Shi Chonggui ( Chinese : 石重貴 ) (914 – 10 July 974), known in traditional Chinese historical sources as Emperor Chu of Later Jin (後晉出帝, "the exiled emperor") or Emperor Shao of Later Jin (後晉少帝, "the young emperor"), posthumously known in the Liao dynasty as the Prince of Jin ( 晉王 ), was the second and last emperor of China's Later Jin dynasty during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period .
109-652: The Later Jin dynasty had often been characterized as a puppet state of the emerging Khitan -led Liao dynasty . The help of their powerful northern neighbors was vital in the formation of the Later Jin, and the cession of the Sixteen Prefectures led to their derision as being the servants of the Liao dynasty. However, after the death of his biological uncle/adoptive father Shi Jingtang (Later Jin's founding emperor) in 942, Shi Chonggui defied Liao's Emperor Taizong , which led to
218-431: A water clock ), yet it incorporated an escapement mechanism two hundred years before they were found in the clockworks of Europe and featured the first known endless power-transmitting chain drive . Kaifeng reached its peak importance in the 11th century as a commercial and industrial center at the intersection of four major canals. During this time, the city was surrounded by three rings of city walls and probably had
327-626: A "heavenly woman" ( tiannü ) who rode in a cart pulled by a grey ox. The man came from the Tu River (Lao Ha river in modern-day Jilin , Manchuria ) and the woman from the Huang River (modern-day Xar Moron river in Inner Mongolia ). The pair met where the two rivers join, and the eight sons born of their union became eight tribes. The earliest written reference to the Khitan is from an official history of
436-593: A PLA Victory and the collapse of the Nationalist forces which was part of the Shengcai Battle . Kaifeng has a monsoon -influenced humid subtropical climate ( Köppen Cwa ) that borders on a humid continental climate, with four distinct seasons. Winters are cool and mostly dry while summers are hot and humid; spring is warm and sees some, but not much rainfall, while autumn weather is crisp and drier. Precipitation mainly occurs from June to September. Downtown Kaifeng
545-485: A dominant part in forming Henan cuisine . Kaifeng offers a wide range of food specialties such as steamed pie and dumplings. Particularly famous is Kaifeng's five-spice bread ( wǔxiāng shāobǐng ), which, like pita , can be opened and filled. In the evening, Kaifeng's streets turn into restaurants while hundreds open their stands and begin selling their food in the famous night market . People from nearby Zhengzhou often come to Kaifeng to visit family members and to enjoy
654-401: A husband had the right to his married wife while among lower class Jurchens, the virginity of unmarried girls and sex with Khitan men did not impede their ability to marry later. The Jurchens and their Manchu descendants had Khitan linguistic and grammatical elements in their personal names like suffixes. Many Khitan names had a "ju" suffix. Following the fall of the Liao dynasty, a number of
763-452: A large army that Emperor Taizong personally commanded. The Liao army eventually surrounded the Later Jin army at Zhongdu Bridge (中度橋, in modern Baoding). After Emperor Taizong made the promise to Du to make him emperor if he surrendered, Du and Li Shouzhen surrendered their army. Emperor Taizong then prepared to advance south. With virtually the entire Later Jin army having been given to Du and Li Shouzhen for this northern campaign, Kaifeng
872-613: A maidservant to greet Shi Jingtang's wife Empress Dowager Li , and part of the greeting stated, "Has the Emperor's younger brother, Chongrui, been studying well?" Shi Chonggui heard of this and discussed this with Empress Feng's brother Feng Yu (who was also a chief of staff), and Feng Yu thereafter accused Sang of considering deposing Shi Chonggui and replacing him with Shi Chongrui. As Li Shouzhen also disliked Sang, he, Feng Yu, and Li Yantao ( 李彥韜 ) thereafter suggested that Shi Chonggui remove Sang. Shi Chonggui agreed, and not long after, Sang
981-534: A major Later Tang general and who wanted to replace the Later Jin emperor as the emperor of the Central Plains , thus advocated to Emperor Taizong that he consider a campaign against Later Jin. The situation was further aggravated when Jing persuaded Shi Chonggui to arrest the Liao trade liaison Qiao Rong ( 喬榮 ), execute Khitan merchants, and confiscate their properties, causing Emperor Taizong to be resolved to act against Later Jin. In early 944, Emperor Taizong led
1090-448: A major invasion into Later Jin territory, and quickly reached Yedu. When Shi sent emissaries to the Liao camp to try to sue for peace, Emperor Taizong rejected the overture. Yang Guangyuan, then the military governor of Pinglu Circuit (平盧, headquartered in modern Weifang , Shandong ), subsequently rebelled in coordination with Liao. Shi commissioned a number of generals to resist the Liao attack, and himself also commanded troops, and, when
