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156-470: Shura is mentioned as a praiseworthy activity often used in organizing the affairs of a mosque , Islamic organizations, and is a common term involved in naming parliaments. In the 21st century, some emerging scholars are now advocating the infusion of Shura with digital technology as a means to enhance participatory governance or E-Governance among Muslims for state- and community-building purposes. Sunni Muslims believe that Islam requires decisions made by

312-562: A bastion of Shia learning and politics. By 1000 they had become the chief political and ideological challenge to Sunni Islam and the Abbasids, who by this time had fragmented into several governorships that, while recognizing caliphal authority from Baghdad, remained mostly autonomous. The caliph himself was under 'protection' of the Buyid Emirs who possessed all of Iraq and Western Iran, and were quietly Shia in their sympathies. Outside Iraq, all

468-522: A carpet and trampled to death by horses on 20 February 1258. The caliph's immediate family was also executed, with the lone exceptions of his youngest son who was sent to Mongolia, and a daughter who became a slave in the harem of Hulagu. Similarly to how a Mamluk Army was created by the Abbasids, a Mamluk Army was created by the Egypt-based Ayyubid dynasty . These Mamluks decided to directly overthrow their masters and came to power in 1250 in what

624-461: A centre of learning. The Abbasid period was marked by the use of bureaucrats (such as the Barmakid family) for governing the territories as well as an increasing inclusion of non-Arab Muslims in the ummah (Muslim community). Despite this initial cooperation, the Abbasids of the late 8th century had alienated both non-Arab mawali (clients). The political power of the caliphs was limited with

780-522: A collection of fantastical folk tales, legends and parables compiled primarily during the Abbasid era. The collection is recorded as having originated from an Arabic translation of a Sassanian-era Persian prototype, with likely origins in Indian literary traditions. Stories from Arabic , Persian , Mesopotamian, and Egyptian folklore and literature were later incorporated. The epic is believed to have taken shape in

936-475: A cool atmosphere, an advantage in the hot Arab countries. Quotations from the Quran often adorn mosque interiors. These texts are meant to inspire people by their beauty, while also reminding them of the words of Allah. The prayer hall, also known as the muṣallá ( Arabic : مُصَلَّى ), rarely has furniture; chairs and pews are generally absent from the prayer hall so as to allow as many worshipers as possible to line

1092-1000: A defining feature of South Asian mosque architecture during the Delhi Sultanate and reached their peak under the Mughal Empire. Influenced by Persian and Central Asian traditions, the Mughals introduced the iconic onion-shaped domes, seen in landmarks like the Jama Masjid in Delhi and the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore. These domes were not only visually striking but also represented remarkable engineering, using techniques such as iron dowels for strength and timber centering for precision. The Mughal architectural style still influences mosque design today. Modern Innovations One prime example of modern innovation

1248-449: A lifestyle of people who will enter heavens and is considered the most comprehensive verse on shura. Muhammad made some of his decisions in consultation with his followers unless it was a matter in which he said Allah had ordained something. It was common among Muhammad's companions to ask him if a certain advice was from God or from him. If it was from Muhammad, they felt free to give their opinion. Some times Muhammad changed his opinion on

1404-529: A list of candidates for caliph, and then the majlis should select a caliph from the list of candidates. Many contemporary Muslims have compared the concept of Shura to the principles of western parliamentary democracy. For example: What is the shura principle in Islam? ... It is predicated on three basic precepts. First, that all persons in any given society are equal in human and civil rights. Second, that public issues are best decided by majority view. And third, that

1560-510: A model for the construction of early mosques elsewhere. It introduced some of the features still common in today's mosques, including the niche at the front of the prayer space known as the mihrab (first added in the Umayyad period ) and the tiered pulpit called the minbar . The Umayyad Caliphate was particularly instrumental in spreading Islam and establishing mosques within the Levant , as

1716-810: A much more Persianate culture and statecraft. Only the central lands of Mesopotamia were under direct Abbasid control, with Palestine and the Hejaz often managed by the Tulunids. Byzantium, for its part, had begun to push Arab Muslims farther east in Anatolia . By the 920s, North Africa was lost to the Fatimid dynasty , a Shia sect tracing its roots to Muhammad's daughter Fatimah . The Fatimid dynasty took control of Idrisid and Aghlabid domains, advanced to Egypt in 969, and established their capital near Fustat in Cairo , which they built as

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1872-450: A place of worship), either from Nabataean masg dhā́ or from Arabic Arabic : سَجَدَ , romanized :  sajada (meaning "to prostrate "), probably ultimately from Nabataean Arabic masg dhā́ or Aramaic s ghēdh . Islam was established in Arabia during the lifetime of Muhammad in the 7th century CE. The first mosque in history could be either the sanctuary built around

2028-480: A result. Other influential Abbasid philosophers include al-Jahiz , and Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen). As power shifted from the Umayyads to the Abbasids, the architectural styles changed also, from Greco-Roman tradition (which features elements of Hellenistic and Roman representative style) to Eastern tradition which retained their independent architectural traditions from Mesopotamia and Persia. The Abbasid architecture

2184-536: A similar manner in the mid-17th century, remain two of the largest mosques on the Indian subcontinent. The first mosque in East Asia was established in the eighth century in Xi'an . The Great Mosque of Xi'an , whose current building dates from the 18th century, does not replicate the features often associated with mosques elsewhere. Minarets were initially prohibited by the state. Following traditional Chinese architecture ,

2340-558: A small part of the roof near the mihrab to encompassing the whole roof above the prayer hall. Although domes normally took on the shape of a hemisphere, the Mughals in India popularized onion-shaped domes in South Asia which has gone on to become characteristic of the Arabic architectural style of dome. Some mosques have multiple, often smaller, domes in addition to the main large dome that resides at

2496-511: Is "the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture". Islamic philosophy, in this definition is neither necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor is exclusively produced by Muslims. Their works on Aristotle were a key step in the transmission of learning from ancient Greeks to the Islamic world and the West. They often corrected the philosopher, encouraging a lively debate in

2652-792: Is a constitutional monarchy. They could thus be said to be ruled by one version of shura. For instance, the bicameral Parliament of Pakistan is officially called the Majlis-i-Shura , although the Constitution uses various spellings of the term. In Egypt , the Upper House of Parliament was known as the Shura Council . The People's Consultative Assembly in Indonesia is called Majlis Permusyawaratan Rakyat in Indonesian language . The word musyawarat

2808-562: Is a more traditional approach, characteristic of many centuries of Islamic history . The difference between the two appears more semantic than actual—the latter accept that the rulers must be accounted in all aspects of ruling, to ensure affairs are managed in the best possible way whether decisions were taken through consultation or not. "Those who hearken to their Lord, and establish regular Prayer; who (conduct) their affairs by mutual consultation among themselves; who spend out of what We bestow on them for Sustenance" [are praised] Thus it

2964-651: Is a semicircular niche in the wall of a mosque that faces the qiblah (i.e. the "front" of the mosque); the imam stands in this niche and leads prayer. Given that the imam typically stands alone in the frontmost row, this niche's practical effect is to save unused space. The minbar is a pulpit from which the Friday sermon is delivered. While the minbar of Muhammad was a simple chair, later it became larger and attracted artistic attention. Some remained made of wood, albeit exquisitely carved, while others were made of marble and featured friezes . A common feature in mosques

