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90-544: The Short Empire was a medium-range four-engined monoplane flying boat , designed and developed by Short Brothers during the 1930s to meet the requirements of the growing commercial airline sector, with a particular emphasis upon its usefulness upon the core routes that served the United Kingdom . It was developed and manufactured in parallel with the Short Sunderland maritime patrol bomber, which went on to serve in

180-605: A Kollsman sensitive altimeter , a Marconi radio direction finder , a Smiths chronometer , and an attitude indicator . The radio operator was furnished with Marconi shock-proof radio sets for receiving and transmitting across the radio spectrum ; the retractable loop antenna could be repositioned for visual or aural homing. While designed as civil aircraft, examples of the type would not only see military service but be specifically refitted for this purpose. In 1941, two Empire flying boats – Clio and Cordelia returned to Shorts' Belfast facility, where they were modified with

270-538: A cantilever, but the completed structure does not act as a cantilever. This is very helpful when temporary supports, or falsework , cannot be used to support the structure while it is being built (e.g., over a busy roadway or river, or in a deep valley). Therefore, some truss arch bridges (see Navajo Bridge ) are built from each side as cantilevers until the spans reach each other and are then jacked apart to stress them in compression before finally joining. Nearly all cable-stayed bridges are built using cantilevers as this

360-496: A cantilever-winged sesquiplane built instead with wooden materials, the Fokker V.1 . In the cantilever wing, one or more strong beams, called spars , run along the span of the wing. The end fixed rigidly to the central fuselage is known as the root and the far end as the tip. In flight, the wings generate lift and the spars carry this load through to the fuselage. To resist horizontal shear stress from either drag or engine thrust,

450-399: A central corridor flanked by the toilets and galley , a mid-ship cabin, a spacious promenade cabin, and finally an aft-cabin. The cabins could be alternatively outfitted with comfortable seating or bunks for sleeper services. Near the rear of the aircraft, a further compartment for the purpose of containing freight and mail was present which extended into the after fuselage. The flying crew

540-522: A differing design, designated as the S.30 . A total of 42 Empires were built, all at Short's Rochester factory. The S.30 series was outfitted with four Bristol Perseus XIIc sleeve valve engines in the place of the Pegasus engines; the Perseus engines were more efficient but provided a lower power output of 890 horsepower (660 kW), but the decrease in developed thrust was effectively compensated for via

630-504: A distance of roughly 2,300 miles (3,700 km) non-stop, showed that Britain could move military material to its overseas bases by air. On 18 February 1937, Caledonia , the first of the Empires built, flew the same Calshot-Alexandria route; it was able to traverse the route non-stop at an average speed of 170 mph. On 5 July 1937, the first crossing of the Atlantic by an Empire flying boat

720-611: A dozen years after the Wright Brothers ' initial flights, Junkers endeavored to eliminate virtually all major external bracing members in order to decrease airframe drag in flight. The result of this endeavor was the Junkers J 1 pioneering all-metal monoplane of late 1915, designed from the start with all-metal cantilever wing panels. About a year after the initial success of the Junkers J 1, Reinhold Platz of Fokker also achieved success with

810-570: A few specialist types. Jet and rocket engines have even more power and all modern high-speed aircraft, especially supersonic types, have been monoplanes. Cantilever When subjected to a structural load at its far, unsupported end, the cantilever carries the load to the support where it applies a shear stress and a bending moment . Cantilever construction allows overhanging structures without additional support. Cantilevers are widely found in construction, notably in cantilever bridges and balconies (see corbel ). In cantilever bridges,

900-608: A light aircraft, the configuration is significant because it offers superior visibility to the pilot. On light aircraft, shoulder-wings tend to be mounted further aft than a high wing, and so may need to be swept forward to maintain correct center of gravity . Examples of light aircraft with shoulder wings include the ARV Super2 , the Bölkow Junior , Saab Safari and the Barber Snark . A high wing has its upper surface on or above

990-407: A pendulous fuselage which requires no wing dihedral for stability; and, by comparison with a low-wing, a shoulder-wing's limited ground effect reduces float on landing. Compared to a low-wing, shoulder-wing and high-wing configurations give increased propeller clearance on multi-engined aircraft. On a large aircraft, there is little practical difference between a shoulder wing and a high wing; but on