1199-513: A mourning period for Shi Jingtang, married his deceased biological uncle/adoptive brother Shi Chongyin ( 石重胤 )'s widow, Lady Feng , as his wife. He subsequently created Lady Feng empress. As Jing Yanguang was considered instrumental in Shi Chonggui's ascending to the throne, Jing, who was made a chancellor, became highly influential early in his administration. Under Jing's advocacy, Shi Chonggui abandoned Shi Jingtang's respectful subservience to
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#17331048794951308-517: A mutiny, left Shunguo against imperial orders and headed for Kaifeng, initially causing much apprehension in the capital. Sang advocated forcing Du into retirement in light of this incident, but Shi Chonggui, citing the fact that Du was an uncle, declined, and was much displeased at Sang for suggesting it. Indeed, at the request of Du's wife the Princess of Song (Shi's aunt), Shi then made Du the military governor of Tianxiong (天雄, headquartered at Yedu). It
1417-662: A petition to him to congratulate him on his victory, his household again began to be supplied again. In 948, Emperor Shizong visited Liaoyang, on the way up the mountains for the summer. Shi Chonggui and his household went to pay homage to him. Emperor Shizong comforted Shi Chonggui, but, as Emperor Shizong was leaving Liaoyang, took 15 of Shi Chonggui's eunuchs and 15 of his attending officials, as well as his adoptive son Shi Yanxu ( 石延煦 ). When Emperor Shizong's brother-in-law Xiao Channu ( 蕭禪奴 ) indicated that he wanted Shi Chonggui's daughter but Shi Chonggui did not want to surrender her, Emperor Shizong seized her and gave her to Xiao. In
1526-591: A population of between 600,000 and 700,000. It is believed that Kaifeng was the largest city in the world from 1013 to 1127. This period ended in 1127 when the city fell to Jurchen invaders during the Jingkang Incident . It subsequently came under the rule of the Jurchen Jin dynasty , which had conquered most of North China during the Jin–Song Wars . While it remained an important administrative center, only
1635-663: A relief army from Khitan Empire 's Emperor Taizong came to Shi Jingtang's aid and crushed Zhang's army, allowing the siege on Taiyuan to be lifted. Emperor Taizong subsequently declared Shi Jingtang to be the emperor of central China (as the founder of a new state of Later Jin ). Shortly after Shi Jingtang's being proclaimed emperor, the Later Tang army, trapped by the Khitan/Later Jin forces, surrendered after Zhang Jingda's deputy Yang Guangyuan assassinated Zhang. Emperor Taizong and Shi Jingtang prepared to advance south, toward
1744-619: A result, a number of Shi Jingtang's relatives, including two sons, were executed by Li Congke. (The two sons were recorded in the New History of the Five Dynasties as Shi Chongying ( 石重英 ) and Shi Chongyin ( 石重胤 ), and in the Zizhi Tongjian as Shi Chongyin ( 石重殷 ) and Shi Chongyi ( 石重裔 ).) During the subsequent siege of Taiyuan by the Later Tang general Zhang Jingda , Shi Chonggui personally helped to guard Shi Jingtang. Subsequently,
1853-413: A son-in-law of Li Cunxu's adoptive brother and major general Li Siyuan , adopted Shi Chonggui as a son. During later times when Shi Jingtang served as a military governor ( Jiedushi ) of a number of circuits during the time of Jin's successor state Later Tang , Shi Jingtang took him to the various circuits and gave him responsibilities. It was said that his appearance was similar to Shi Jingtang, but he
1962-604: A travel time of 53 min. Kaifeng railway station is on the east–west Longhai Railway mainline and provides convenient access to many cities around China, including Beijing West , Shanghai , Shanghai Hongqiao , Tianjin , Xi'an, Jinan, Hangzhou . Services to Zhengzhou , Luoyang and Qingdao are also frequent and convenient. Direct long-distance services to Shenzhen , Guangzhou , Chengdu , Chongqing North , Harbin , Ürümqi , Fuzhou , Dalian and Wuhan are also available. The Zhengzhou–Kaifeng intercity railway ( 郑开城际铁路 ) started operation on 28 December 2014, connecting
2071-493: Is Proto-Mongolic , while others have suggested that it is a Para-Mongolic language. Khitan has loanwords borrowed from the Turkic Old Uyghur language and Koreanic languages . There were two writing systems for the Khitan language, known as the large script and the small script . These were functionally independent and appear to have been used simultaneously in the Liao dynasty. They were in use for some time after
2180-693: Is a prefecture-level city in east- central Henan province, China. It is one of the Eight Ancient Capitals of China , having been the capital eight times in history, and is most known for having been the Chinese capital during the Northern Song dynasty . As of the 2020 census , 4,824,016 people lived in Kaifeng's Prefecture, of whom 1,735,581 lived in the metropolitan area consisting of Xiangfu, Longting, Shunhe Hui, Gulou and Yuwantai Districts. Located along
