161-595: The Shinfa is a river of northwestern Ethiopia . It is an important tributary of the 805 km (500 mi) long Atbarah River , which in turn flows into the Nile in north-central Sudan . This article related to a river in Ethiopia is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Ethiopia Ethiopia , officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia , is a landlocked country located in
322-512: A Marxist-Leninist state . The abolition of feudalism , increased literacy , nationalization , and sweeping land reform including the resettlement and villagization from the Ethiopian Highlands became priorities. After a power struggle in 1977, Mengistu Halie Mariam gained undisputed leadership of the Derg. In 1977, Somalia, which had previously been receiving assistance and arms from
483-601: A trade union or an association, to soldiers and to members of the clergy . Consequently, only 9.5 million people were able to vote. In 1870, the newly formed Kingdom of Italy annexed the remaining Papal States , depriving the Pope of his temporal power . Relations with the Roman Catholic Church improved significantly during Mussolini's tenure. Despite earlier opposition to the Church, after 1922 Mussolini made an alliance with
644-404: A " Jewish Question " and the article also stated that "Italy knows no antisemitism and we believe that it will never know it" and then, the article elaborated "let us hope that Italian Jews will continue to be sensible enough so as not to give rise to antisemitism in the only country where it has never existed". In 1932, during a conversation with Emil Ludwig , Mussolini described antisemitism as
805-629: A "German vice" and stated: "There was 'no Jewish Question' in Italy and could not be one in a country with a healthy system of government". On several occasions, Mussolini spoke positively about Jews and the Zionist movement . Mussolini had initially rejected Nazi racism, especially the idea of a master race , as "arrant nonsense, stupid and idiotic". In 1929, Mussolini acknowledged the contributions which Italian Jews had made to Italian society, despite their minority status, and he also believed that Jewish culture
966-674: A 10% drop in real income and a fall in exports. Italy fared better than most western nations during the Depression: its welfare services did reduce the impact of the Depression. Its industrial growth from 1913 to 1938 was even greater than that of Germany for the same time period. Only the United Kingdom and the Scandinavian nations had a higher industrial growth during that period. Italy's colonial expansion into Ethiopia in 1936 proved to have
1127-486: A British mission that concluded with an alliance between the two nations, but it was not until 1855 that the Amhara kingdoms of northern Ethiopia (Gondar, Gojjam , and Shewa ) were briefly united after the power of the emperor was restored beginning with the reign of Tewodros II . Tewodros II began a process of consolidation, centralisation, and state-building that would be continued by succeeding emperors. This process reduced
1288-485: A Sades or the sixth sound እ as in incorporate and the graph ጰ has no equivalent in English or Latin graphs. Ethiopis is believed to be the twelfth direct descendant of Adam. His father is identified as Kush, while his grandfather is known as Kam. In the 15th-century Ge'ez Book of Axum , the name is ascribed to a legendary individual called Ityopp'is . He was an extra-biblical son of Cush, son of Ham , said to have founded
1449-643: A famous Italian Jewish mathematician, into the Pontifical Academy of Science. Despite Mussolini's close alliance with Hitler's Germany, Italy did not fully adopt Nazism's genocidal ideology towards the Jews. The Nazis were frustrated by the Italian authorities' refusal to co-operate in the round-ups of Jews, and no Jews were deported prior to the formation of the Italian Social Republic puppet-state following
1610-565: A judicial system. In April 1993, Eritrea gained independence from Ethiopia after a national referendum . In May 1998, a border dispute with Eritrea led to the Eritrean–Ethiopian War , which lasted until June 2000 and cost both countries an estimated $ 1 million a day. This had a negative effect on Ethiopia's economy, and a border conflict between the two countries would continue until 2018 . As of 2018, further civil war in Ethiopia continues, mainly due to destabilization of
1771-463: A major step towards being completely taken over by the agenda of indoctrination. In that year, the Fascist government took control of the authorization of all textbooks, all secondary school teachers were required to take an oath of loyalty to Fascism and children began to be taught that they owed the same loyalty to Fascism as they did to God. In 1933, all university teachers were required to be members of
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#17328522117821932-461: A mild climate year round. With temperatures fairly uniform year round, the seasons in Addis Ababa are largely defined by rainfall: a dry season from October to February, a light rainy season from March to May, and a heavy rainy season from June to September. The average annual rainfall is approximately 1,200 millimetres (47 in). There are on average seven hours of sunshine per day. The dry season
2093-430: A negative impact on Italy's economy. The budget of the colony of Italian East Africa in the 1936–1937 fiscal year requested from Italy 19.136 billion lire to be used to create the necessary infrastructure for the colony. Italy's entire revenue that year was only 18.581 billion lire. In 1933, Italy made multiple technological achievements. The Fascist government spent large sums of money on technological projects such as
2254-592: A one-party state and to integrate Fascism into all aspects of life. A totalitarian state was officially declared in the Doctrine of Fascism of 1935: The Fascist conception of the State is all-embracing; outside of it no human or spiritual values can exist, much less have value. Thus understood, Fascism is totalitarian, and the Fascist State—a synthesis and a unit inclusive of all values—interprets, develops, and potentiates
2415-660: A policy which was extremely unpopular within Italy as well as within the Fascist Party itself. As a result of this policy, the Fascist regime lost its propaganda director, Margherita Sarfatti , who was Jewish and had previously been Mussolini's mistress. A minority of high-ranking Fascists were pleased with the antisemitic policy such as Roberto Farinacci , who claimed that Jews had taken control of key positions in finance, business and schools through intrigue, accused Jews of sympathizing with Ethiopia during Italy's war with it and accused Jews of sympathizing with Republican Spain during
2576-600: A role in Italy's "place in the sun" through special courses created to train them for a future as colonial wives. The government tried to achieve "alimentary sovereignty", or total self-sufficiency with regard to food supplies. Its new policies were highly controversial among a people who paid serious attention to their food. The goal was to reduce imports, support Italian agriculture and encourage an austere diet based on bread, polenta, pasta, fresh produce and wine. Fascist women's groups trained women in "autarkic cookery" to work around items no longer imported. Food prices climbed in
2737-477: A similar elevation to Addis Ababa and have a comparable climate. In less elevated regions, particularly the lower lying Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands in the east of Ethiopia, the climate can be significantly hotter and drier. Dallol , in the Danakil Depression in this eastern zone, has the world's highest average annual temperature of 34 °C (93.2 °F). Ethiopia is vulnerable to many of
2898-595: A stringent education policy in Italy aiming at eliminating illiteracy, which was a serious problem in Italy at the time, as well as improving the allegiance of Italians to the state. To reduce drop-outs, the government changed the minimum age of leaving school from twelve to fourteen and strictly enforced attendance. The Fascist government's first minister of education from 1922 to 1924 Giovanni Gentile recommended that education policy should focus on indoctrination of students into Fascism and to educate youth to respect and be obedient to authority. In 1929, education policy took
3059-409: A study published in the journal Science , this dwelling is proof of the earliest permanent human occupation at high altitude yet discovered. Thousands of animal bones, hundreds of stone tools, and ancient fireplaces were discovered, revealing a diet that featured giant mole rats . Evidence of some of the earliest known stone-tipped projectile weapons (a characteristic tool of Homo sapiens ),
3220-574: A universal campaign of hatred against the Jews ;... Considering that in many places certain groups of Jews are installed in conquered countries, exercising in an open and occult manner an influence injurious to the material and moral interests of the country which harbors them, constituting a sort of state within a state, profiting by all benefits and refusing all duties, considering that they have furnished and are inclined to furnish, elements conducive to international revolution which would be destructive to