3120-715: Is accorded to, in descending order of importance: al-Masjid al-Haram in the city of Mecca, where Hajj and Umrah are performed; the Prophet's Mosque in the city of Medina , where Muhammad is buried; and al-Aqsa Mosque in the city of Jerusalem , where Muslims believe that Muhammad ascended to heaven to meet God around 621 CE. There's a growing realization among scholars that the present-day perception of mosques doesn't fully align with their original concept. Early Islamic texts and practices highlight mosques as vibrant centers integral to Muslim communities, supporting religious, social, economic, and political affairs. During and after

3276-422: Is called maqfil (Bosnian: makfil/макфил ). It is located above the main prayer hall, elevated in the background as stairs-separated gallery or plateau (surface-shortened to the back relative to the bottom main part). It usually has a perforated fence at the front, through which the imam or mullah and the other male worshippers in the main hall can be partially seen. A miḥrāb , also spelled as mehrab

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3432-724: Is credited with having built the Ka'bah in Mecca, and consequently its sanctuary, Al-Masjid al-Haram , which is seen by Muslims as the first mosque that existed. A hadith in Sahih al-Bukhari states that the sanctuary of the Ka'bah was the first mosque on Earth, with the second mosque being Al-Aqsa in Jerusalem , which is also associated with Abraham. Since as early as 638 CE, the Sacred Mosque of Mecca has been expanded on several occasions to accommodate

3588-522: Is derived from shura/syawara. In some monarchies and clerical regimes, there is a shura with an advisory or consultative role. Saudi Arabia , a monarchy, was given a shura council, the Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia , in 1993; there are now 150 members. All real power is held by the King, who is elected by family members. Oman , also a monarchy, has a shura council; all members are elected except

3744-445: Is due to mercy from God that you deal with them gently, and had you been rough, hard hearted, they would certainly have dispersed from around you; pardon them therefore and ask pardon for them, and take counsel with them in the affair; so when you have decided, then place your trust in God; surely God loves those who trust. The first verse only deals with family matters. The second proposed

3900-634: Is known as the Mamluk Sultanate . In 1261, following the devastation of Baghdad by the Mongols, the Mamluk rulers of Egypt re-established the Abbasid caliphate in Cairo . The first Abbasid caliph of Cairo was Al-Mustansir . The Abbasid caliphs in Egypt continued to maintain the presence of authority, but it was confined to religious matters. The Abbasid caliphate of Cairo lasted until the time of Al-Mutawakkil III , who

4056-519: Is obligatory), The Qur'an, and by numerous hadith, or oral traditions of the sayings and doings of Muhammad and his companions . They say that the first four caliphs , or rulers of Islam, whom they call the Four Rightly-guided Caliphs, were chosen by shura. (See Succession to Muhammad , Umar ibn al-Khattab , The election of Uthman , and Ali Ibn Abi Talib .) The Shi'a school of thought believe that Muhammad had clearly indicated that Ali

4212-417: Is often elaborated into a freestanding building in the center of a courtyard. This desire for cleanliness extends to the prayer halls where shoes are disallowed to be worn anywhere other than the cloakroom. Thus, foyers with shelves to put shoes and racks to hold coats are commonplace among mosques. Modern mosques have a variety of amenities available to their congregants. As mosques are supposed to appeal to

4368-576: Is the Great Mosque of Cordoba , itself constructed on the site of a church demolished during the period of Muslim rule. Outside of the Iberian Peninsula , such instances also occurred in southeastern Europe once regions were no longer under Muslim rule. There are two holidays ( Eids ) in the Islamic calendar : ʿĪd al-Fiṭr and ʿĪd al-Aḍḥā , during which there are special prayers held at mosques in

4524-576: Is the Masjid Raja Haji Fi Sabilillah in Malaysia, which features a Low-E glass dome. The use of Low-E (low emissivity) glass allows for significant energy efficiency by reducing heat gain while still allowing natural light to illuminate the interior space. This technique helps to maintain a comfortable temperature inside the mosque, minimizing reliance on air conditioning, and promoting sustainability . In addition to advancements in materials,

4680-411: Is the minaret, the tall, slender tower that usually is situated at one of the corners of the mosque structure. The top of the minaret is always the highest point in mosques that have one, and often the highest point in the immediate area. The origin of the minaret and its initial functions are not clearly known and have long been a topic of scholarly discussion. The earliest mosques lacked minarets, and

4836-661: Is traditionally seen as the approximate end of the Golden Age. Contemporary accounts state Mongol soldiers looted and then destroyed mosques, palaces, libraries, and hospitals. Priceless books from Baghdad's thirty-six public libraries were torn apart, the looters using their leather covers as sandals. Grand buildings that had been the work of generations were burned to the ground. The House of Wisdom (the Grand Library of Baghdad), containing countless precious historical documents and books on subjects ranging from medicine to astronomy,

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4992-509: Is used for ' Soviet ' (the etymology being related to council ). In Tajik language it is written Шӯравӣ . Mosque A mosque ( / m ɒ s k / MOSK ), also called a masjid ( / ˈ m æ s dʒ ɪ d , ˈ m ʌ s -/ MASS -jid, MUSS - ), is a place of worship for Muslims . The term usually refers to a covered building, but can be any place where Islamic prayers are performed, such as an outdoor courtyard. Originally, mosques were simple places of prayer for

5148-724: The Ka'bah in Mecca , known today as Al-Masjid al-Haram ('The Sacred Mosque'), or the Quba Mosque in Medina , the first structure built by Muhammad upon his emigration from Mecca in 622 CE , both located in the Hejaz region in present-day Saudi Arabia. Other scholars reference Islamic tradition and passages of the Quran, according to which Islam as a religion precedes Muhammad, and includes previous prophets such as Abraham. In Islamic tradition, Abraham

5304-728: The An Lushan Rebellion against An Lushan . The Abbasids, or "Black Flags" as they were commonly called, were known in Tang dynasty chronicles as the hēiyī Dàshí , "The Black-robed Tazi" ( 黑衣大食 ) ("Tazi" being a borrowing from Persian Tāzī , the word for "Arab"). Al-Rashid sent embassies to the Chinese Tang dynasty and established good relations with them. After the war, these embassies remained in China with Caliph Harun al-Rashid establishing an alliance with China. Several embassies from

5460-634: The Demak Great Mosque , were first established in the 15th century. Early Javanese mosques took design cues from Hindu , Buddhist , and Chinese architectural influences, with tall timber, multi-level roofs similar to the pagodas of Balinese Hindu temples ; the ubiquitous Islamic dome did not appear in Indonesia until the 19th century. In turn, the Javanese style influenced the styles of mosques in Indonesia's Austronesian neighbors— Malaysia , Brunei , and

5616-549: The Golden Age of Islam . It was also during this period that Islamic manuscript production reached its height. Between the 8th and 10th centuries, Abbasid artisans pioneered and perfected manuscript techniques that became standards of the practice. This, in addition to housing several key academic institutions, including the House of Wisdom , as well as a multiethnic and multi-religious environment, garnered it an international reputation as

5772-504: The Great Mosque of Cordoba , as they tended to reflect the architecture of the Moors instead of their Visigoth predecessors. Still, some elements of Visigothic architecture , like horseshoe arches , were infused into the mosque architecture of Spain and the Maghreb. Muslim empires were instrumental in the evolution and spread of mosques. Although mosques were first established in India during