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1080-464: A popular configuration for amphibians and small homebuilt and ultralight aircraft . Although the first successful aircraft were biplanes, the first attempts at heavier-than-air flying machines were monoplanes, and many pioneers continued to develop monoplane designs. For example, the first aeroplane to be put into production was the 1907 Santos-Dumont Demoiselle , while the Blériot XI flew across

1170-677: A reduced beam deemed suitable. The basic aerodynamic design was derived from the smaller Short Scion Senior floatplane, which served in all but name as a half-scale prototype for the Empire and for its sibling, the military-orientated Short Sunderland . At the time of development, the British aircraft industry had never attempted to construct an aeroplane of this size and complexity before; accordingly, many new techniques were devised to overcome problems encountered, particularly during its construction process. Shorts had to develop its own machinery to produce

1260-537: A service between there and New York City on 25 May 1937. The Short Empire was designed to operate along the Imperial Airways routes to South Africa and Australia, where no leg was much over 500 miles (800 km). After the design of the Empire had been finalised and production had commenced, it was recognised that, with some pressure from the United States, it would be desirable to offer a similar service across

1350-409: A single mainplane, in contrast to a biplane or other types of multiplanes , which have multiple planes. A monoplane has inherently the highest efficiency and lowest drag of any wing configuration and is the simplest to build. However, during the early years of flight, these advantages were offset by its greater weight and lower manoeuvrability, making it relatively rare until the 1930s. Since then,

1440-421: A specification for a new type of aircraft to serve both passenger and freight requirements throughout the world. This specification sought an aircraft that would be capable of carrying up to 24 passengers in spacious comfort along with adequate room for airmail or freight while simultaneously being capable of a cruising speed of 170 miles per hour (270 km/h) and a range of at least 700 miles (1,100 km);

1530-424: A storage space and a ship's clerk's office. This office contained controls such as electrical fuseboxes and circuit switches, ventilation controls, and fuelcocks . The lower deck contained a large marine compartment containing an anchor , a pair of drogues , a mooring bollard , and a boat hook , along with a step ladder to the cockpit; aft of the mooring compartment was the forward passenger saloon, followed by

1620-503: A variation in this parameter indicates the concentration of the analyte . Recently, microcantilevers have been fabricated that are porous, allowing for a much larger surface area for analyte to bind to, increasing sensitivity by raising the ratio of the analyte mass to the device mass. Surface stress on microcantilever, due to receptor-target binding, which produces cantilever deflection can be analyzed using optical methods like laser interferometry. Zhao et al., also showed that by changing

1710-489: A wing of a given size, the weight reduction allows it to fly slower and with a lower-powered and more economical engine. For this reason, all monoplane wings in the pioneer era were braced and most were up until the early 1930s. However, the exposed struts or wires create additional drag, lowering aerodynamic efficiency and reducing the maximum speed. High-speed and long-range designs tend to be pure cantilevers, while low-speed short-range types are often given bracing. Besides

1800-458: A wire-braced design. However, as the speed of the aircraft increases, the drag of the bracing increases sharply, while the wing structure must be strengthened, typically by increasing the strength of the spars and the thickness of the skinning. At speeds of around 200 miles per hour (320 km/h) the drag of the bracing becomes excessive and the wing strong enough to be made a cantilever without excess weight penalty. Increases in engine power through

1890-455: Is force and w {\displaystyle w} is the cantilever width. The spring constant is related to the cantilever resonance frequency ω 0 {\displaystyle \omega _{0}} by the usual harmonic oscillator formula ω 0 = k / m equivalent {\displaystyle \omega _{0}={\sqrt {k/m_{\text{equivalent}}}}} . A change in

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1980-578: Is one of their chief advantages. Many box girder bridges are built segmentally , or in short pieces. This type of construction lends itself well to balanced cantilever construction where the bridge is built in both directions from a single support. These structures rely heavily on torque and rotational equilibrium for their stability. In an architectural application, Frank Lloyd Wright 's Fallingwater used cantilevers to project large balconies. The East Stand at Elland Road Stadium in Leeds was, when completed,

2070-410: Is that the fuselage is closer to the ground which eases cargo loading, especially for aircraft with a rear-fuselage cargo door. Military cargo aircraft are predominantly high-wing designs with a rear cargo door. A parasol wing is not directly attached to the fuselage but held above it, supported by either cabane struts or a pylon. Additional bracing may be provided by struts or wires extending from