3381-519: Is a term which is used in historiography to describe the Kingdom of Italy when it was governed by the National Fascist Party from 1922 to 1943 with Benito Mussolini as prime minister and dictator . The Italian Fascists imposed totalitarian rule and crushed political opposition , while simultaneously promoting economic modernization , traditional social values and a rapprochement with
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#17328522117823542-583: Is estimated that by 1936 the OND had organized 80% of salaried workers. Nearly 40% of the industrial workforce had been recruited into the Dopolavoro by 1939 and the sports activities proved popular with large numbers of workers. The OND had the largest membership of any of the mass Fascist organizations in Italy. The enormous success of the Dopolavoro in Fascist Italy prompted Nazi Germany to create its own version of
3703-638: Is not moving forward, then this is what the great Jewish bankers of London and New York have decreed. These bankers are bound by ties of blood to those Jews who in Moscow as in Budapest are taking their revenge on the Aryan race that has condemned them to dispersion for so many centuries. In Russia, 80 percent of the managers of the Soviets are Jews, in Budapest 17 out of 22 people's commissars are Jews. Might it not be that bolshevism
3864-459: Is now Tigray Region and Eritrea. According to the medieval Book of Axum , the kingdom's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush. Aksum would later at times extend its rule into Yemen on the other side of the Red Sea. The Persian prophet Mani listed Axum with Rome, Persia, and China as one of the four great powers of his era, during the 3rd century. It is also believed that there
4025-488: Is now thought to have been minor, limited to a few localities, and disappearing after a few decades or a century. It may have been a trading or military colony in alliance with the Ethiopian civilization of Dʿmt or some other proto-Axumite state. After the fall of Dʿmt during the 4th century BC, the Ethiopian plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms. In the 1st century AD, the Kingdom of Aksum emerged in what
4186-558: Is paralyzed, disorganized, starved, will be a place where tomorrow the bourgeoisie, yes the bourgeoisie, o proletarians will celebrate its spectacular feast of plenty. Mussolini's statement on a Jewish-Bolshevik-plutocratic connection and conspiracy was met with opposition in the Fascist movement, leading Mussolini to respond to this opposition amongst his supporters by abandoning and reversing this stance shortly afterward in 1919. In reversing his stance due to opposition to it, Mussolini no longer expressed his previous assertion that Bolshevism
4347-456: Is responsible to the State for the direction given to production. State intervention in economic production arises only when private initiative is lacking or insufficient, or when the political interests of the State are involved. This intervention may take the form of control, assistance or direct management. Fascists claimed that this system would be egalitarian and traditional at the same time. The economic policy of corporatism quickly faltered;
4508-401: Is surrounded by lowlands, steppes , or semi-desert. There is a great diversity of terrain with wide variations in climate, soils, natural vegetation and settlement patterns. Ethiopia is an ecologically diverse country, ranging from the deserts along the eastern border to the tropical forests in the south to extensive Afromontane in the northern and southwestern parts. Lake Tana in the north
4669-479: Is the country's largest economic sector, accounting for over 37% of the gross domestic product as of 2022. However, in terms of per capita income and the Human Development Index , the country is regarded as poor, with high rates of poverty , poor respect for human rights , widespread ethnic discrimination , and a literacy rate of only 49%. Tradition holds that the name Ethiopia (ኢትዮጵያ) comes from
4830-748: Is the most widely professed faith in the country, with significant minorities of the adherents of Islam and a small percentage to traditional faiths . This sovereign state is a founding member of the UN, the Group of 24 , the Non-Aligned Movement , the Group of 77 , and the Organisation of African Unity . Addis Ababa is the headquarters of the African Union , the Pan African Chamber of Commerce and Industry ,
4991-560: Is the source of the Blue Nile . It also has many endemic species, notably the gelada , the walia ibex and the Ethiopian wolf ("Simien fox"). The wide range of altitude has given the country a variety of ecologically distinct areas, and this has helped to encourage the evolution of endemic species in ecological isolation. The nation is a land of geographical contrasts, ranging from the vast fertile west, with its forests and numerous rivers, to
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5152-504: Is the sunniest time of the year, though even at the height of the rainy season in July and August there are still usually several hours per day of bright sunshine. The average annual temperature in Addis Ababa is 16 °C (60.8 °F), with daily maximum temperatures averaging 20–25 °C (68.0–77.0 °F) throughout the year, and overnight lows averaging 5–10 °C (41.0–50.0 °F). Most major cities and tourist sites in Ethiopia lie at
5313-556: Is the vendetta of Judaism against Christianity?? It is certainly worth pondering. It is entirely possible that bolshevism will drown in the blood of a pogrom of catastrophic proportions. World finance is in the hands of the Jews. Whoever owns the strongboxes of the peoples is in control of their political systems. Behind the puppets (making peace) in Paris, there are the Rothschilds , the Warburgs ,
5474-575: The 10th-most populous country in the world, the 2nd-most populous in Africa after Nigeria , and the most populated landlocked country on Earth. The national capital and largest city, Addis Ababa , lies several kilometres west of the East African Rift that splits the country into the African and Somali tectonic plates . Anatomically modern humans emerged from modern-day Ethiopia and set out for
5635-643: The Aksumite Empire , indicates that Aksum's ruler governed an area that was flanked to the west by the territory of Ethiopia and Sasu. The Aksumite King Ezana eventually conquered Nubia the following century, and the Aksumites thereafter appropriated the designation "Ethiopians" for their own kingdom. In the Ge'ez version of the Ezana inscription, Aἰθίοπες is equated with the unvocalized Ḥbšt and Ḥbśt (Ḥabashat), and denotes for
5796-598: The Armistice of Cassibile . In the Italian-occupied Independent State of Croatia , German envoy Siegfried Kasche advised Berlin that Italian forces had "apparently been influenced" by Vatican opposition to German anti-Semitism. As anti-Axis feeling grew in Italy, the use of Vatican Radio to broadcast papal disapproval of race murder and anti-Semitism angered the Nazis. Mussolini was overthrown in July 1943,
5957-660: The Cosa Nostra in Sicilia and the 'Ndrangheta in Calabria, the Fascist government gave special powers in 1925 to Cesare Mori , the prefect of Palermo . These powers gave him the ability to prosecute the Mafia , forcing many Mafiosi to flee abroad (many to the United States) or risk being jailed. However, Mori was fired when he began to investigate Mafia links within the Fascist regime and
6118-550: The Dopolavoro , the Kraft durch Freude (KdF) or "Strength through Joy" program, which was even more successful than the Dopolavoro . Another organization the Opera Nazionale Balilla (ONB) was widely popular and provided young people with access to clubs, dances, sports facilities, radios, concerts, plays, circuses and outdoor hikes at little or no cost. It sponsored tournaments and sports festivals. Between 1928 and 1930,
6279-660: The East African campaign in 1941. The country was placed under British military administration , and then Ethiopia's full sovereignty was restored with the signing of the Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement in December 1944. On 24 October 1945, Ethiopia became a founding member of the United Nations . In 1952, Haile Selassie orchestrated a federation with Eritrea . He dissolved this in 1962 and annexed Eritrea, resulting in
6440-461: The Eritrean War of Independence . Haile Selassie also played a leading role in the formation of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU). Opinion within Ethiopia turned against Haile Selassie, owing to the worldwide 1973 oil crisis causing a sharp increase in gasoline prices starting on 13 February 1974, leading to student and worker protests. The feudal oligarchical cabinet of Aklilu Habte-Wold