5928-536: The House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars sought to translate and gather all the world's knowledge into Arabic . Many classic works of antiquity that would otherwise have been lost were translated into Arabic and Persian and later in turn translated into Turkish, Hebrew and Latin. During this period the Muslim world was a cauldron of cultures which collected, synthesized and significantly advanced

6084-597: The Iranian revolution of 1979, where they were formed by workers and held considerable power over parts of the economy for a year before being dismantled. Shuras were similarly a feature of the uprisings in Iraq in 1991, where they functioned as a form of participatory democracy . Many traditional Sunni Islamic lawyers agree that to be in keeping with Islam, a government should have some form of council of consultation or majlis al-shura , although it must recognize that God and not

6240-614: The Islamic prophet Muhammad . It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 CE ), from whom the dynasty takes its name. They ruled as caliphs for most of the caliphate from their capital in Baghdad in modern-day Iraq, after having overthrown the Umayyad Caliphate in the Abbasid Revolution of 750 CE (132  AH ). The Abbasid Revolution had its origins and first successes in

6396-672: The Mustansiriya School , in an attempt to eclipse the Seljuq-era Nizamiyya built by Nizam al Mulk . In 1206, Genghis Khan established a powerful dynasty among the Mongols of central Asia . During the 13th century, this Mongol Empire conquered most of the Eurasian land mass, including both China in the east and much of the old Islamic caliphate (as well as Kievan Rus' ) in the west. Hulagu Khan 's destruction of Baghdad in 1258

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6552-555: The Samanids had begun the process of exercising independent authority in Transoxiana and Greater Khorasan , and the succeeding Saffarid dynasty of Iran. The Saffarids , from Khorasan, nearly seized Baghdad in 876, and the Tulunids took control of most of Syria. The trend of weakening of the central power and strengthening of the minor caliphates on the periphery continued. An exception

6708-571: The Sarvestan Palace . Thus, Islamic architecture witnessed the introduction of such structures as domes and large, arched entrances, referred to as iwans . During Seljuq rule , as Islamic mysticism was on the rise, the four-iwan arrangement took form. The four-iwan format, finalized by the Seljuqs, and later inherited by the Safavids , firmly established the courtyard façade of such mosques, with

6864-438: The adhan is called instead from inside the mosque or somewhere else on the ground. The Iqâmah (Arabic: إِقَـامَـة ), which is similar to the adhan and proclaimed right before the commencement of prayers, is usually not proclaimed from the minaret even if a mosque has one. Domes, often placed directly above the main prayer hall, may signify the vaults of the heaven and sky. As time progressed, domes grew, from occupying

7020-401: The early Muslim conquests , mosques were established outside of Arabia in the hundreds; many synagogues , churches , and temples were converted into mosques and thus influenced Islamic architectural styles over the centuries. While most pre-modern mosques were funded by charitable endowments ( waqf ), the modern-day trend of government regulation of large mosques has been countered by

7176-403: The early Muslims , and may have been open spaces rather than elaborate buildings. In the first stage of Islamic architecture (650–750 CE), early mosques comprised open and closed covered spaces enclosed by walls, often with minarets , from which the Islamic call to prayer was issued on a daily basis. It is typical of mosque buildings to have a special ornamental niche (a mihrab ) set into

7332-403: The imam or mullah leads the five daily prayers on a regular basis. Left to the mihrab , in the front left corner of the mosque, sometimes there is a kursu (Turkish: kürsü , Bosnian: ćurs/ћурс ), a small elevated plateau (rarely with a chair or other type of seat) used for less formal preaching and speeches. Women who pray in mosques are separated from men . Their part for prayer

7488-410: The qibla wall, usually at its center, is the miḥrāb , a niche or depression indicating the direction of Mecca. Usually the mihrab is not occupied by furniture either. A raised minbar (pulpit) is located to the right side of the mihrab for a khaṭīb (preacher), or some other speaker, to offer a khuṭbah (sermon) during the ritual Friday prayers. The mihrab serves as the location where

7644-625: The siege of Baghdad by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan and the execution of al-Musta'sim . The Abbasid line of rulers re-centred themselves in the Mamluk capital of Cairo in 1261. Though lacking in political power, with the brief exception of Caliph al-Musta'in , the dynasty continued to claim religious authority until a few years after the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517, with the last Abbasid caliph being al-Mutawakkil III . The Abbasid caliphs were descended from Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib , one of

7800-818: The 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another. All Arabian fantasy tales were often called "Arabian Nights" when translated into English, regardless of whether they appeared in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights . This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland . Many imitations were written, especially in France. Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin , Sinbad and Ali Baba . A famous example of Islamic poetry on romance

7956-571: The 11th century. These first minaret towers were placed in the middle of the wall opposite the qibla wall. Among them, the minaret of the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia, dating from 836, is well-preserved and is one of the oldest surviving minarets in the world today. Before the five required daily prayers, a Mu’adhdhin (Arabic: مُـؤَذِّن ) calls the worshippers to prayer from the minaret. In many countries like Singapore where Muslims are not

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8112-628: The Abbasid Caliphs to the Chinese court have been recorded in the Old Book of Tang , the most important being those of al-Saffah, al-Mansur, and Harun al-Rashid. In 762, al-Mansur suppressed a rebellion in the Hejaz led by al-Nafs al-Zakiyya , a descendant from Ali ibn Abi Talib , whose challenge to the Abbasid claim to leadership was based on his Alid lineage and thus presented a serious political threat. He

8268-447: The Abbasids for the titular authority of the Islamic ummah . They commanded some support in the Shia sections of Baghdad (such as Karkh ), although Baghdad was the city most closely connected to the caliphate, even in the Buyid and Seljuq eras. The challenge of the Fatimids only ended with their downfall in the 12th century. Despite the power of the Buyid amirs, the Abbasids retained a highly ritualized court in Baghdad, as described by

8424-399: The Abbasids in Baghdad. When the dynasty began to weaken in the 12th century, the Abbasids gained greater independence once again. While the caliph al-Mustarshid was the first caliph to build an army capable of meeting a Seljuk army in battle, he was nonetheless defeated and assassinated in 1135. The caliph al-Muqtafi was the first Abbasid Caliph to regain the full military independence of

8580-403: The Barmakids, who had wielded administrative power on his behalf. During the same period, several factions began either to leave the empire for other lands or to take control of distant parts of the empire. Still, the reigns of al-Rashid and his sons were considered to be the apex of the Abbasids. Domestically, Harun pursued policies similar to those of his father Al-Mahdi. He released many of

8736-426: The Buyid bureaucrat Hilal al-Sabi' , and they retained a certain influence over Baghdad as well as religious life. As Buyid power waned with the rule of Baha' al-Daula , the caliphate was able to regain some measure of strength. The caliph al-Qadir , for example, led the ideological struggle against the Shia with writings such as the Baghdad Manifesto . The caliphs kept order in Baghdad itself, attempting to prevent

8892-441: The Byzantines. Though his attempt to seize Constantinople failed when his fleet was destroyed by a storm, his military excursions were generally successful, culminating with a resounding victory in the Sack of Amorium . The Byzantines responded by sacking Damietta in Egypt, and Al-Mutawakkil responded by sending his troops into Anatolia again, sacking and marauding until they were eventually annihilated in 863. Even by 820,