2160-401: Is the cantilever thickness. Very sensitive optical and capacitive methods have been developed to measure changes in the static deflection of cantilever beams used in dc-coupled sensors. The second is the formula relating the cantilever spring constant k {\displaystyle k} to the cantilever dimensions and material constants: where F {\displaystyle F}

2250-422: Is the immunosensor based on an antibody layer that interacts selectively with a particular immunogen and reports about its content in a specimen. In the static mode of operation, the sensor response is represented by the beam bending with respect to a reference microcantilever. Alternatively, microcantilever sensors can be operated in the dynamic mode. In this case, the beam vibrates at its resonance frequency and

2340-564: The English Channel in 1909. Throughout 1909–1910, Hubert Latham set multiple altitude records in his Antoinette IV monoplane, eventually reaching 1,384 m (4,541 ft). The equivalent German language term is Eindecker , as in the mid-wing Fokker Eindecker fighter of 1915 which for a time dominated the skies in what became known as the " Fokker scourge ". The German military Idflieg aircraft designation system prior to 1918 prefixed monoplane type designations with an E , until

2430-617: The Fokker D.VIII and Morane-Saulnier AI in the later part of the First World War. A parasol wing also provides a high mounting point for engines and during the interwar period was popular on flying boats, which need to lift the propellers clear of spray. Examples include the Martin M-130 , Dornier Do 18 and the Consolidated PBY Catalina . Compared to a biplane , a parasol wing has less bracing and lower drag. It remains

2520-580: The Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) used the type to conduct various military operations, particularly as an airborne platform for anti-submarine patrols and for general transport duties. During the 1930s, global demand for air travel was consistently and rapidly growing. Thus, keen to grow its share of this emerging market, British airline Imperial Airways was keen to expand and sought the latest technology to do so. In particular, Imperial Airways' technical adviser, Major Robert Hobart Mayo developed

2610-641: The Second World War ; a further derivative that was later developed was the piggy-back Short Mayo Composite . The development of the Short Empire had been heavily influenced by its primary customer, Imperial Airways , which had originally developed the requirements to which it was initially ordered and designed. Imperial Airways, and its successor, the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC), along with Qantas and TEAL , operated

2700-451: The braced parasol wing became popular on fighter aircraft, although few arrived in time to see combat. It remained popular throughout the 1920s. On flying boats with a shallow hull, a parasol wing allows the engines to be mounted above the spray from the water when taking off and landing. This arrangement was popular on flying boats during the 1930s; a late example being the Consolidated PBY Catalina . It died out when taller hulls became

2790-639: The 1930s, the cantilever monoplane was fast becoming the standard configuration for a fixed-wing aircraft. Advanced monoplane fighter-aircraft designs were mass-produced for military services around the world in both the Soviet Union and the United States in the early–mid 1930s, with the Polikarpov I-16 and the Boeing P-26 Peashooter respectively. Most military aircraft of WWII were monoplanes, as have been virtually all aircraft since, except for

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2880-536: The Atlantic. The range of the S.23 was less than that of the equivalent American-built counterpart in the form of the Sikorsky S-42 , and as such it could not provide a true transatlantic service. Two boats ( Caledonia and Cambria ) were lightened and furnished with long-range tanks; both aircraft were used in experimental in-flight refuelling trials in order for them to conduct the journey; these modifications came at

2970-485: The Empire flying boat, effectively a new aircraft, was the S.26 , designated as the G-class. The aircraft had similar appearance to the standard Empire, but was in fact roughly about 15 percent larger in all dimensions, as well as differing in its use of the more powerful Bristol Hercules radial engine . It adopted an improved hull design, featuring a wing span of 134 feet (41 m) and a length of 101 feet (31 m). It

3060-564: The Empire-Mercury combination went on to set a number of long-distance records; one such flight was conducted on 6 October 1938, flying from Dundee , Scotland to Orange River , South Africa, covering 6,045 miles (9,728 km) in 42 hrs 5 min. However, in spite of the demonstrated merits and workability of the concept, the outbreak of the Second World War resulted in the effective termination of all development work. During wartime, there