6601-510: The Ethiopian–Adal War (1529–1543) contributed to fragmentation of the empire, which ultimately fell under a decentralization known as Zemene Mesafint in the mid-18th century. Emperor Tewodros II ended Zemene Mesafint at the beginning of his reign in 1855, marking the reunification and modernization of Ethiopia. From 1878 onwards, Emperor Menelik II launched a series of conquests known as Menelik's Expansions , which resulted in
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6762-536: The Ethiopian–Adal War , but was ultimately defeated at the 1543 Battle of Wayna Daga . By the 16th century, an influx of migration by ethnic Oromo into northern parts of the region fragmented the empire's power. Embarking from present-day Guji and Borena Zone , the Oromos were largely motivated by several folkloric conceptions—beginning with Moggaasaa and Liqimssa —many of whom related to their raids. This persisted until gada of Meslé. According to Abba Bahrey ,
6923-468: The Horn of Africa region of East Africa . It shares borders with Eritrea to the north , Djibouti to the northeast , Somalia to the east , Kenya to the south , South Sudan to the west , and Sudan to the northwest . Ethiopia covers a land area of 1,104,300 square kilometres (1,104,300 square kilometres (426,400 sq mi)). As of 2024 , it is home to around 132 million inhabitants, making it
7084-515: The Horn of Africa , which is the easternmost part of the African landmass. The territories that have frontiers with Ethiopia are Eritrea to the north and then, moving in a clockwise direction, Djibouti, Somalia, Kenya, South Sudan and Sudan. Within Ethiopia is a vast highland complex of mountains and dissected plateaus divided by the Great Rift Valley , which runs generally southwest to northeast and
7245-716: The Italian Racial Laws and the Manifesto of Race were promulgated by the Fascist régime, designed to outlaw and persecute both Italian Jews and Protestant Christians , especially Evangelicals and Pentecostals . In January 1939, The Jewish National Monthly reported "the only bright spot in Italy has been the Vatican, where fine humanitarian statements by the Pope have been issuing regularly". When Mussolini's anti-Semitic decrees began depriving Jews of employment in Italy, Pius XI personally admitted professor Vito Volterra ,
7406-544: The Jebel Irhoud site in Morocco have since been dated to an earlier period, about 300,000 years ago, while Omo-Kibish I (Omo I) from southern Ethiopia is the oldest anatomically modern Homo sapiens skeleton currently known (196 ± 5 kya). According to some linguists, the first Afroasiatic -speaking populations arrived in the region during the ensuing Neolithic era from the family's proposed urheimat ("original homeland") in
7567-513: The League of Nations , prompting a Grand Council of Fascism vote to withdraw from the League on 11 December 1937 and Mussolini denounced the League as a mere "tottering temple". Until 1938, Mussolini had denied any antisemitism within Fascist Italy and dismissed the racial policies of Nazi Germany . However, by mid-1938 Hitler's influence over Mussolini had persuaded him to make a specific agenda on race,
7728-711: The Mahdist War allied to Britain, Turkey, and Egypt against the Sudanese Mahdist State. In 1887, Menelik II , king of Shewa , invaded the Emirate of Harar after his victory at the Battle of Chelenqo . On 10 March 1889, Yohannes IV was killed by the Sudanese Khalifah Abdullah's army whilst leading his army in the Battle of Gallabat . Ethiopia, in roughly its current form, began under the reign of Menelik II, who
7889-615: The Matteotti Crisis where Mussolini began pushing for a totalitarian state. In 1926, the Syndical Laws, also known as the Rocco Laws, were passed, organizing the economy into twelve separate employer and employee unions. The unions were largely state-controlled and were mainly used to suppress opposition and reward political loyalty. While the Fascist unions could not protect workers from all economic consequences, they were responsible for
8050-468: The Merawi massacre in early 2024, which left 50 to 100 residents deaths in Merawi town in Amhara. At 1,104,300 square kilometres (426,372.61 sq mi), Ethiopia is the world's 26th-largest country, comparable in size to Bolivia . It lies between the 3rd parallel north and the 15th parallel north and longitudes 33rd meridian east and 48th meridian east . The major portion of Ethiopia lies in
8211-652: The Near East and elsewhere in the Middle Paleolithic period. Southwestern Ethiopia has been proposed as a possible homeland of the Afroasiatic language family . In 980 BC, the Kingdom of D'mt extended its realm over Eritrea and the northern region of Ethiopia, while the Kingdom of Aksum maintained a unified civilization in the region for 900 years. Christianity was embraced by the kingdom in 330, and Islam arrived by
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#17328522117828372-537: The Nile Valley , or the Near East . The majority of scholars today propose that the Afroasiatic family developed in northeast Africa because of the higher diversity of lineages in that region, a telltale sign of linguistic origin. In 2019, archaeologists discovered a 30,000-year-old Middle Stone Age rock shelter at the Fincha Habera site in Bale Mountains at an elevation of 3,469 metres (11,381 feet) above sea level. At this high altitude, humans are susceptible both to hypoxia and to extreme weather. According to
8533-454: The Omo remains , were excavated in the southwestern Omo Kibish area and have been dated to the Middle Paleolithic , around 200,000 years ago. Additionally, skeletons of Homo sapiens idaltu were found at a site in the Middle Awash valley. Dated to approximately 160,000 years ago, they may represent an extinct subspecies of Homo sapiens , or the immediate ancestors of anatomically modern humans. Archaic Homo sapiens fossils excavated at
8694-426: The Red Terror , a violent political repression campaign by the Derg against various opposition groups. In 1987, the Derg dissolved itself and established the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) upon the adoption of the 1987 Constitution of Ethiopia . A 1983–85 famine affected around 8 million people, resulting in 1 million dead. Insurrections against authoritarian rule sprang up, particularly in
8855-484: The Roman Catholic Church . According to historian Stanley G. Payne , "[the] Fascist government passed through several relatively distinct phases". The first phase (1922–1925) was nominally a continuation of the parliamentary system, albeit with a "legally-organized executive dictatorship". In foreign policy, Mussolini ordered the Pacification of Libya against rebels in the Italian colonies of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (eventually unified in Italian Libya ), inflicted
9016-451: The Sahara that were then known within the Ecumene (habitable world). The earliest mention of the term is found in the works of Homer , where it is used to refer to two people groups, one in Africa and one in the east from eastern Turkey to India. This Greek name was borrowed into Amharic as ኢትዮጵያ, ʾĪtyōṗṗyā . In Greco - Roman epigraphs, Aethiopia was a specific toponym for ancient Nubia . At least as early as c. 850 ,
9177-437: The Second Italo-Ethiopian War , which was launched from Eritrea and Somaliland ; confrontations with the League of Nations , leading to sanctions; growing economic autarky ; the invasion of Albania ; and the signing of the Pact of Steel . The fifth phase (1940–1943) was World War II itself, ending in military defeat , while the sixth and final phase (1943–1945) was the rump Salò Government under German control. Italy
9338-399: The Spanish Civil War . In 1938, Farinacci became the minister in charge of culture and he also adopted racial laws which were designed to prevent racial intermixing , including antisemitic laws . Until the armistice with the Allies in September 1943, the Italian Jewish community was protected from deportation to the German death camps in the east. With the armistice, Hitler took control of
9499-400: The USSR , invaded Ethiopia in the Ogaden War , capturing part of the Ogaden region. Ethiopia recovered it after it began receiving massive military aid from the Soviet bloc countries. By the end of the seventies, Mengistu presided over the second-largest army in all of sub-Saharan Africa , as well as a formidable air force and navy. In 1976–78, up to 500,000 were killed as a result of
9660-492: The United Nations Economic Commission for Africa , the African Standby Force and many of the global non-governmental organizations focused on Africa. Ethiopia became a full member of BRICS in 2024. Ethiopia is one of the least developed countries but is sometimes considered an emerging power , having the fastest economic growth in sub-Saharan African countries because of foreign direct investment in expansion of agricultural and manufacturing industries; agriculture
9821-487: The United States . However, the transfer of agricultural land to wheat production reduced the production of vegetables and fruit. Despite improving production for wheat, the situation for peasants themselves did not improve, as 0.5% of the Italian population (usually wealthy) owned 42% of all agricultural land in Italy and income for peasants did not increase while taxes did increase. The Depression caused unemployment to rise from 300,000 to 1 million in 1933. It also caused