9048-463: The Christians in Damascus. Overall, Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (Al-Waleed's father) is said to have transformed 10 churches in Damascus into mosques. The process of turning churches into mosques were especially intensive in the villages where most of the inhabitants converted to Islam. The Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun turned many churches into mosques. Ottoman Turks converted nearly all churches, monasteries, and chapels in Constantinople , including

9204-456: The Great Mosque of Xi'an, like many other mosques in eastern China, resembles a pagoda , with a green roof instead of the yellow roof common on imperial structures in China. Mosques in western China were more likely to incorporate elements, like domes and minarets, traditionally seen in mosques elsewhere. A similar integration of foreign and local influences could be seen on the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java , where mosques, including

9360-460: The Islamic caliphate, "but not one of its pillars." If the caliph "neglects it," by not paying much or any attention, as happened after the first four caliphs, "he would be negligent, but the ruling system would remain Islamic." This is because the shura (consultation) in Islam is for seeking the opinion and not for ruling. This is contrary to the parliamentary system in democracy. The democratic parliamentary system being distinct from and inferior to

9516-426: The Middle East. The practice of a consultative, but not bill-passing, caliph-electing or popularly elected shura, was adopted by the self-described strict Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan . While the Kandahar Shura of the Taliban debated issues, in the end its spokesman declared, "we abide by the Amir's view even if he alone takes this view." In Persian language and Dari in Afghanistan, the term شوروی , shuravi

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9672-409: The Muslim community to share in beginning and breaking the fasts, as providing charity during Ramadan is regarded in Islam as especially honorable. Following the last obligatory daily prayer ( ʿIshāʾ ) special, optional Tarāwīḥ prayers are offered in larger mosques. During each night of prayers, which can last for up to two hours each night, usually one member of the community who has memorized

9828-404: The Muslim societies to be made by shura of the Muslim community. Traditionally however, the amir , sultan or caliph would consult with his wazirs (ministers) and make a decision, after taking into consideration their opinions. Shia Muslims say that Islam requires submission to existing rulers if they are correctly appointed, so long as they govern according to Sharia or Islamic law. This

9984-402: The Muslims were allowed to retain their churches and the towns captured by Muslims had many of their churches converted to mosques. One of the earliest examples of these kinds of conversions was in Damascus , Syria, where in 705 Umayyad caliph Al-Walid I bought the church of St. John from the Christians and had it rebuilt as a mosque in exchange for building a number of new churches for

10140-434: The Ottoman period are still scattered across Eastern Europe , but the most rapid growth in the number of mosques in Europe has occurred within the past century as more Muslims have migrated to the continent. Many major European cities are home to mosques, like the Grand Mosque of Paris , that incorporate domes, minarets, and other features often found with mosques in Muslim-majority countries. The first mosque in North America

10296-416: The Persian faction known as the Buyids from Daylam swept into power and assumed control over the bureaucracy in Baghdad. According to the history of Miskawayh , they began distributing iqtas ( fiefs in the form of tax farms) to their supporters. This period of localized secular control was to last nearly 100 years. The loss of Abbasid power to the Buyids would shift as the Seljuks would take over from

10452-412: The Persians. At the end of the eighth century, the Abbasids found they could no longer keep together a polity from Baghdad, which had grown larger than that of Rome . In 793 the Zaydi -Shia dynasty of Idrisids set up a state from Fez in Morocco, while a family of governors under the Abbasids became increasingly independent until they founded the Aghlabid Emirate from the 830s. Al-Mu'tasim started

10608-490: The Philippines. Several of the early mosques in the Ottoman Empire were originally churches or cathedrals from the Byzantine Empire , with the Hagia Sophia (one of those converted cathedrals) informing the architecture of mosques from after the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople . The Ottomans developed their own architectural style characterized by large central domes (sometimes surrounded by multiple smaller domes), pencil-shaped minarets, and open façades. Mosques from

10764-461: The Qur'an mentioned above. The verses indicate that shura is praiseworthy but do not indicate who should be consulted, what they should be consulted about, or whether the ruler or the shura should prevail in the event the two do not agree. Political Militant [REDACTED] Islam portal In some Muslim nations, shuras play a role in the constitution or governance. Some Muslim nations, such as Turkey , are secular republics, and Morocco

10920-410: The Umayyads and 'Alids his brother Al-Hadi had imprisoned and declared amnesty for all political groups of the Quraysh . Large scale hostilities broke out with Byzantium , and under his rule, the Abbasid Empire reached its peak. However, Harun's decision to split the succession proved to be damaging to the longevity of the empire. After Rashid's death, the empire was split by a civil war between

11076-434: The Umayyads at the Battle of Gorgan, the Battle of Nahavand and finally in the Battle of Karbala, all in the year 748. Ibrahim was captured by Marwan and was killed. The quarrel was taken up by Ibrahim's brother Abdallah, known by the name of Abu al-'Abbas as-Saffah , who defeated the Umayyads in 750 in the battle near the Great Zab and was subsequently proclaimed caliph . After this loss, Marwan fled to Egypt, where he

11232-716: The Umayyads constructed among the most revered mosques in the region — Al-Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem , and the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus . The designs of the Dome of the Rock and the Umayyad Mosque were influenced by Byzantine architecture , a trend that continued much later with the rise of the Ottoman Empire . The Great Mosque of Kairouan in present-day Tunisia

11388-411: The administrative changes needed to keep order of the political challenges created by the far-flung nature of the empire, and the limited communication across it. It was also during this early period of the dynasty, in particular during the governance of Al-Mansur, Harun al-Rashid, and al-Ma'mun , that its reputation and power were created. The position of wazir (vizier) developed in this period. It

11544-546: The advice of his followers like his decision to defend the city of Madinah by going out of the city in Uhad instead of from within the city. Arguments over shura began with the debate over the ruler in the Islamic world. When Muhammad died in 632 CE, a tumultuous meeting at Saqifah selected Abu Bakr as his successor. This meeting did not include some of those with a strong interest in the matter—especially Ali ibn Abi Talib , Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law; people who wanted Ali to be

11700-455: The autonomous provinces slowly took on the characteristic of de facto states with hereditary rulers, armies, and revenues and operated under only nominal caliph suzerainty, which may not necessarily be reflected by any contribution to the treasury, such as the Soomro Emirs that had gained control of Sindh and ruled the entire province from their capital of Mansura . Mahmud of Ghazni took

11856-472: The blood of Al-Musta'sim , a direct descendant of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib , and the last reigning Abbasid caliph in Baghdad, was spilled. The Shia of Persia stated that no such calamity had happened after the death of Husayn ibn Ali in the Battle of Karbala ; nevertheless, as a precaution and in accordance with a Mongol taboo which forbade spilling royal blood, Hulagu had Al-Musta'sim wrapped in

12012-565: The caliph al-Amin and his brother al-Ma'mun , who had the support of Khorasan. This war ended with a two-year siege of Baghdad and the eventual death of Al-Amin in 813. Al-Ma'mun ruled for 20 years of relative calm interspersed with a rebellion in Azerbaijan by the Khurramites , which was supported by the Byzantines. Al-Ma'mun was also responsible for the creation of an autonomous Khorasan, and