3150-481: The S.20, named Mercury . Together, they were known as the Short Mayo Composite . On 21 July 1938, a successful mid-air launch of Mercury was executed off the west coast of Ireland while carrying a 600 lb payload of mixed cargo and mail; it arrived at Montreal , Canada , 2,860 miles (4,600 km) 22 hrs 22 min later, having achieved an average speed of 141 mph (227 km/h). In further flights,

3240-447: The S.30 flying boats to be laid out and completed was G-AFCT, named Champion . In December 1938, the second S.30 aircraft G-AFCU, named Cabot became the first aircraft of the series to conduct the first successful takeoff. The last three aircraft of this order – Captain Cook , Clare and Aotearoa – were renamed and re-registered for use by TEAL . In 1939, a final S.30 flying boat, G-AFKZ,

3330-436: The S.30, designated as the S.33 . This series had the same basic construction as its immediate predecessors, the new Pegasus XI engine, a development of the powerplant used by the original S.23 series, was adopted instead. Out of these three final aircraft, only two – Clifton and Cleopatra – would be completed and delivered to the newly formed British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC). A substantial larger development of

3420-481: The addition of gun turrets in dorsal and rear positions and air to surface vessel (ASV) radar equipment installed on the top and sides of the fuselage. They were used by Coastal Command. More extensive military use was made of the Empire's sibling design, the Short Sunderland . On 8 February 1937, one of the Empire flying boats, Castor , conducted the first regular flight, flying from Calshot , Hampshire , England to Alexandria , Egypt . This flight, which covered

3510-440: The adoption of smaller diameter nacelles which had resulted in a substantial reduction in drag. It also had a strengthened airframe and used heavier gauge sheeting on the fuselage and wings; while these changes allowed the takeoff weight to be increased to 46,000 pounds (21,000 kg) with a corresponding range of 1,500 miles (2,400 km), the S.30 had broadly the same performance as the preceding S.23 flying boats. The first of

3600-416: The aircraft a range of over 2,500 miles (4,000 km). The extra fuel reduced the payload to 4,270 pounds (1,940 kg) against the 6,250 pounds (2,830 kg) of the standard aeroplane. The refuelling was performed by three converted Handley Page Harrow bombers, one operating out of Ireland and two out of Newfoundland . In 1939, Imperial Airways placed a further follow-on order for a modified model of

3690-476: The aircraft more manoeuvrable, as on the Spitfire ; but aircraft that value stability over manoeuvrability may then need some dihedral . A feature of the low-wing position is its significant ground effect , giving the plane a tendency to float farther before landing. Conversely, this ground effect permits shorter takeoffs. A mid wing is mounted midway up the fuselage. The carry-through spar structure can reduce

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3780-402: The aircraft occurred during landing and were generally attributed to pilot error. For pilots trained on smaller less sophisticated aircraft judgement of height was difficult due to the high cockpit of the Empire, as well as the concept of using flaps to manage speed. With time improved familiarity reduced the accident rate. Once in service the structure was found to be weak in places, especially on

3870-414: The aircraft of the initial batch, the company placed a follow-on order for another 11 Empires; combined with the original order of 28 this had the distinction of being the largest single order to have ever been placed for a British civil aircraft at that time. While the first three aircraft of the additional order were of the typical S.23 class, intended for Qantas Empire Airways, the rest were manufactured to

3960-504: The aircraft, additional fuel tanks were present in the wings, up to a total of three containing 280 gallons, 325 gallons, and 175 gallons in each wing. Elements of the leading edge of the wing, set upon either side of the engine nacelles, could be folded down to act as servicing platforms for both the engines and the floats , the latter of which were carried upon tandem struts fixed onto the main spar and featured shock absorbers in order to eliminate undue torsional loads being transmitted to

4050-521: The approval of the Fokker D.VIII fighter from its former "E.V" designation. However, the success of the Fokker was short-lived, and World War I was dominated by biplanes. Towards the end of the war, the parasol monoplane became popular and successful designs were produced into the 1920s. Nonetheless, relatively few monoplane types were built between 1914 and the late 1920s, compared with the number of biplanes. The reasons for this were primarily practical. With