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#17328522117829982-400: The World's Fair known as the Century of Progress . Stephen Lee identifies three major themes in Mussolini's foreign policy. The first was a continuation of the foreign-policy objectives of the preceding Liberal regime. Liberal Italy had allied itself with Germany and Austria and had great ambitions in the Balkans and North Africa. It had been badly defeated in Ethiopia in 1896 , when there
10143-444: The Zemene Mesafint or "Age of Princes," a period of isolation. Emperors became figureheads, controlled by regional lords and noblemen like Ras Mikael Sehul, Ras Wolde Selassie of Tigray, and by the Yejju Oromo dynasty of the Wara Sheh , including Ras Gugsa of Yejju . Before the Zemene Mesafint, Emperor Iyoas I had introduced the Oromo language ( Afaan Oromo ) at court, replacing Amharic. Ethiopian isolationism ended following
10304-402: The bombing of Corfu , established a protectorate over Albania , and annexed the city of Fiume into Italy after a treaty with the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . The second phase (1925–1929) was "the construction of the Fascist dictatorship proper". The third phase (1929–1935) saw less interventionism in foreign policy. The fourth phase (1935–1940) was characterized by an aggressive foreign policy:
10465-420: The colours of the pan-African flag with green, yellow and red stripes in representation of pan-Africanist ideology. The early 20th century was marked by the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie (Ras Tafari) . He came to power after Lij Iyasu was deposed, and undertook a nationwide modernization campaign from 1916 when he was made a Ras and Regent ( Inderase ) for the Empress Regnant Zewditu , and became
10626-441: The de facto ruler of the Ethiopian Empire. Following Zewditu's death, on 2 November 1930, he succeeded her as emperor. In 1931, Haile Selassie endowed Ethiopia with its first-ever Constitution in emulation of Imperial Japan's 1890 Constitution . The independence of Ethiopia was interrupted by the Second Italo-Ethiopian War , beginning when it was invaded by Fascist Italy in early October 1935, and by subsequent Italian rule of
10787-411: The effects of climate change . These include increases in temperature and changes in precipitation. Climate change in these forms threatens food security and the economy, which is agriculture based. Many Ethiopians have been forced to leave their homes and travel as far as the Gulf, Southern Africa and Europe. Fascist Italy (1922%E2%80%931943) Fascist Italy ( Italian : Italia fascista )
10948-474: The first Hijra in 615. After the collapse of Aksum in 960, the Zagwe dynasty ruled the north-central parts of Ethiopia until being overthrown by Yekuno Amlak in 1270, inaugurating the Ethiopian Empire and the Solomonic dynasty , claimed descent from the biblical Solomon and Queen of Sheba under their son Menelik I . By the 14th century, the empire had grown in prestige through territorial expansion and fighting against adjacent territories; most notably,
11109-405: The 1930s and dairy and meat consumption was discouraged, while increasing numbers of Italians turned to the black market. The policy demonstrated that Fascists saw food—and people's behavior generally—as strategic resources that could be manipulated regardless of traditions and tastes. Mussolini and the Fascist Party promised Italians a new economic system known as corporatism (or tripartism ),
11270-444: The Aksumite population to shift into the southern region and establish the Zagwe dynasty , changing its capital to Lalibela . Zagwe's rule ended when an Amhara noble man Yekuno Amlak revolted against King Yetbarak and established the Ethiopian Empire (known by exonym "Abyssinia"). The Ethiopian Empire initiated territorial expansion under the leadership of Amda Seyon I . He launched campaigns against his Muslim adversaries to
11431-431: The Aksumite territory reached its peak between the 5th and 6th centuries. This period was interrupted by several incursions into the South Arabian protectorate, including Jewish Dhu Nuwas of the Himyarite Kingdom and the Aksumite–Persian wars . In 575, the Aksumites besieged and retook Sana'a following the assassination of its governor Sayf ibn Dhī Yazan . The Red Sea was left to the Rashidun Caliphate in 646, and
11592-628: The Arab nationalists. Omar Mukhtar led the Arab resistance movement. After a much-disputed truce on 3 January 1928, the Fascist policy in Libya increased in brutality. A barbed wire fence was built from the Mediterranean Sea to the oasis of Jaghbub to sever lines critical to the resistance. Soon afterwards, the colonial administration began the wholesale deportation of the people of the Jebel Akhdar to deny
11753-598: The Bolsheviks and claims (that were later confirmed to be true) that the Bolsheviks and Germany (that Italy was fighting in World War I ) were politically connected, Mussolini made antisemitic statements involving the Bolshevik-German connection as being "an unholy alliance between Hindenburg and the synagogue ". Mussolini came to believe rumors that Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin was of Jewish descent. Mussolini attacked
11914-541: The Catholic Partito Popolare Italiano ( Italian People's Party ). In 1929, Mussolini and the papacy came to an agreement that ended the bitter standoff between the Church from the Italian government going back to 1860. The Orlando government had begun the process of reconciliation during World War I and the Pope furthered it by cutting ties with the Christian Democrats in 1922. Mussolini and
12075-580: The Ethiopians during the war, including the use of aircraft to drop poison gas on the defending Ethiopian soldiers. Ethiopia surrendered in 1936, completing Italy's revenge for its failed colonial conquest of the 1890s. King Victor Emmanuel III was soon proclaimed Emperor of Ethiopia . The international consequences for Italy's belligerence resulted in its diplomatic isolation. France and Britain quickly abandoned their trust of Mussolini but failed to take decisive action. Italy's actions were formally condemned by
12236-532: The Fascist cause and identify with Italy rather than their places of residence. Despite efforts to mould a new culture for fascism, Fascist Italy's efforts were not as drastic or successful in comparison to other one-party states like Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in creating a new culture. Mussolini's propaganda idolized him as the nation's saviour, and the Fascist regime attempted to make him omnipresent in Italian society. Much of Fascism's appeal in Italy
12397-458: The Fascist movement was Toeplitz, whom Mussolini had earlier accused of being a traitor during World War I. Early on there were prominent Jewish Italian Fascists such as Aldo Finzi , who was born of a mixed marriage of a Jewish and Christian Italian and was baptized as a Roman Catholic. Another prominent Jewish Italian Fascist was Ettore Ovazza , who was a vocal Italian nationalist and an opponent of Zionism in Italy. 230 Italian Jews took part in
12558-602: The Fascist's "new man" ideal, in which loyal Italians would rid themselves of individualism and autonomy and see themselves as a component of the Italian state and be prepared to sacrifice their lives for it. Under such a totalitarian government, only Fascists would be considered "true Italians", and membership and endorsement of the Fascist Party was necessary for people to gain "Complete Citizenship"; those who did not swear allegiance to Fascism would be banished from public life and could not gain employment. The Fascist government also reached out to Italians living overseas to endorse
12719-531: The Fascists' March on Rome in 1922. In 1932, Mussolini made his private attitude about Jews known to the Austrian ambassador when discussing the issue of the antisemitism of Hitler, saying: "I have no love for the Jews, but they have great influence everywhere. It is better to leave them alone. Hitler's anti-Semitism has already brought him more enemies than is necessary". At the 1934 Montreux Fascist conference which
12880-652: The German-occupied territory in the North and he also launched an effort to liquidate the Jewish community which was under his control. Shortly after the entry of Italy into the war, numerous camps were established for the imprisonment of enemy aliens and Italians suspected to be hostile to the regime. In contrast to the brutality of the National Socialist-run camps, the Italian camps allowed families to live together and there
13041-527: The Germans moved to occupy Italy, and they also commenced a round-up of Jews. Thousands of Italian Jews and a small number of Protestants died in the Nazi concentration camps . Until he formed his alliance with Adolf Hitler , Benito Mussolini always denied the existence of antisemitism within the National Fascist Party (PNF). In the early 1920s, Mussolini wrote an article which stated that Fascism would never elevate