12168-579: The caliph al-Qa'im was unable to defeat him without outside help. Toghril Beg , the Seljuq sultan, restored Baghdad to Sunni rule and took Iraq for his dynasty. Once again, the Abbasids were forced to deal with a military power that they could not match, though the Abbasid caliph remained the titular head of the Islamic community. The succeeding sultans Alp Arslan and Malikshah , as well as their vizier Nizam al-Mulk , took up residence in Persia, but held power over

12324-454: The caliph al-Radi (934–941) was forced to acknowledge their power by creating the position of "Prince of Princes" ( amir al-umara ). In addition, the power of the Mamluks steadily grew, reaching a climax when al-Radi was constrained to hand over most of the royal functions to the non-Arab Muhammad ibn Ra'iq . Al-Mustakfi had a short reign from 944 to 946, and it was during this period that

12480-500: The caliph (ruler) (later known as Shia ) still consider Abu Bakr an illegitimate leader of the caliphate. In later years, the followers of Ali (Shi'atu Ali) as the ruler of Muslims became one school of thought, while the followers of Abu Bakr became the Sunni school of thought. The Sunni school of thought believe that shura is recommended in the Qur'an (though some classical jurists maintained it

12636-469: The caliph but not elect or supervise him. In an analysis of the shura chapter of the Qur'an , Qutb noted that Islam requires only that the ruler consult with at least some of the ruled (usually the elite), within the general context of God-made laws that the ruler must execute. In 1950 Qutb denounced democracy in favor of dictatorship , saying it was already bankrupt in the West and asking why it should be imported to

12792-502: The caliphal court in Baghdad during the early 9th century, while others such as al-Mutanabbi received their patronage from regional courts. Under Harun al-Rashid, Baghdad was renowned for its bookstores, which proliferated after the making of paper was introduced. Chinese papermakers had been among those taken prisoner by the Arabs at the Battle of Talas in 751. As prisoners of war, they were dispatched to Samarkand , where they helped set up

12948-660: The caliphate were minimal while the Byzantine Empire was fighting Abbasid rule in Syria and Anatolia , with focus shifting primarily to internal matters; Abbasid governors exerted greater autonomy and, using this increasing power, began to make their positions hereditary. While Baghdad remained the official capital, Harun al-Rashid chose to reside in Raqqa from 796 until the end of his reign. In 803, for reasons that remain unclear, Harun al-Rashid turned on and imprisoned or killed most of

13104-479: The caliphate, with the help of his vizier Ibn Hubayra . After nearly 250 years of subjection to foreign dynasties, he successfully defended Baghdad against the Seljuqs in the siege of Baghdad (1157) , thus securing Iraq for the Abbasids. The reign of al-Nasir (d. 1225) brought the caliphate back into power throughout Iraq, based in large part on the Sufi futuwwa organizations that the caliph headed. Al-Mustansir built

13260-557: The caliphs were wary of the Alid sympathies in the city and did not always reside here. In 752, al-Saffah built a new city called al-Hashimiyya, at an uncertain location, most likely near Kufa. Later that same year, he moved to Anbar , where he built a new settlement for his Khurasani soldiers and a palace for himself. It was al-Saffah's successor, Abu Ja'far al-Mansur ( r.  754–775 ) who firmly consolidated Abbasid rule and faced down internal challenges. His uncle, Abdallah ibn Ali ,

13416-406: The call to prayer was often performed from smaller structures or elevated platforms. The early Muslim community of Medina gave the call to prayer from the doorway or the roof of the house of Muhammad , which doubled as a place for prayer. The first confirmed minarets in the form of towers date from the early 9th century under Abbasid rule and they did not become a standard feature of mosques until

13572-400: The capital from Damascus to Baghdad. The Abbasids were influenced by the Qur'anic injunctions and hadith , such as "the ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyr", stressing the value of knowledge. During this period the Muslim world became an intellectual center for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established

13728-717: The center. Structural and Functional Roles Domes not only serve as architectural focal points but also enhance mosque acoustics, amplifying prayers. Structurally, they allow vast interior spaces with minimal internal supports. Their placement above the prayer hall symbolizes the connection between the earthly and the divine, reinforcing the mosque's spiritual purpose. Persian and Byzantine Influence Whilst squinches and pendentives were not first used in mosques, they were later incorporated in dome design and were essential in transitioning from square rooms to circular domes. Squinches, which originated in Persian and Roman architecture, fill

13884-566: The city of Raqqa , along the Euphrates . Finally, in 836, al-Mu'tasim moved the capital to a new site that he created along the Tigris, called Samarra. This city saw 60 years of work, with race-courses and game preserves to add to the atmosphere. Due to the dry remote nature of the environment, some of the palaces built in this era were isolated havens. Al-Ukhaidir Fortress is a fine example of this type of building, which has stables, living quarters, and

14040-422: The civil service. In 794, Jafa al-Barmak built the first paper mill in Baghdad, and from there the technology circulated. Harun required that paper be employed in government dealings, since something recorded on paper could not easily be changed or removed, and eventually, an entire street in Baghdad's business district was dedicated to selling paper and books. One of the common definitions for "Islamic philosophy"

14196-403: The community usually provide meals periodically throughout the night During the last ten days of Ramadan , larger mosques within the Muslim community will host Iʿtikāf , a practice in which at least one Muslim man from the community must participate. Muslims performing itikaf are required to stay within the mosque for ten consecutive days, often in worship or learning about Islam. As a result,

14352-511: The community, thereby creating daily potluck dinners. Because of the community contribution necessary to serve iftar dinners, mosques with smaller congregations may not be able to host the iftar dinners daily. Some mosques will also hold Suḥūr meals before dawn to congregants attending the first required prayer of the day, Fajr . As with iftar dinners, congregants usually provide the food for suhoor, although able mosques may provide food instead. Mosques will often invite poorer members of

14508-406: The community, they may also have additional facilities, from health clinics and clubs (gyms) to libraries to gymnasiums , to serve the community. Abbasid The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire ( / ə ˈ b æ s ɪ d , ˈ æ b ə s ɪ d / ; Arabic : الْخِلَافَة الْعَبَّاسِيَّة , romanized :  al-Khilāfa al-ʿAbbāsiyya ) was the third caliphate to succeed

14664-425: The concept of the mosque as the focal point of the Islamic city. The Prophet's Mosque is considered by some scholars of Islamic architecture to be the first mosque. The mosque had a roof supported by columns made of palm tree trunks and it included a large courtyard, a motif common among mosques built since then. Rebuilt and expanded over time, it soon became a larger hypostyle structure. It probably served as

14820-435: The continued repulsing of Byzantine forays. In the 9th century, the Abbasids created an army loyal only to their caliphate, composed of non-Arab origin people, known as Mamluks . This force, created by al-Ma'mun and his brother and successor al-Mu'tasim (833–842), prevented the further disintegration of the empire. The Mamluk army, though often viewed negatively, both helped and hurt the caliphate. Early on, it provided

14976-545: The corners of a square space to support a dome, while pendentives, a Byzantine innovation, allowed smooth transitions from a square base to a circular dome. These techniques are exemplified by the Dome of Soltaniyeh. After the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Byzantine domes, such as Hagia Sophia’s, greatly influenced Ottoman mosque design. Domes in South Asian Mosque Architecture Domes became

15132-399: The designs of later Timurid , and also Mughal , mosque designs. The Ottomans introduced central dome mosques in the 15th century. These mosques have a large dome centered over the prayer hall. In addition to having a large central dome, a common feature is smaller domes that exist off-center over the prayer hall or throughout the rest of the mosque, where prayer is not performed. This style