4140-486: The available internal volume, only a simple curvature sweeping the sides of the hull into the chines was employed; on previous Shorts-built flying boats, a more complex S-shaped curvature and a sudden reduction in beam just above the chines had been employed instead. The 17 ft (5.2 m) deep hull accommodated a total of two decks, the upper deck forming a lengthy compartment divided into sections to accommodate 3,000 lb (1,400 kg) of freight and mail along with

4230-395: The behavior of MEMS cantilevers. The first is Stoney's formula , which relates cantilever end deflection δ to applied stress σ: where ν {\displaystyle \nu } is Poisson's ratio , E {\displaystyle E} is Young's modulus , L {\displaystyle L} is the beam length and t {\displaystyle t}

4320-518: The cantilever structure to release it, often with an anisotropic wet or dry etching technique. Without cantilever transducers, atomic force microscopy would not be possible. A large number of research groups are attempting to develop cantilever arrays as biosensors for medical diagnostic applications. MEMS cantilevers are also finding application as radio frequency filters and resonators . The MEMS cantilevers are commonly made as unimorphs or bimorphs . Two equations are key to understanding

4410-528: The cantilevers are usually built as pairs, with each cantilever used to support one end of a central section. The Forth Bridge in Scotland is an example of a cantilever truss bridge . A cantilever in a traditionally timber framed building is called a jetty or forebay . In the southern United States, a historic barn type is the cantilever barn of log construction . Temporary cantilevers are often used in construction. The partially constructed structure creates

4500-471: The capacity for an extended range of 2,000 miles (3,200 km) to serve the North Atlantic route was also stipulated. According to aviation author Geoffrey Norris, at the time, it was considered to be impossible to construct a land-based aeroplane of such size and weight that still possessed acceptable landing/take-off performance, thus it was determined that a flying boat would be required. Early on, it

4590-480: The cost of being able to carry fewer passengers and less cargo. In an attempt to manage the Atlantic crossing, an alternative 'piggy-back' approach was trialled. This concept had been strongly advocated for by Imperial Airways' technical adviser, Major Robert Hobart Mayo, as a means of significantly increasing both range and payload, and had been well received by both the airline and the British Air Ministry ,

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4680-403: The decision less favourably as being a gamble. A design team led by Arthur Gouge set about designing what would become the Empire. It was quickly determined that, in order to have sufficient clearance between the tips of the propellers and the water, the wing would need to be in a high mounted position; initially to be housed in a hump above the fuselage for sufficient height, the fuselage depth

4770-462: The final delivery and proving flight of the aircraft to Marseilles , France took place on 22 October 1936. The first series of the Short Empires, the S.23 , could carry five crew, 17 passengers, and 4,480 lb (2,035 kg) of cargo at a maximum speed of 174 knots (320 km/h) and was powered by four 920 horsepower (690 kW) Bristol Pegasus Xc radial engines . The second Empire and

4860-635: The first flight. The Empire was officially known as the C-class by Imperial Airways and each aircraft operated by them was given a name beginning with a C. On 26 February 1938, the final three Empires of the initial order placed by Imperial Airways – Coorong , Coogee and Corio – were diverted from the Imperial Airways order and were delivered instead to the Anglo-Australian Qantas Empire Airways . In late 1937, due to Imperial Airways' satisfaction with its operational experience with

4950-436: The first of the long-range models to be produced, G-ADHM, named Caledonia , performed her first flight on 15 September 1936 and was delivered to Imperial Airways on 4 December 1936. From September 1936 onwards, the Empire was produced at a rate of one aircraft per month; typically, each aircraft's delivery date occurred only a few days after having performed its maiden flight, the hand-over sometimes happened immediately following

5040-581: The force applied to a cantilever can shift the resonance frequency. The frequency shift can be measured with exquisite accuracy using heterodyne techniques and is the basis of ac-coupled cantilever sensors. The principal advantage of MEMS cantilevers is their cheapness and ease of fabrication in large arrays. The challenge for their practical application lies in the square and cubic dependences of cantilever performance specifications on dimensions. These superlinear dependences mean that cantilevers are quite sensitive to variation in process parameters, particularly

5130-402: The fuselage sides. The first parasol monoplanes were adaptations of shoulder wing monoplanes, since raising a shoulder mounted wing above the fuselage greatly improved visibility downwards, which was useful for reconnaissance roles, as with the widely used Morane-Saulnier L . The parasol wing allows for an efficient design with good pilot visibility, and was adopted for some fighters such as