13202-619: The Greco-Roman sphere of influence, but embarked on significant cultural ties and trade connections between the Indian subcontinent and the Roman Empire via the Silk Road , primarily exporting ivory , tortoise shell, gold and emeralds, and importing silk and spices. The kingdom adopted the name "Ethiopia" during the reign of Ezana in the 4th century. After the conquest of Kingdom of Kush in 330,
13363-541: The Italian government requested more territory for Libya from British-held Sudan . The United Kingdom allowed Italy to gain some territory from Sudan to add to Libya. In 1935, Mussolini believed that the time was right for Italy to invade Ethiopia (also known as Abyssinia) to make it a colony. As a result, the Second Italo-Abyssinian War erupted. Italy invaded Ethiopia from the Italian colonies of Eritrea and Somaliland . Italy committed atrocities against
13524-499: The Italian government to expand their territorial claims. This First Italo–Ethiopian War culminated in the Battle of Adwa on 1 March 1896, in which Italy's colonial forces were defeated by the Ethiopians. During this time, about a third of the population died in the Great Ethiopian Famine (1888 to 1892), and the rinderpest swept through the area, destroying much of the herd economy. On 11 October 1897, Ethiopia adopted
13685-910: The Jewish banker Giuseppe Toeplitz of Banca Commerciale Italiana by claiming that he was a German agent and traitor of Italy. In an article in Il Popolo d'Italia in June 1919, Mussolini wrote a highly antisemitic analysis on the situation in Europe involving Bolshevism following the October Revolution , the Russian Civil War and war in Hungary involving the Hungarian Soviet Republic . In June 1919, Mussolini wrote on Il Popolo d'Italia : If Petrograd (Pietrograd) does not yet fall, if [General] Denikin
13846-496: The Mediterranean Sea and Adriatic Sea . The Fascists launched wars to conquer Dalmazia , Albania and Greece for the Italian Empire. Colonial efforts in Africa began in the 1920s, as civil war plagued Italian North Africa ( Africa Settentrionale Italiana , or ASI) as the Arab population there refused to accept Italian colonial government. Mussolini sent Marshal Rodolfo Graziani to lead a punitive pacification campaign against
14007-689: The National Fascist Party. From the 1930s to 1940s, Italy's education focused on the history of Italy displaying Italy as a force of civilization during the Roman era, displaying the rebirth of Italian nationalism and the struggle for Italian independence and unity during the Risorgimento . In the late 1930s, the Fascist government copied Nazi Germany 's education system on the issue of physical fitness and began an agenda that demanded that Italians become physically healthy. Intellectual talent in Italy
14168-709: The OVRA were responsible for far fewer deaths than the Schutzstaffel (SS) in Germany or the NKVD of the Soviet Union , they were nevertheless highly effective in terrorizing political opponents. One of their most notorious methods of torture involved physically forcing opponents of Fascism to swallow castor oil , which would cause severe diarrhea and dehydration, leaving the victim in a physically debilitated state that occasionally resulted in death. To combat Italian organized crime , notably
14329-524: The Schiffs, the Guggenheims who are of the same blood who are conquering Petrograd and Budapest. Race does not betray race ... Bolshevism is a defense of the international plutocracy. This is the basic truth of the matter. The international plutocracy dominated and controlled by Jews has a supreme interest in all of Russian life accelerating its process of disintegration to the point of paroxysm. A Russia that
14490-779: The Tigrayan rebel forces agreed to a cessation of hostilities on 2 November 2022 . Coupled with OLA insurgency , the federal government relations with Fano militias, who previously allied to the government in the Tigray War, deteriorated in mid-2023, resulting in a war in the Amhara Region . According to reports conducted by the Ethiopian Human Rights Commission (EHRC), mass human rights violations carried out by ENDF troops including door-to-door searches, extrajudicial killings, massacres and detentions. Notable incident includes
14651-476: The advent of the "new Italian woman" ( nuova italiana ). The policies revealed a deep conflict between modernity and traditional patriarchal authority, as Catholic, Fascist and commercial models of conduct competed to shape women's perceptions of their roles and their society at large. The Fascists celebrated violent "virilist" politics and exaggerated its machismo while also taxing celibate men to pay for child welfare programs. Italy's invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 and
14812-406: The ancient Habash . Several important finds have propelled Ethiopia and the surrounding region to the forefront of palaeontology . The oldest hominid discovered to date in Ethiopia is the 4.2 million-year-old Ardipithecus ramidus ( Ardi ) found by Tim D. White in 1994. The most well-known hominid discovery is Australopithecus afarensis ( Lucy ). Known locally as Dinkinesh ,
14973-466: The capital to Gondar in 1636, marking the beginning of the " Gondarine period ". He expelled Jesuits, reclaimed lands, and relocated them to Fremona . During his rule, Fasilides constructed the iconic royal fortress, Fasil Ghebbi , built forty-four churches, and revived Ethiopian art . He is also credited with building seven stone bridges over the Blue Nile River . Gondar's power declined after
15134-585: The city of Axum . The Greek name Αἰθιοπία (from Αἰθίοψ , "an Ethiopian") is a compound word, later explained as derived from the Greek words αἴθω and ὤψ ( eithō "I burn" + ōps "face"). According to the Liddell-Scott Jones Greek-English Lexicon , the designation properly translates as burnt-face in noun form and red-brown in adjectival form. The historian Herodotus used the appellation to denote those parts of Africa south of
15295-693: The color of their Royal Italian Army , Navy , and Air Force uniforms. Most of the Blackshirts were members from the Fasci di Combattimento . A secret police force called the Organizzazione di Vigilanza Repressione dell'Antifascismo ("Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism") or OVRA was created in 1927. It was led by Arturo Bocchini to crack down on opponents of the regime and Mussolini (there had been several near-miss assassination attempts on Mussolini's life in his early years in power). Although
15456-449: The construction of the Italian ocean liner SS Rex , which in 1933 made a transatlantic sea crossing record of four days, funded the development of the Macchi M.C.72 seaplane , which became the world's fastest seaplane in 1933 and retained the title in 1934. In 1933, Fascist government member Italo Balbo , who was also an aviator, made a transatlantic flight in a flying boat to Chicago for
15617-506: The country (1936–1941) after Italian victory in the war. Italy, however, never managed to secure the country in its totality, due to resistance from the Arbegnoch , this made Ethiopia, along with Liberia , the only African countries to never be colonized. Following the entry of Italy into World War II , British Empire forces, together with the Arbegnoch , liberated Ethiopia in the course of
15778-508: The country and have a climate which is generally considerably cooler than other regions at similar proximity to the Equator. Most of the country's major cities are located at elevations of around 2,000–2,500 m (6,562–8,202 ft) above sea level, including historic capitals such as Gondar and Axum. The modern capital, Addis Ababa, is situated on the foothills of Mount Entoto at an elevation of around 2,400 metres (7,900 ft). It experiences
15939-574: The country and was granted asylum in Zimbabwe. In July 1991, the EPRDF convened a National Conference to establish the Transitional Government of Ethiopia composed of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution. In 1994, a new constitution was written that established a parliamentary republic with a bicameral legislature and
16100-431: The country with a new constitution and ethnic-based federalism . Since then, Ethiopia has suffered from prolonged and unsolved inter-ethnic clashes and political instability marked by democratic backsliding . From 2018, regional and ethnically based factions carried out armed attacks in multiple ongoing wars throughout Ethiopia . Ethiopia is a multi-ethnic state with over 80 different ethnic groups . Christianity
16261-450: The country. Ethnic violence rose during the late 2010s and early 2020s, with various clashes and conflicts leading to millions of Ethiopians being displaced. The federal government decided that elections for 2020 (later being rescheduled to 2021 ) be cancelled, due to health and safety concerns about COVID-19 . The Tigray Region 's TPLF opposed this, and proceeded to hold elections anyway on 9 September 2020. Relations between