15288-525: The downward slide by using non-Muslim mercenaries in his personal army. Also during this period, officers started assassinating superiors with whom they disagreed, in particular the caliphs. By the 870s, Egypt became autonomous under Ahmad ibn Tulun . In the East, governors decreased their ties to the center as well. The Saffarids of Herat and the Samanids of Bukhara began breaking away around this time, cultivating

15444-472: The earliest type of mosques, pioneered under the Umayyad Dynasty. These mosques have square or rectangular plans with an enclosed courtyard ( sahn ) and covered prayer hall. Historically, in the warm Middle Eastern and Mediterranean climates , the courtyard served to accommodate the large number of worshippers during Friday prayers. Most early hypostyle mosques had flat roofs on prayer halls, which required

15600-515: The easterly region of Khorasan , far from the Levantine center of Umayyad influence. The Abbasid Caliphate first centered its government in Kufa , modern-day Iraq, but in 762 the caliph al-Mansur founded the city of Baghdad, near the ancient Babylonian capital city of Babylon and Sassanid city of Ctesiphon . Baghdad became the center of science , culture , and invention in what became known as

15756-480: The entire Quran (a Hafiz ) will recite a segment of the book. Sometimes, several such people (not necessarily of the local community) take turns to do this. During the last ten days of Ramadan, larger mosques will host all-night programs to observe Laylat al-Qadr , the night Muslims believe that Muhammad first received Quranic revelations. On that night, between sunset and sunrise , mosques employ speakers to educate congregants in attendance about Islam. Mosques or

15912-494: The entrance to the prayer hall is the qibla wall (the direction of Mecca , and thus the direction towards which Muslims should face for prayer), the visually emphasized area inside the prayer hall. The qibla wall should, in a properly oriented mosque, be set perpendicular to a line leading to Mecca , where the Kaaba is located. Congregants pray in rows parallel to the qiblah wall and thus arrange themselves so they face Mecca. In

16068-474: The famous Hagia Sophia , into mosques immediately after capturing the city in 1453 . In some instances mosques have been established on the places of Jewish or Christian sanctuaries associated with Biblical personalities who were also recognized by Islam. Mosques have also been converted for use by other religions, notably in southern Spain, following the conquest of the Moors in 1492. The most prominent of them

16224-400: The first Arab paper mill. In time, paper replaced parchment as the medium for writing, and the production of books greatly increased. These events had an academic and societal impact that could be broadly compared to the introduction of the printing press in the West. Paper aided in communication and record-keeping, it also brought a new sophistication and complexity to businesses, banking, and

16380-428: The first major changes effected by Abbasid rule was the move of the caliphate's center of power from Syria to Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq). This was closer to the Persian mawali support base of the Abbasids and the move addressed their demand for reduced Arab dominance in the empire. However, no definitive capital was yet selected. In these early Abbasid years, Kufa generally served as the administrative capital, but

16536-409: The government with a stable force to address domestic and foreign problems. However, creation of this foreign army and al-Mu'tasim's transfer of the capital from Baghdad to Samarra created a division between the caliphate and the people they claimed to rule. Al-Mu'tasim's reign marked the end of the strong caliphs. He strengthened his personal army with the Mamluks and promptly restarted the war with

16692-525: The holiday of Eid ul-Fitr , mosques also collect a special zakat that is supposed to assist in helping poor Muslims attend the prayers and celebrations associated with the holiday. The frequency by which Muslims attend mosque services vary greatly around the world. In some countries, weekly attendance at religious services is common among Muslims while in others, attendance is rare. A study of American Muslims did not find differences in mosque attendance by gender or age. Arab-plan or hypostyle mosques are

16848-506: The increasing number of Muslims who either live in the area or make the annual pilgrimage known as Hajj to the city. Either way, after the Quba Mosque, Muhammad went on to establish another mosque in Medina , which is now known as Al-Masjid an-Nabawi ('The Prophet's Mosque'). Built on the site of his home, Muhammad participated in the construction of the mosque himself and helped pioneer

17004-530: The knowledge gained from the Roman , Chinese, Indian , Persian , Egyptian , North African, Ancient Greek and Medieval Greek civilizations. According to Huff, "[i]n virtually every field of endeavor—in astronomy, alchemy, mathematics, medicine, optics and so forth—the Caliphate's scientists were in the forefront of scientific advance." The best-known fiction from the Islamic world is One Thousand and One Nights ,

17160-561: The last days, but there are minority Shi'a who follow leaders believed to be infallible imams. During and after Ali's tenure as caliph, the Muslim community fell into civil war. Power was eventually grasped by the Umayyad caliphs and then by the Abbasid caliphs. There were also rival caliphates in Egypt and Al-Andalus (today's Spain and Portugal), and in the Indian subcontinent . The Ottoman Caliphate

17316-489: The majority, mosques are prohibited from loudly broadcasting the Adhān (Arabic: أَذَان , Call to Prayer), although it is supposed to be said loudly to the surrounding community. The adhan is required before every prayer. Nearly every mosque assigns a muezzin for each prayer to say the adhan as it is a recommended practice or Sunnah ( Arabic : سُـنَّـة ) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. At mosques that do not have minarets,

17472-412: The majority, will also host Eid prayers outside in courtyards, town squares or on the outskirts of town in an Eidgah . Islam's holiest month, Ramaḍān , is observed through many events. As Muslims must fast during the day during Ramadan, mosques will host Ifṭār dinners after sunset and the fourth required prayer of the day, that is Maghrib . Food is provided, at least in part, by members of

17628-425: The morning. These Eid prayers are supposed to be offered in large groups, and so, in the absence of an outdoor Eidgah , a large mosque will normally host them for their congregants as well as the congregants of smaller local mosques. Some mosques will even rent convention centers or other large public buildings to hold the large number of Muslims who attend. Mosques, especially those in countries where Muslims are

17784-465: The opportunities for further development, the mosques consequently losing popularity. The first departure within mosque design started in Persia (Iran). The Persians had inherited a rich architectural legacy from the earlier Persian dynasties, and they began incorporating elements from earlier Parthian and Sassanid designs into their mosques, influenced by buildings such as the Palace of Ardashir and

17940-618: The outbreak of fitnas in the capital, often contending with the ayyarun . With the Buyid dynasty on the wane, a vacuum was created that was eventually filled by the dynasty of Oghuz Turks known as the Seljuqs . By 1055, the Seljuqs had wrested control from the Buyids and Abbasids, and took temporal power. When the amir and former slave Basasiri took up the Shia Fatimid banner in Baghdad in 1056–57,

18096-399: The people are sovereign. Al-Mawardi has written that members of the majlis should satisfy three conditions: they must be just, have enough knowledge to distinguish a good caliph from a bad one, and have sufficient wisdom and judgment to select the best caliph. Al-Mawardi also said that in emergencies when there is no caliphate and no majlis, the people themselves should create a majlis, select

18252-417: The president, who is appointed by the sultan . The council can only offer advice, which may be refused by the sultan. In Iran , a council called the assembly of experts has the ability to impeach the supreme leader. In addition to that, a general shura wields legislative powers, equivalent to a modern-day Western parliament. Shuras have also been a feature of revolutions in Islamic societies, such as in