5220-433: The general variations in wing configuration such as tail position and use of bracing, the main distinction between types of monoplane is where the wing is mounted vertically on the fuselage . A low wing is one which is located on or near the bottom of the fuselage. Placing the wing low allows good visibility upwards and frees the central fuselage from the wing spar carry-through. By reducing pendulum stability, it makes

5310-400: The internally-developed Gouge flaps , the latter of which were actuated by an electric motor connected via a gearing system and screw jacks , allowing the flaps to be lowered in 60 seconds and raised within 90 seconds. Large cylindrical 325-gallon fuel tanks were accommodated within the wings, set in between the inner and outer engines, and were fitted as standard; on long-range variants of

5400-590: The landing speed by 12 per cent, without employing any trimming to adjust. On 4 July 1936, the first Empire flying boat to be built, G-ADHL, named Canopus , conducted its maiden flight , flown by Shorts' chief test pilot, John Lankester Parker . Early flights of the type were relatively trouble-free, Parker declaring his satisfaction with the aircraft's performance; the new styling of the planing bottom used also quickly proved its value. On 17 September 1936, G-ADHL first flew on behalf of Imperial Airways, piloted by Major H G Brackley, Imperial Airways' air superintendent;

5490-680: The largest cantilever stand in the world holding 17,000 spectators. The roof built over the stands at Old Trafford uses a cantilever so that no supports will block views of the field. The old (now demolished) Miami Stadium had a similar roof over the spectator area. The largest cantilevered roof in Europe is located at St James' Park in Newcastle-Upon-Tyne , the home stadium of Newcastle United F.C. Less obvious examples of cantilevers are free-standing (vertical) radio towers without guy-wires , and chimneys , which resist being blown over by

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5580-450: The last Empire crossings to America were made in 1940 (by Clare and Clyde ), many more flights were made on the long, demanding and vital over-water Lisbon - Bathurst flights. 42 "C Class" Short Empire flying boats were built, including 31 S.23s, nine S.30s and two S.33s. Many S.23, S.30 & S.33 were re-engined during the war with 1,010 hp (750 kW) Bristol Pegasus XXII poppet valve radial engines. Most accidents involving

5670-473: The late 1920s and early 1930s raised speeds through this zone and by the late 1930s cantilever wings had almost wholly superseded braced ones. Other changes such as enclosed cockpits, retractable undercarriage, landing flaps and stressed-skin construction furthered the design revolution, with the pivotal moment widely acknowledged to be the MacRobertson England-Australia air race of 1934, which

5760-448: The latter of which placed an order with Shorts. Using the S.21 design (based on the S.23) as the carrier, a smaller four-engined floatplane, the Short S.20 , was mounted upon its back; the most obvious difference between the S.21 and regular S.23 aeroplanes was the additional superstructure to carry the floatplane. Only a single example was built of the S.21 carrier aircraft, named Maia , and of

5850-464: The leading edge of the wings. This allowed portions of the leading edge adjacent to the engines to be hinged forwards and used as platforms from which to maintain the engines. The Pegasus Xc engines could each produce 910 horsepower (680 kW) on takeoff, decreasing to 740 horsepower (550 kW) at an altitude of 3,500 ft. Alternative engines were installed upon various models of the aircraft, of both greater and lower power outputs depending upon

5940-415: The low engine powers and airspeeds available, the wings of a monoplane needed to be large in order to create enough lift while a biplane could have two smaller wings and so be made smaller and lighter. Towards the end of the First World War, the inherent high drag of the biplane was beginning to restrict performance. Engines were not yet powerful enough to make the heavy cantilever-wing monoplane viable, and

6030-528: The model's role and purpose. Initial production aircraft were designed for a 40,500 lb (18,400 kg) gross weight; however, by 1939, many aircraft had been strengthened for an increased gross weight of 53,000 lb (24,000 kg). Overall, its useful load included 600 imperial gallons (720 US gal; 2,700 L) of fuel (weighing 4,560 lb (2,070 kg)), 44 imp gal (53 US gal; 200 L) of oil, assorted onboard equipment (weighing 3,340 lb (1,510 kg)), along with