16422-453: The court as slaves . They were given positions of trust by the monarch, and they converted members of the royal court to Christianity. Frumentius became the first bishop of Aksum. A coin dated to 324 shows that Ethiopia was the second country to officially adopt Christianity (after Armenia did so in 301), although the religion may have been at first confined to court circles; it was the first major power to do so. The Aksumites were accustomed to
16583-439: The creation of profession-wide corporations, in which the trade union and employers organisation belonging to the same profession or branch are organized into professional corporations. In 1935, the Doctrine of Fascism was published under Mussolini's name, although it was most likely written by Giovanni Gentile . It described the role of the state in the economy under corporatism. By this time, Fascism had been drawn more towards
16744-582: The death of Iyasu I in 1706. Following Iyasu II 's death in 1755, Empress Mentewab brought her brother, Ras Wolde Leul, to Gondar, making him Ras Bitwaded. This led to regnal conflict between Mentewab's Quaregnoch and the Wollo group led by Wubit. In 1767, Ras Mikael Sehul , a regent in Tigray Province , seized Gondar, killing the child Iyoas I in 1769, the reigning emperor, and installed 70-year-old Yohannes II . Between 1769 and 1855, Ethiopia witnessed
16905-419: The earliest expansion occurred under Emperor Dawit II ( luba Melbah ), when they encroached to Bale before invading Adal Sultanate. Ethiopia saw major diplomatic contact with Portugal from the 17th century, mainly related to religion. Beginning in 1555, Portuguese Jesuits attempted to develop Roman Catholicism as the state religion. After several failures, they sent several missionaries in 1603, including
17066-715: The east, resulting in a significant shift in the balance of power in favor of the Christians for the next two centuries. After Amda Seyon's successful eastern campaigns, most of the Muslim principalities in the Horn of Africa came under the suzerainty of the Ethiopian Empire. Stretching from Gojjam to the Somali Coast in Zelia . Among these Muslim entities was the Sultanate of Ifat . During
17227-565: The encyclical Non abbiamo bisogno ("We do not need") that denounced the regime's persecution of the Church in Italy and condemned "pagan worship of the state". The 1929 treaties with Mussolini partially recovered the Papacy's spiritual primacy in Italy, making the Pope sovereign in the Vatican City state, and restoring Roman Catholicism as the State religion . In March 1929, a nationwide plebiscite
17388-555: The federal government and Tigray deteriorated rapidly, and in November 2020, Ethiopia began a military offensive in Tigray in response to attacks on army units stationed there, marking the beginning of the Tigray war . By March 2022, as many as 500,000 people had died as a result of violence and famine . After a number of peace and mediation proposals in the intervening years, Ethiopia and
17549-622: The first time the highland inhabitants of Aksum. This new demonym was subsequently rendered as ḥbs ('Aḥbāsh) in Sabaic and as Ḥabasha in Arabic . Derivatives of this are used in some languages that use loanwords from Arabic, for example in Malay Habsyah . In English, and generally outside of Ethiopia, the country was historically known as Abyssinia. This toponym was derived from the Latinized form of
17710-408: The form of a referendum on 24 March 1929. By this time, the country was a single-party state with the National Fascist Party (PNF) as the only legally permitted party. Mussolini used a referendum to confirm a fascist single-party list. The list put forward was ultimately approved by 98.43% of voters. The universal male suffrage , which was legal since 1912, was restricted to men who were members of
17871-490: The formation of Ethiopia's current border. Externally, during the late 19th century, Ethiopia defended itself against foreign invasions, including from Egypt and Italy ; as a result, Ethiopia preserved its sovereignty during the Scramble for Africa . In 1936, Ethiopia was occupied by Fascist Italy and annexed with Italian-possessed Eritrea and Somaliland , later forming Italian East Africa . In 1941, during World War II , it
18032-486: The government introduced pensions , sick pay and paid holidays . In 1933, the government established unemployment benefits . At the end of the 1930s, 13 million Italians were enrolled in the state health insurance scheme and by 1939 social security expenditure accounted for 21% of government spending. In 1935, the 40-hour working week was introduced and workers were expected to spend Saturday afternoons engaged in sporting, paramilitary and political activities. This
18193-516: The handling of social security benefits, claims for severance pay, and could sometimes negotiate contracts that benefited workers. After the Great Depression hit the world economy in 1929, the Fascist regime followed other nations in enacting protectionist tariffs and attempted to set direction for the economy. In the 1930s, the government increased wheat production and made Italy self-sufficient for wheat, ending imports of wheat from Canada and
18354-541: The idea of patriotism and Christian civilization, the Conference denounces the nefarious action of these elements and is ready to combat them. Italian Fascism adopted antisemitism in the late 1930s and as a result, Mussolini personally returned to his earlier invokation of antisemitic statements. From 1937 to 1938, during the Spanish Civil War , the Fascist regime circulated antisemitic propaganda which stated that Italy
18515-468: The leading Fascists were anti-clericals and atheists , but they recognized the advantages of warmer relations with Italy's large Roman Catholic element. The Lateran Accord of 1929 was a treaty that recognized the Pope as the head of the new city-state of Vatican City within Rome, which gave it independent status and made it an important hub of world diplomacy. The Concordat of 1929 made Roman Catholicism
18676-467: The left-wing elements of the Fascist manifesto were opposed by industrialists and landowners who supported the party because it pledged to defend Italy from socialism, and corporatist policy became dominated by the industries. Initially, economic legislation mostly favoured the wealthy industrial and agrarian classes by allowing privatization, liberalization of rent laws, tax cuts, and administrative reform; however, economic policy changed drastically following
18837-452: The most influential, Spanish Jesuit Pedro Paez . Under Emperor Susenyos I , Roman Catholicism became the state religion of the Ethiopian Empire in 1622. This decision caused an uprising by the Orthodox populace. In 1632, Emperor Fasilides halted Roman Catholic state administration, restoring Orthodox Tewahedo as the state religion. Fasilides' reign solidified imperial power, relocating
18998-541: The movement's early years, there were a small number of prominent openly antisemitic Fascists such as Roberto Farinacci . There were also prominent Fascists who completely rejected antisemitism, such as Italo Balbo , who lived in Ferrara , which had a substantial Jewish community that was widely accepted and suffered few antisemitic incidents. Mussolini initially had no antisemitic statements in his policies. However, in response to his observation of large numbers of Jews amongst
19159-681: The name Aethiopia also occurs in many translations of the Old Testament in allusion to Nubia. The ancient Hebrew texts identify Nubia instead as Kush . However, in the New Testament , the Greek term Aithiops does occur, referring to a servant of the Kandake , the queen of Kush. Following the Hellenic and biblical traditions, the Monumentum Adulitanum , a 3rd-century inscription belonging to
19320-475: The name of the first King of Ethiopia, Ethiop, or Ethiopis . Ayele Berkerie explains: According to an Ethiopian tradition, the term Ethiopia is derived from the word Ethiopis, a name of the Ethiopian king, the seventh in the ancestral lines. Metshafe Aksum or the Ethiopian Book of Aksum identifies Itiopis as the twelfth king of Ethiopia and the father of Aksumawi. The Ethiopians pronounce Ethiopia እትዮጵያ with
19481-454: The northern half of Italy and rescued Mussolini , setting up the Italian Social Republic (RSI), a collaborationist puppet state which was ruled by Mussolini and Fascist loyalists. From that point onward, the country descended into civil war , and the large Italian resistance movement continued to wage its guerrilla war against the German and RSI forces. Mussolini was captured and killed by
19642-479: The northern part of Ethiopia in Tigray and Amhara regions, and is widely believed to be the successor state to Punt . This polity's capital was located at Yeha in what is now northern Ethiopia. Most modern historians consider this civilization to be a native Ethiopian one, although in earlier times many suggested it was Sabaean -influenced because of the latter's hegemony of the Red Sea . Other scholars regard Dʿmt as