2289-573: Is about 55 km (34 mi) away from Zhengzhou Xinzheng International Airport ( IATA : CGO , ICAO : ZHCC ), which is the busiest airport in central China in terms of both passenger and cargo traffic (2017 statistics). With the completion of Zhengzhou–Kaifeng intercity railway and Zhengzhou–Xinzheng Airport intercity railway , fast train connections to Zhengzhou Xinzheng International Airport from Kaifeng became available. As of August 2018, there are 12 pairs of intercity trains running between Xinzheng Airport and Songchenglu every day, with
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#17331048794952398-538: Is home to a campus of Henan University , one of the national key universities in the Double First Class University Plan . The postal romanization for the city is "Kaifeng". Its official one-character abbreviation in Chinese is 汴 ( Biàn ). Historically it has also been known as: The area was named "Kaifeng" after the Qin 's conquest of China in the second century BC. The name literally means "opening
2507-641: Is known for having the oldest extant Jewish community in China, the Kaifeng Jews . It also has a significant Muslim enclave and is notable for its many women's mosques ( nǚsì ), including the oldest nǚsì in China: Wangjia Hutong Women's Mosque, which dates to 1820. There are also some active Christian churches, including the Sacred Heart Cathedral ( 开封耶稣圣心主教座堂 ). Kaifeng cuisine plays
2616-493: Is not relevant to my family's business." While Shi Jingtang held the Hedong command, he had Shi Chonggui marry the oldest daughter of the general Zhang Congxun ( 張從訓 ). (Lady Zhang would pass away sometime before Shi Chonggui eventually became emperor, but it is not otherwise clear when.) In 936, Shi Jingtang rose in rebellion against then-Later Tang emperor Li Congke (Li Siyuan's adoptive son and Shi Jingtang's brother-in-law). As
2725-504: Is still almost completely unintelligible, it is difficult to create a detailed history of their movements. During the 13th century, the Mongol invasions and conquests had a large impact on shifting ethnic identities in the region. Most people of the Eurasian Steppe did not retain their pre-Mongol identities after the conquests. The Khitans were scattered across Eurasia and assimilated into
2834-576: The Chinese Athletic Association , the general sport administration of Henan province, Zhengzhou municipal government, and the Kaifeng municipal government. It is the premier international sports competition in Henan province and one of the biggest sports competitions in the Central-West of China. ZK International Marathon is held at the end of March or beginning of April each year. The main part of
2943-885: The Eastern Turkic Khaganate , the Uyghur Khaganate , and the Tang dynasty . The Khitans were less politically united than the Turkic tribes, but often found themselves involved in the power games between the Turks and the Sui and Tang dynasties. It is estimated the Khitans had only around 43,000 soldiers – a fraction of the Turkic Khaganates. In 605, the Khitans raided the Sui dynasty, but
3052-556: The Eight Ancient Capitals of China . As with Beijing, there have been many reconstructions during its history. In 364 BC during the Warring States period , the State of Wei founded a city called Daliang ( 大梁 ) as its capital in this area. During this period, the first of many canals in the area was constructed linking a local river to the Yellow River . When the State of Qin conquered
3161-571: The Emperor Yang of Sui was able to convince the Turks to send 20,000 horsemen to aid Sui against the Khitans. In 628, under the leadership of tribal chief Dahe Moui, the Khitan submitted to the Tang dynasty, as they had earlier submitted to the Eastern Turks. The Khagan of the Eastern Turks, Jiali Khan , offered to exchange the rebel Liang Shidu for the Khitans, but Emperor Taizong would not agree to
3270-566: The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period . The Song dynasty made Bian its capital when it overthrew the Later Zhou (Chenqiao incident) in 960. Shortly afterwards, the city underwent further expansion. During the Song, when it was known as Dongjing or Bianjing, Kaifeng, then the largest and most prosperous city in China, was the capital, with a population of over 400,000 living both inside and outside
3379-620: The Kazakhs of Kazakhstan and areas adjoining it, and by some Slavic peoples, such as the Russians and Bulgarians . The Han Chinese consider the ethnonym derived from Khitay as applied to them by the Uyghurs to be pejorative and the Chinese government has tried to ban its use. According to the History of Liao compiled in the 14th century, a "sacred man" ( shen-ren ) on a white horse had eight sons with