6120-434: The monoplane has been the most common form for a fixed-wing aircraft. The inherent efficiency of the monoplane is best achieved in the cantilever wing, which carries all structural forces internally. However, to fly at practical speeds the wing must be made thin, which requires a heavy structure to make it strong and stiff enough. External bracing can be used to improve structural efficiency, reducing weight and cost. For

6210-417: The necessary T-shaped Hiduminium alloy lengths that comprised the main spar . A specialised and patented flap arrangement, known as Gouge flaps after their creator, was employed on the Empire to increase wing area with only a small increase in drag and without heavy disrupting airflow over the top of the aerofoil ; in operation, the lift coefficient of the wing could be increased by 30 percent, reducing

6300-410: The norm during World War II, allowing a high wing to be attached directly to the hull. As ever-increasing engine powers made the weight of all-metal construction and the cantilever wing more practical — first pioneered together by the revolutionary German Junkers J 1 factory demonstrator in 1915–16 — they became common during the post–World War I period, the day of the braced wing passed, and by

6390-462: The old "Eastern Route") to Durban , South Africa, and thence by sea to Britain. This was restricted after the loss of Singapore in February 1942 to being between Durban and Calcutta , India. Wartime experience in operating the type at overload weights resulted in the realisation that the Empires could take off at considerably higher weights than the conservative maxima provided by Shorts and, although

6480-435: The payload itself and a crew complement of five (weighing 8,200 pounds (3,700 kg)). The S.23 series achieved a top speed of 200 miles per hour (320 km/h) at an altitude of 5,500 feet (1,700 m) along with a cruising speed of 165 miles per hour (266 km/h) and a minimum flying speed of 73 miles per hour (117 km/h). The wings had a flush- riveted Alclad covering and featured both Frise-type ailerons and

6570-406: The planing bottoms, which led to later models employing thicker gauge skins on the hull and wings. Data from The Encyclopedia of World Aircraft , The Short Empire Boats General characteristics Performance Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Related lists Monoplane A monoplane is a fixed-wing aircraft configuration with

6660-457: The production of a preceding prototype, and thus requested to be allowed the time to build such an aircraft; this was rejected by Imperial Airways, stating that such a delay was not permissible. In 1935, Imperial Airways announced the placement of an order for 28 flying boats of an as-of-yet undesigned type, weighing 18 tonnes each; the order was reportedly hailed as being "one of the world's boldest experiments in aviation", while sceptics referred to

6750-404: The same route in the opposite direction in a time of 12 hours; in comparison to the competing Sikorsky S-42, the Empire was able to traverse the overall route faster. Several more survey flights of the Atlantic were made by Caledonia and Cambria . In August 1937, Cambria conducted the east–west flight in 14 hrs 24 min. In 1937, Cavalier was shipped to Bermuda and, after reassembly, started

6840-399: The thickness as this is generally difficult to accurately measure. However, it has been shown that microcantilever thicknesses can be precisely measured and that this variation can be quantified. Controlling residual stress can also be difficult. A chemical sensor can be obtained by coating a recognition receptor layer over the upper side of a microcantilever beam. A typical application

6930-449: The top of the fuselage. It shares many advantages and disadvantages with the shoulder wing, but on a light aircraft, the high wing has poorer upwards visibility. On light aircraft such as the Cessna 152 , the wing is usually located above the cabin, so that the wing spar passes over the occupants' heads, leaving the wing in the ideal fore-aft position. An advantage of the high-wing configuration

7020-574: The type in commercial service. Upon entering service, the Empire routinely flew between the British mainland and Australia and the various British colonies in Africa and Asia , typically carrying a combination of passenger and mail cargoes; Empires were also used on various other routes, such as between Bermuda and New York City . The Empire also saw military service during the Second World War. The Royal Air Force (RAF), Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF), and briefly

7110-439: The useful fuselage volume near its centre of gravity, where space is often in most demand. A shoulder wing (a category between high-wing and mid-wing) is a configuration whereby the wing is mounted near the top of the fuselage but not on the very top. It is so called because it sits on the "shoulder" of the fuselage, rather than on the pilot's shoulder. Shoulder-wings and high-wings share some characteristics, namely: they support

7200-424: The wind through cantilever action at their base. The cantilever is commonly used in the wings of fixed-wing aircraft . Early aircraft had light structures which were braced with wires and struts . However, these introduced aerodynamic drag which limited performance. While it is heavier, the cantilever avoids this issue and allows the plane to fly faster. Hugo Junkers pioneered the cantilever wing in 1915. Only