19803-605: The northern regions of Eritrea and Tigray. The Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) merged with other ethnically based opposition movements in 1989, to form the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). The collapse of Marxism–Leninism during the revolutions of 1989 coincided with the Soviet Union stopping aid to Ethiopia altogether in 1990. EPRDF forces advanced on Addis Ababa in May 1991, and Mengistu fled
19964-405: The port city of Adulis was plundered by Arab Muslims in the 8th century; along with irrevocable land degradation , claimed climate change and sporadic rainfall precipitation from 730 to 760, these factors likely caused the kingdom to decline in power as part of an important trade route. Aksum came to an end in 960 when Queen Gudit defeated the last king of Aksum. In response, the remnant of
20125-788: The positions of power of countries and claimed that Jews were a "ferocious" tribe who sought to "totally banish" Christians from public life. In 1937, Fascist member Paolo Orano criticized the Zionist movement as being part of British foreign policy which designed to secure British hold of the area without respecting the Christian and Islamic presence in Palestine . On the matter of Jewish Italians, Orano said that they "should concern themselves with nothing more than their religion" and not bother boasting of being patriotic Italians. The major source of friction between National Socialist Germany and Fascist Italy
20286-442: The power of regional rulers, restructured the empire's administration, and created a professional army. These changes created the basis for establishing the effective sovereignty and territorial integrity of the Ethiopian state. In 1875 and 1876, Ottoman and Egyptian forces, accompanied by many European and American advisors, twice invaded Abyssinia but were initially defeated. From 1885 to 1889 (under Yohannes IV ), Ethiopia joined
20447-686: The presence of pro-Italian Jews in the region would weaken pro-British sentiment and potentially overturn the British mandate. On the issue of antisemitism, the Fascists were divided on what to do, especially after the rise of Hitler in Germany . A number of members of the Fascist Party were Jewish and Mussolini affirmed that he was a Zionist , but to appease Hitler, antisemitism within the Fascist Party steadily increased. In 1936, Mussolini made his first written denunciation of Jews by claiming that antisemitism had only arisen because Jews had become too predominant in
20608-533: The public than propaganda films or radio, as few Italians had radio receivers at the time. Fascist propaganda was widely present in posters and state-sponsored art. However, artists, writers and publishers were not strictly controlled: they were only censored if they were blatantly against the state. There was a constant emphasis on the masculinity of the "new Italian", stressing aggression, virility, youth, speed and sport. Women were to attend to motherhood and stay out of public affairs. General elections were held in
20769-467: The rebels the support of the local population. The forced migration of more than 100,000 people ended in concentration camps in Suluq and Al-'Aghela where tens of thousands died in squalid conditions. It is estimated that the number of Libyans who died – killed either through combat or starvation and disease – was at least 80,000, including up to half of the Cyrenaican population. After Al-Mukhtar's capture on 15 September 1931 and his execution in Benghazi,
20930-413: The reign of Emperor Zara Yaqob , the Ethiopian Empire reached its pinnacle. His rule was marked by the consolidation of territorial acquisitions from earlier rulers, the oversight of the construction of numerous churches and monasteries, the active promotion of literature and art, and the strengthening of central imperial authority. Ifat's successor, the Adal Sultanate , tried to conquer Ethiopia during
21091-402: The resistance on 28 April 1945, and hostilities ended the next day. Shortly after the war, civil discontent led to the 1946 institutional referendum on whether Italy would remain a monarchy or become a republic. The Italians decided to abandon the monarchy and form the Italian Republic , the present-day Italian state. After rising to power, the Fascist regime of Italy set a course to becoming
21252-430: The resistance petered out. Limited resistance to the Italian occupation crystallized around Sheik Idris , the Emir of Cyrenaica. Negotiations on expanding the borders of the colony of Libya took place with the British government. The first negotiations began in 1925 to define the border between Libya and British-held Egypt . These negotiations resulted in Italy gaining previously undefined territory. In 1934, once again
21413-411: The result of a union of Afroasiatic-speaking cultures of the Cushitic and Semitic branches; namely, local Agaw peoples and Sabaeans from Southern Arabia. However, Ge'ez , the ancient Semitic language of Ethiopia, is thought to have developed independently from the Sabaean language . As early as 2000 BC, other Semitic speakers were living in Ethiopia and Eritrea where Ge'ez developed. Sabaean influence
21574-496: The resulting League of Nations sanctions shaped the tasks assigned to women within the Fascist Party. The empire and women's contribution to it became a core theme in Fascist propaganda. Women in the party were mobilized for the imperial cause both as producers and as consumers, giving them new prominence in the nation. The Fascist women's groups expanded their roles to cover such new tasks as running training courses on how to fight waste in housework. Young Italian women were prepared for
21735-522: The seizures of Church property since 1860. The Catholic Church was not officially obliged to support the Fascist régime and the strong differences remained, but the general hostility ended. The Church especially endorsed foreign policies such as support for the Nationalists in the Spanish Civil War and for the Italian invasion of Ethiopia . Friction continued over the Catholic Action ( Azione Cattolica ) youth network, which Mussolini wanted to merge into his Fascist youth group. In 1931, Pope Pius XI issued
21896-446: The sole religion of the State (although other religions were tolerated), paid salaries to priests and bishops, recognized religious marriages (previously couples had to have a civil ceremony) and brought religious instruction into the public schools. In turn, the bishops swore allegiance to the Italian Fascist régime, which had a veto power over their selection. A third agreement paid the Vatican 1.75 billion lire (about $ 100 million) for
22057-500: The specimen was found in the Awash Valley of Afar Region in 1974 by Donald Johanson , and is one of the most complete and best-preserved adult Australopithecine fossils ever uncovered. Lucy's taxonomic name refers to the region where the discovery was made. This hominid is estimated to have lived 3.2 million years ago. Ethiopia is also considered one of the earliest sites of the emergence of anatomically modern humans , Homo sapiens . The oldest of these local fossil finds,
22218-412: The stone tips of javelins or throwing spears, were discovered in 2013 at the Ethiopian site of Gademotta , which date to around 279,000 years ago. In 2019, additional Middle Stone Age projectile weapons were found at Aduma, dated 100,000–80,000 years ago, in the form of points considered likely to belong to darts delivered by spear throwers. In 980 BC, Dʿmt was established in present-day Eritrea and
22379-403: The support of market forces being dominant over state intervention. A passage from the Doctrine of Fascism read: The corporate State considers that private enterprise in the sphere of production is the most effective and useful instrument in the interest of the nation. In view of the fact that private organisation of production is a function of national concern, the organiser of the enterprise
22540-409: The whole life of a people. — Doctrine of Fascism , 1935 With the concept of totalitarianism, Benito Mussolini and the Fascist regime set an agenda of improving Italian culture and society based on ancient Rome, personal dictatorship and some futurist aspects of Italian intellectuals and artists. Under Fascism, the definition of the Italian nationality was to rest on a militarist foundation and
22701-427: The world's hottest settlement of Dallol in its north. The Ethiopian Highlands are the largest continuous mountain ranges in Africa, and the Sof Omar Caves contains the largest cave on the continent. Ethiopia also has the second-largest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Africa. The predominant climate type is tropical monsoon, with wide topographic-induced variation. The Ethiopian Highlands cover most of
22862-459: Was occupied by the British Army , and its full sovereignty was restored in 1944 after a period of military administration . The Derg , a Soviet-backed military junta, took power in 1974 after deposing Emperor Haile Selassie and the Solomonic dynasty, and ruled the country for nearly 17 years amidst the Ethiopian Civil War . Following the dissolution of the Derg in 1991, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) dominated