18408-474: The region also appear to have served as "capitals" under either al-Saffah or al-Mansur prior to the founding of Baghdad. Al-Mansur centralised the judicial administration, and later, Harun al-Rashid established the institution of Chief Qadi to oversee it. The Umayyad empire was mostly Arab; however, the Abbasids progressively became made up of more and more converted Muslims in which the Arabs were only one of many ethnicities. The Abbasids had depended heavily on

18564-620: The region, period, and Islamic denomination . In addition to being places of worship in Islam , mosques also serve as locations for funeral services and funeral prayers , marriages ( nikah ), vigils during Ramadan , business agreements, collection and distribution of alms , and homeless shelters. To this end, mosques have historically been multi-purpose buildings functioning as community centres, courts of law, and religious schools . In modern times, they have also preserved their role as places of religious instruction and debate. Special importance

18720-490: The rest of the Muslim community is responsible for providing the participants with food, drinks, and whatever else they need during their stay. The third of the Five Pillars of Islam states that Muslims are required to give approximately one-fortieth of their wealth to charity as Zakat . Since mosques form the center of Muslim communities, they are where Muslims go to both give zakat and, if necessary, collect it. Before

18876-496: The rest of the prayer area, and to the rest of the mosque complex (although such uses may be restricted by the conditions of the waqf that owns the mosque). In many mosques, especially the early congregational mosques, the prayer hall is built in the hypostyle form (the roof held up by a multitude of columns). One of the finest examples of the hypostyle-plan mosques is the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia . Usually opposite

19032-508: The return of power to the family of Muhammad, the Hashemites , during the reign of Umar II . During the reign of Marwan II , this opposition culminated in the rebellion of Ibrahim al-Imam , the fourth in descent from Abbas. Supported by the province of Khorasan (Eastern Persia), even though the governor opposed them, and the Shia Arabs, he achieved considerable success, but was captured in

19188-634: The rise of privately funded mosques, many of which serve as bases for different streams of Islamic revivalism and social activism. The word 'mosque' entered the English language from the French word mosquée , probably derived from Italian moschea (a variant of Italian moscheta ), from either Middle Armenian մզկիթ ( mzkit‘ ), Medieval Greek : μασγίδιον ( masgídion ), or Spanish mezquita , from [مسجد] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |3= ( help ) (meaning "site of prostration (in prayer)" and hence

19344-591: The rise of the Iranian Buyids and the Seljuq Turks , who captured Baghdad in 945 and 1055, respectively. Although Abbasid leadership over the vast Islamic empire was gradually reduced to a ceremonial religious function in much of the caliphate, the dynasty retained control of its Mesopotamian domain during the rule of Caliph al-Muqtafi and extended into Iran during the reign of Caliph al-Nasir . The Abbasids' age of cultural revival and fruition ended in 1258 with

19500-526: The room. Some mosques have Islamic calligraphy and Quranic verses on the walls to create a more religious atmosphere for worshippers. Often, a limited part of the prayer hall is sanctified formally as a masjid in the sharīʿah sense (although the term masjid is also used for the larger mosque complex as well). Once designated, there are onerous limitations on the use of this formally designated masjid , and it may not be used for any purpose other than worship; restrictions that do not necessarily apply to

19656-662: The seventh century, they were not commonplace across the subcontinent until the arrival of the Mughals in the 16th and 17th centuries. Reflecting their Timurid origins, Mughal-style mosques included onion domes , pointed arches , and elaborate circular minarets, features common in the Persian and Central Asian styles . The Jama Masjid in Delhi and the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore , built in

19812-456: The spirit of ijtihad . They also wrote influential original philosophical works, and their thinking was incorporated into Christian philosophy during the Middle Ages, notably by Thomas Aquinas . Three speculative thinkers, al-Kindi , al-Farabi , and Avicenna , combined Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam, and Avicennism was later established as

19968-520: The support of Persians in their overthrow of the Umayyads. Al-Mansur welcomed non-Arab Muslims to his court. While this helped integrate Arab and Persian cultures, it alienated many of their Arab supporters, particularly the Khorasanian Arabs who had supported them in their battles against the Umayyads. The Abbasid leadership had to work hard in the last half of the 8th century (750–800) under several competent caliphs and their viziers to usher in

20124-418: The three other principles of justice, equality and human dignity, which constitute Islam's moral core, ... are best realized, in personal as well as public life, under shura governance. Other modern Muslim thinkers distance themselves from democracy. Taqiuddin al-Nabhani , the founder of the modern transnational Islamist party Hizb ut-Tahrir , writes that shura is important and part of "the ruling structure" of

20280-552: The title of sultan , as opposed to the "amir" that had been in more common usage, signifying the Ghaznavid Empire 's independence from caliphal authority, despite Mahmud's ostentatious displays of Sunni orthodoxy and ritual submission to the caliph. In the 11th century, the loss of respect for the caliphs continued, as some Islamic rulers no longer mentioned the caliph's name in the Friday khutba , or struck it off their coinage. The Isma'ili Fatimid dynasty of Cairo contested

20436-420: The towering gateways at every side, as more important than the actual buildings themselves. They typically took the form of a square-shaped central courtyard with large entrances at each side, giving the impression of gateways to the spiritual world. The Persians also introduced Persian gardens into mosque designs. Soon, a distinctly Persian style of mosques started appearing that would significantly influence

20592-542: The treaty, then fended off multiple incursions during the first decade of the 9th century. These attacks pushed into the Taurus Mountains , culminating with a victory at the Battle of Krasos and the massive invasion of 806 , led by Rashid himself. Rashid's navy also proved successful, taking Cyprus . Rashid decided to focus on the rebellion of Rafi ibn al-Layth in Khorasan and died while there. Military operations by

20748-560: The true Islamic caliphate system according to Taqiuddin an-Nabhani. Under the Hizb ut-Tahrir constitution, non-Muslims may not serve a caliph or any other ruling official, nor vote for these officials, but may be part of the majlis and voice "complaints in respect to unjust acts performed by the rulers or the misapplication of Islam upon them." Still others, such as the Muslim author Sayyid Qutb , go further, arguing that an Islamic shura should advise

20904-747: The use of geodesic domes offers a modern solution to structural and environmental needs. These domes, with their network of triangular units, distribute weight evenly, allowing for expansive spaces without the need for internal supports. This is particularly useful in creating large, unobstructed prayer halls. Geodesic domes also boast greater energy efficiency due to their minimal surface area relative to volume, which reduces heating and cooling demands. As ritual purification precedes all prayers, mosques often have ablution fountains or other facilities for washing in their entryways or courtyards. Worshippers at much smaller mosques often have to use restrooms to perform their ablutions. In traditional mosques, this function

21060-549: The use of numerous columns and supports . One of the most notable hypostyle mosques is the Great Mosque of Cordoba in Spain, the building being supported by over 850 columns. Frequently, hypostyle mosques have outer arcades ( riwaq ) so that visitors can enjoy the shade. Arab-plan mosques were constructed mostly under the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. The simplicity of the Arab plan limited

21216-585: The victor over the Umayyads at the Battle of the Zab, was the most serious potential rival for leadership and al-Mansur sent Abu Muslim, the Khurasani revolutionary commander, against him in 754. After Abu Muslim successfully defeated him, al-Mansur then turned to eliminate Abu Muslim himself. He arranged to have him arrested and executed in 755. On the western frontier, the Abbasids were unable to re-assert caliphal control over