7290-453: The wing must also form a stiff cantilever in the horizontal plane. A single-spar design will usually be fitted with a second smaller drag-spar nearer the trailing edge , braced to the main spar via additional internal members or a stressed skin. The wing must also resist twisting forces, achieved by cross-bracing or otherwise stiffening the main structure. Cantilever wings require much stronger and heavier spars than would otherwise be needed in

7380-448: The wings by the sudden impact of waves while travelling at speed. The hull, which had adopted a radically new shape, employed mainly traditional construction methods at Shorts. The structure used a combination of Z-shaped stringers and I-shaped girders to form triangular sections that ran along the chines located at the point where the fuselage sides met with the planing underside. As a measure to simplify manufacturing and to increase

7470-472: Was apparent that Short Brothers, which had previously developed and produced several large flying boats for Imperial Airways and the Royal Air Force (RAF) that had proven to be sound designs in terms of performance and safety, would be a frontrunner to fulfil the requirement. However, Shorts was hesitant to build such an aircraft, due to the necessary advances involved, straight from the drawing board without

7560-743: Was conducted. On an experimental basis, Caledonia , piloted by Captain W N Cummings, flew a 1,993 miles (3,207 km) route from Foynes on the River Shannon , Ireland west to Botwood on the Bay of Exploits , Newfoundland . On the same day, an American Sikorsky S-42 flying boat flew the opposite direction. Caledonia took just over 15 hours (including a period spend searching for a landing spot), flying at an altitude of 1,500 to 5,000 ft (460 to 1,520 m) to cover 1,993 miles (3,207 km)—an average speed of about 130 mph (210 km/h). On its return flight, conducted on 22 July 1937, Caledonia flew

7650-410: Was instead increased, providing more internal volume than required but enabling a lighter and stronger integration of the cantilever wing with the fuselage. Shorts' own convention for wide planing bottomed hulls for its flying boats was overturned as the 18-tonne weight would generate excessive drag with such a configuration; following a series of water tank experiments, a new type of planing bottom with

7740-551: Was intended to be used for year-round services on the north Atlantic route. Only a small number were built, and these were quickly impressed into military service during the Second World War. The Short Empire flying boat was a relatively clean-looking high-wing monoplane , initially powered by an arrangement of four wing-mounted Bristol Pegasus Xc radial engines which drove de Havilland -built variable-pitch propellers . The engines were each enclosed within NACA cowls and mounted ahead of

7830-549: Was interest in the concept using alternative land-based aircraft to deliver Hawker Hurricane fighter aircraft for aerial protection over the mid-Atlantic. After Italy entered the Second World War in June 1940, it became impossible for mail to be safely flown between Britain and Egypt (and thus onto Australia) via the Mediterranean. Accordingly, a new " Horseshoe Route " was established that ran from Auckland/Sydney via Cairo (following

7920-488: Was ordered and delivered to Imperial Airways in late March 1940. A total of four flying S.30 series flying boats – Cabot , Caribou , Clyde and Connemara – were equipped with in-flight refuelling equipment and extra fuel tanks in order that they could be used to provide a regular transatlantic airmail service. The concept was for the aircraft to take off at lower weights and, once airborne, take on extra fuel to reach an all up weight of 53,000 pounds (24,000 kg), giving

8010-448: Was seated in a spacious cockpit , also referred to as the bridge ; the captain and co-pilot were seated side-by-side while the radio operator sat behind the captain, facing rearwards. The flight deck was relatively well equipped for the era, including features such as an autopilot ; the flying instrumentation included a Hughes turn indicator, compass , and variometer , a Sperry Corporation artificial horizon and heading indicator ,

8100-671: Was won by a de Havilland DH.88 Comet . Currently, cantilever wings are almost universal with bracing only being used for some slower aircraft where a lighter weight is prioritized over speed, such as in the ultralight class. Cantilevered beams are the most ubiquitous structures in the field of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). An early example of a MEMS cantilever is the Resonistor, an electromechanical monolithic resonator. MEMS cantilevers are commonly fabricated from silicon (Si), silicon nitride (Si 3 N 4 ), or polymers . The fabrication process typically involves undercutting

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