larger territory and population than their adversaries, and enjoyed considerable international support, they were exhausted by
23700-464: Was established on 1 January 1912, in Nanjing, with a constitution stating Three Principles of the People , which state that "[the ROC] shall be a democratic republic of the people, to be governed by the people and for the people." Sun Yat-sen was the provisional president. Delegates from the provinces sent to confirm the government's authority formed the first parliament in 1913. The power of this government
23858-528: Was followed by mass murders and rapes known as the Nanjing Massacre . The national capital was briefly at Wuhan , then removed in an epic retreat to Chongqing, the seat of government until 1945. In 1940, the Japanese set up the collaborationist Wang Jingwei regime , with its capital in Nanjing, which proclaimed itself the legitimate "Republic of China" in opposition to Chiang Kai-shek's government, although its claims were significantly hampered due to its being
24016-499: Was limited, with generals controlling both the central and northern provinces of China , and short-lived. The number of acts passed by the government was few and included the formal abdication of the Qing dynasty and some economic initiatives. The parliament's authority soon became nominal: violations of the Constitution by Yuan were met with half-hearted motions of censure. Kuomintang members of parliament who gave up their membership in
24174-413: Was not implemented until 1947. Addressing social problems, especially in remote villages, was aided by improved communications. The Rural Reconstruction Movement was one of many that took advantage of the new freedom to raise social consciousness. The Nationalist government published a draft constitution on 5 May 1936. Continual wars plagued the government. Those in the western border regions included
24332-463: Was officially inaugurated and pledged "to overthrow the despotic government led by the Manchu, consolidate the Republic of China and plan for the welfare of the people". Sun's new government lacked military strength. As a compromise, he negotiated with Yuan Shikai the commander of the Beiyang Army , promising Yuan the presidency of the republic if he were to remove the Qing emperor by force. Yuan agreed to
24490-472: Was predictable, but anger was also directed against Chiang and the Nanjing government, which at the time was more preoccupied with anti-Communist extermination campaigns than with resisting the Japanese invaders. The importance of "internal unity before external danger" was forcefully brought home in December 1936, when Chiang Kai-shek was kidnapped by Zhang Xueliang and forced to ally with the Communists against
24648-505: Was repelled by showers of hand grenades and machine-gun fire. At one point, the Japanese were reported to have attempted to "dynamite" the warehouse, but failed. One witness from the North-China Daily News described the armament of the attacking Japanese Naval Landing Forces as machine-guns, rifles, hand-grenades, a few Chinese broadswords, and steel shields. Another western observer witnessed three Japanese troops make their way along
24806-422: Was reported to have begun attempts to break into the warehouse around 10 AM, targeting the warehouse from North Suzhou Road where they were soon met with intense fire from the Chinese. The Japanese, about fifty men strong, were observed pushing the Chinese from their frontline sandbag positions with hand grenades back to their secondary lines and eventually their fortifications in front of the warehouse. However, when
24964-555: Was very complex and oscillated over time, with different factions of his government cooperating with both the Soviets and Germans as they saw fit, and that Chiang eventually became disillusioned with the Blue Shirts, which officially disbanded by 1938, something Payne also mentions as "possibly because of competition with the KMT itself." Some have also noted that in contrast to older historians from decades ago, Chiang's efforts have been increasingly seen by newer Western and Chinese historians alike as an arguably necessary if austere part of
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