21372-574: The wall in the direction of the city of Mecca (the qibla ), which Muslims must face during prayer, as well as a facility for ritual cleansing ( wudu ). The pulpit ( minbar ), from which public sermons ( khutbah ) are delivered on the event of Friday prayer , was, in earlier times, characteristic of the central city mosque, but has since become common in smaller mosques. To varying degrees, mosque buildings are designed so that there are segregated spaces for men and women . This basic pattern of organization has assumed different forms depending on

21528-477: The western and central Maghreb, which the Umayyads had lost in the 740s. One member of the Umayyad dynasty, Abd ar-Rahman, also managed to escape the purge of his family and managed to establish independent in rule in al-Andalus (present-day Spain and Portugal) in 756, founding the Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba . In 756, al-Mansur had also sent over 4,000 Arab mercenaries to assist the Chinese Tang dynasty in

21684-540: The year 747 and died, possibly assassinated, in prison. On 9 June 747 (15 Ramadan AH 129), Abu Muslim , rising from Khorasan, successfully initiated an open revolt against Umayyad rule, which was carried out under the sign of the Black Standard . Close to 10,000 soldiers were under Abu Muslim's command when the hostilities officially began in Merv. General Qahtaba followed the fleeing governor Nasr ibn Sayyar west defeating

21840-408: The youngest uncles of Muhammad and of the same Banu Hashim clan. The Abbasids claimed to be the true successors of Muhammad in replacing the Umayyad descendants of Banu Umayya by virtue of their closer bloodline to Muhammad. The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking their moral character and administration in general. According to Ira Lapidus , "The Abbasid revolt

21996-542: Was Layla and Majnun , an originally Arabic story which was further developed by Iranian , Azerbaijani and other poets in the Persian , Azerbaijani , and Turkish languages. It is a tragic story of undying love much like the later Romeo and Juliet . Arabic poetry reached its greatest height in the Abbasid era, especially before the loss of central authority and the rise of the Persianate dynasties. Writers like Abu Tammam and Abu Nuwas were closely connected to

22152-469: Was defeated by an Abbasid army led by Isa ibn Musa . It was after this victory, in 762, that al-Mansur finally established a proper Abbasid capital, Baghdad – officially called Madinat al-Salam ('City of Peace') – located on the Tigris River . Prior to this, he had continued to consider multiple sites for a capital, including al-Hashimiyya, which he used as a capital for a while. Various other sites in

22308-437: Was destroyed. Claims have been made that the Tigris ran red from the blood of the scientists and philosophers killed. Citizens attempted to flee, but were intercepted by Mongol soldiers who killed in abundance, sparing no one, not even children. The caliph Al-Musta'sim was captured and forced to watch as his citizens were murdered and his treasury plundered. Ironically, Mongols feared that a supernatural disaster would strike if

22464-668: Was founded by Albanian Americans in 1915, but the continent's oldest surviving mosque, the Mother Mosque of America , was built in 1934. As in Europe, the number of American mosques has rapidly increased in recent decades as Muslim immigrants, particularly from South Asia , have come in the United States. Greater than forty percent of mosques in the United States were constructed after 2000. According to early Muslim historians , towns that surrendered without resistance and made treaties with

22620-471: Was heavily influenced by Byzantine architecture with its use of large central domes. Islam forbids figurative art , on the grounds that the artist must not imitate God's creation. Mosques are, therefore, decorated with abstract patterns and beautiful inscriptions. Decoration is often concentrated around doorways and the miḥrāb . Tiles are used widely in mosques. They lend themselves to pattern-making, can be made with beautiful subtle colors, and can create

22776-400: Was his appointed infallible ruler of Muslim nation regardless of shura, a recommendation that was ignored by the first three caliphs. Shi'a do not stress the role of shura in choosing leaders, but believe that the divine vice-regent is chosen by God, or Allah, from the lineage of Muhammad ( Ahl al-Bayt ). The largest Shi'a sect believes that the current imam is in "occultation", hidden away until

22932-509: Was initially akin to a secretary, but under the tenure of the Barmakids , an Iranian family close to the Abbasids, the position became powerful and Harun al-Rashid delegated state affairs to them for many years. This resulted in a more ceremonial role for many Abbasid caliphs relative to their time under the Umayyads; the viziers began to exert greater influence, and the role of the Caliph's aristocracy

23088-407: Was lost due to the ephemeral nature of the stucco and luster tiles. Another major development was the creation or vast enlargement of cities as they were turned into the capital of the empire, beginning with the creation of Baghdad in 762, which was planned as a walled city with four gates, and a mosque and palace in the center. Al-Mansur, who was responsible for the creation of Baghdad, also planned

23244-402: Was officially dissolved by the newly founded Grand National Assembly of Turkey in 1924. Few of the later caliphs had anything but nominal control over the many Islamic states, and none were chosen by shura; all reached power by inheritance. The Muslim clergy counseled submission to rulers but also stressed the duty of the ruler to rule by shura. They based this recommendation on the passages from

23400-461: Was particularly influenced by Sasanian architecture , which in turn featured elements present since ancient Mesopotamia. The Christian styles evolved into a style based more on the Sasanian Empire , utilizing mud bricks and baked bricks with carved stucco. Other architectural innovations and styles were few, such as the four-centered arch , and a dome erected on squinches . Unfortunately, much

23556-537: Was slowly replaced by a Baramkid bureaucracy. To the west, Harun al-Rashid agreed to grant the province of Ifriqiya (centered in present-day Tunisia) as a hereditary emirate to Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab , who founded the Aghlabid dynasty there. Al-Mahdi restarted the fighting with the Byzantines , and his sons continued the conflict until Empress Irene pushed for peace. After several years of peace, Nikephoros I broke

23712-462: Was subsequently killed. The remainder of his family, barring one male, were also eliminated. Immediately after their victory, al-Saffah sent his forces to Central Asia , where his forces fought against Tang expansion during the Battle of Talas . Al-Saffah focused on putting down numerous rebellions in Syria and Mesopotamia . The Byzantines conducted raids during these early distractions. One of

23868-456: Was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Merv with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their Mawali ". The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as mawali , who remained outside the kinship-based society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad empire. Muhammad ibn 'Ali , a great-grandson of Abbas, began to campaign in Persia for

24024-571: Was taken away as a prisoner by Selim I to Constantinople where he had a ceremonial role. He died in 1543, following his return to Cairo. The Abbasid historical period lasting to the Mongol conquest of Baghdad in 1258 CE is considered the Islamic Golden Age. The Islamic Golden Age was inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of

24180-406: Was the 10-year period of Al-Mu'tadid 's rule ( r. 892–902). He brought parts of Egypt, Syria, and Khorasan back into Abbasid control. Especially after the " Anarchy at Samarra " (861–870), the Abbasid central government was weakened and centrifugal tendencies became more prominent in the caliphate's provinces. By the early 10th century, the Abbasids almost lost control of Iraq to various emirs , and

24336-516: Was the first mosque built in the Maghreb (northwest Africa), with its present form (dating from the ninth century) serving as a model for other Islamic places of worship in the Maghreb. It was the first in the region to incorporate a square minaret , which was characteristic of later Maghrebi mosques, and includes naves akin to a basilica . Those features can also be found in Andalusi mosques, including

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