23023-569: Was Emperor from 1889 until his death in 1913. From his base in the central province of Shewa, Menelik set out to annex territories to the south, east, and west — areas inhabited by the Oromo, Sidama , Gurage, Welayta , and other peoples. He achieved this with the help of Ras Gobana Dacche 's Shewan Oromo militia, which occupied lands that had not been held since Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi 's war, as well as other areas that had never been under Ethiopian rule. For his leadership, despite opposition from more traditional elements of society, Menelik II
23184-459: Was Italy's stance on Jews. In his early years as Fascist leader, Mussolini believed in racial stereotypes of Jews , however, he did not hold firm to any concrete stance on Jews because he changed his personal views and his official stance on them in order to meet the political demands of the various factions of the Fascist movement. Of the 117 original members of the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento founded on 23 March 1919, five were Jewish. Since
23345-419: Was Jewish, but warned that—due to the large numbers of Jews in the Bolshevik movement—the rise of Bolshevism in Russia would result in a ferocious wave of anti-Semitism in Russia. He then claimed that "anti-Semitism is foreign to the Italian people", but warned Zionists that they should be careful not to stir up antisemitism in "the only country where it has not existed". One of the Jewish financial supporters of
23506-417: Was Mediterranean, aligning his early opinion of Italian Jews with his early Mediterraneanist perspective . He also argued that Jews were natives of Italy, after living on the Italian Peninsula for a long period of time . In the early 1930s, Mussolini held discussions with Zionist leadership figures over proposals to encourage the emigration of Italian Jews to the mandate of Palestine, as Mussolini hoped that
23667-587: Was Mussolini's promise to restore the pride and glory of the old Roman Empire. Mussolini promised to revive Italy's status as a Great Power in Europe, carving out a "New Roman Empire". Mussolini promised that Italy would dominate the Mediterranean Sea . In propaganda, the Fascist government used the originally ancient Roman term " Mare Nostrum " (Latin for "Our Sea") to refer to the Mediterranean Sea. The Fascist regime increased funding and attention to military projects and began plans to create an Italian Empire in Northern and Eastern Africa and reclaim dominance in
23828-463: Was a broad program of social welfare and cultural activities. Antisemitism was unpopular within Italy, and it was also unpopular within the Fascist Party. Once, when a Fascist scholar protested about the treatment of his Jewish friends to Mussolini, Mussolini reportedly stated: "I agree with you entirely. I don't believe a bit in the stupid anti-Semitic theory. I am carrying out my policy entirely for political reasons". The Fascist government endorsed
23989-417: Was a connection between Egyptian and Ethiopian churches. There is diminutive evidence that the Aksumites were associated with the Queen of Sheba , via their royal inscription. Around 316 AD, Frumentius and his brother Edesius from Tyre accompanied their uncle on a voyage to Ethiopia. When the vessel stopped at a Red Sea port, the natives killed all the travellers except the two brothers, who were taken to
24150-439: Was a leading member of the Axis powers in World War II , battling with initial success on several fronts. However, after the German-Italian defeat in Africa, the successes of the Soviet Union on the Eastern Front , and the subsequent Allied landings in Sicily , King Victor Emmanuel III overthrew and arrested Mussolini . The new government signed an armistice with the Allies in September 1943. Nazi Germany seized control of
24311-404: Was a strong demand for seizing that country. Second was a profound disillusionment after the heavy losses of the First World War. In the eyes of many Italians the small territorial gains from Austria-Hungary were not enough to compensate for the war's terrible costs, especially since countries, such as Poland and Yugoslavia, who contributed far less to the allied victory but received much more. Third
24472-568: Was based on Mussolini's popularity and charisma. Mussolini's passionate oratory and the personality cult around him were displayed at huge rallies and parades of his Blackshirts in Rome, which served as an inspiration to Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party in Germany. The Fascist regime established propaganda in newsreels, radio broadcasting and a few feature films deliberately endorsing Fascism. In 1926, laws were passed to require that propaganda newsreels be shown prior to all feature films in cinemas. These newsreels were more effective in influencing
24633-509: Was called Sabato fascista ("Fascist Saturday") and was aimed mainly at the young; exceptions were granted in special cases but not for those under 21. According to Tracy H. Koon, this scheme failed as most Italians preferred to spend Saturday as a day of rest. For security of the regime, Mussolini advocated complete state authority and created the Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale ("National Security Volunteer Militia") in 1923, which are commonly referred to as " Blackshirts " for
24794-432: Was chaired by the Italian-led Comitati d'Azione per l'Universalita di Roma (CAUR) in an attempt to found a Fascist International, the issue of antisemitism was debated amongst representatives of various fascist parties, some of them were more favorable to it than others were. Two final compromises were adopted, resulting in the official stance of the Fascist International: [T]he Jewish question cannot be converted into
24955-456: Was held to publicly endorse the Treaty. Opponents were intimidated by the Fascist régime, the Catholic Action party instructed Catholics to vote for Fascist candidates, and Mussolini claimed that the only "no" votes were of those "few ill-advised anti-clericals who refuse to accept the Lateran Pacts". Nearly 9 million Italians voted (90% of the registered electorate), and only 136,000 voted "no". The Lateran Treaty remains in place today. In 1938,
25116-401: Was heralded as a national hero. He had signed the Treaty of Wuchale with Italy in May 1889, by which Italy would recognize Ethiopia's sovereignty so long as Italy could control an area north of Ethiopia (now part of modern Eritrea). In return, Italy was to provide Menelik with weapons and support him as emperor. The Italians used the time between the signing of the treaty and its ratification by
25277-560: Was removed from his position in 1929, when the Fascist regime declared that the threat of the Mafia had been eliminated. Mori's actions weakened the Mafia, but did not destroy them. From 1929 to 1943 the Fascist regime completely abandoned its previously aggressive measures against the Mafia, and the Mafiosi were left relatively undisturbed. The Fascists paid special attention to the role of women, from elite society women to factory workers and peasants. Fascist leaders sought to "rescue" women from experiencing emancipation even as they trumpeted
25438-415: Was rewarded and promoted by the Fascist government through the Royal Academy of Italy which was created in 1926 to promote and coordinate Italy's intellectual activity. A major success in social policy in Fascist Italy was the creation of the Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro (OND) or "National After-work Program" in 1925. The OND was the state's largest recreational organizations for adults. The Dopolavoro
25599-440: Was so popular that by the 1930s all towns in Italy had a Dopolavoro clubhouse and the Dopolavoro was responsible for establishing and maintaining 11,000 sports grounds, over 6,400 libraries, 800 movie houses, 1,200 theaters and over 2,000 orchestras. Membership was voluntary and nonpolitical. In the 1930s, under the direction of Achille Starace , the OND became primarily recreational, concentrating on sports and other outings. It
25760-433: Was supporting Spain's Nationalist forces in their fight against a "Jewish International". The Fascist regime's adoption of official antisemitic racial doctrine in 1938 met opposition from Fascist members including Balbo, who regarded antisemitism as having nothing to do with Fascism and staunchly opposed the antisemitic laws. In 1938, under pressure from Germany, Mussolini ordered the regime to adopt an antisemitic policy ,
25921-433: Was toppled, and a new government was formed with Endelkachew Makonnen serving as Prime Minister. Haile Selassie's rule ended on 12 September 1974, when he was deposed by the Derg , a committee made up of military and police officers. After the execution of 60 former government and military officials , the new Provisional Military Administrative Council abolished the monarchy in March 1975 and established Ethiopia as
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