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3488-461: The Later Jin dynasty and, in exchange for their support, the Khitans gained sixteen new prefectures . The Later Jin dynasty remained a vassal of the Khitans until the death of Shi Jing Tang in 942, but when the new emperor ascended, he indicated that he would not honor his predecessor's arrangement. The Khitans launched a military invasion against the Later Jin in 944. In January 947, the Emperor of
3597-522: The Mongol Empire in the early 13th century. Fleeing from the Mongols , in 1216 the Khitans invaded Goryeo and won several battles, even reaching the gates of the capital, but were defeated by Goryeo General Kim Chwi-ryeo who pushed them back north to Pyongan , where the remaining Khitans were finished off by Goryeo forces in 1219. The Khitan language is now extinct. Some scholars believe that Khitan
3706-590: The Qara Khitai in Central Asia where they were seen as Chinese, the term "Khitai" came to mean "China" to people near them in Central Asia, Russia and northwestern China. The name was then introduced to medieval Europe via Islamic and Russian sources, and became " Cathay ". In the modern era, words related to Khitay are still used as a name for China by Turkic peoples, such as the Uyghurs in China's Xinjiang region and
3815-556: The Xianbei -led Northern Wei dynasty dating to the period of the Six Dynasties . Most scholars believe the Khitan tribe splintered from the Xianbei , and some scholars believe they may have been a mixed group who also included former members of the Xiongnu tribal confederation. The Khitan shaved their heads, leaving hair on their temples which grew down to the chest, in a similar fashion to
3924-465: The Yellow River 's southern bank, it borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the west, Xinxiang to the northwest, Shangqiu to the east, Zhoukou to the southeast, Xuchang to the southwest, and Heze of Shandong to the northeast. Kaifeng is a major city for scientific research, appearing among the world's top 200 cities by scientific output as tracked by the Nature Index . The city
4033-474: The Yellow River Plain . Kaifeng Air Base is a military airfield in the southern suburb of Kaifeng City. It does not provide civilian aviation service. Kaifeng is twinned with: Kaifeng is also a major city for scientific research, appearing among the world's top 200 cities as tracked by the Nature Index . The city is home to a campus of Henan University , one of the national key universities in
4142-665: The Yuwen chieftains' names. Zhao Zhenji thinks that the term originated from Xianbei and means "a place where Xianbei had resided". Japanese scholar Otagi Matsuo believes that Khitan's original name was "Xidan", which means "the people who are similar to the Xi people " or "the people who inhabit among the Xi people". Due to the dominance of the Khitans during the Liao dynasty in Manchuria and Mongolia and later
4251-425: The prefecture level . During the festival, hundreds of chrysanthemums breeds are on show at festival venues, and the flower becomes a common features around the city. Kaifeng has been dubbed the "city of chrysanthemums". The China Zheng-Kai International Marathon [ Wikidata ] ( 中国郑开国际马拉松赛 , Zheng-Kai stands for " Zhengzhou -Kaifeng", also abbreviated "ZK") is a sporting event hosted jointly by
4360-572: The 4th century, inhabited an area corresponding to parts of modern Mongolia , Northeast China and the Russian Far East . As a people descended from the proto-Mongols through the Xianbei , Khitans spoke the now-extinct Khitan language , a Para-Mongolic language related to the Mongolic languages . The Khitan people founded and led the Liao dynasty (916–1125), which dominated a vast area of Siberia, Mongolia and Northern China . The Khitans of
4469-590: The DNA of 3 Khitan burials from Bulgan Province , located in Northern Mongolia . The Khitan burials were found to be of predominantly Northeast Asian origin, with less than 10% West Eurasian ancestry. The two male specimens belonged to the West Eurasian paternal haplogroup J2 . All three specimens carried maternal haplogroups associated with Northeast Asia , including haplogroups A24 , D4 and haplogroup Y1 . During
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4578-495: The Empress Dowager and his wife Lady Feng, gather his family and take them to the fields, bind himself, and wait for your judgment. He is sending his sons Yanxu the military governor of Zhenning [(鎮寧, headquartered in modern Puyang)] and Yanbao the military governor of Weixin [(威信, headquartered in modern Nanyang , Henan )], to present, in surrender, one imperial seal, and three golden seals. Emperor Taizong created Shi Chonggui
4687-612: The Han during the Song dynasty . The Khitan practiced polygamy and generally preferred marriage within the tribe, but it was not unknown for an Emperor to take wives from other groups, such as the Han, Koreans , and Turkic tribes . A 2015 study postulated that Khitan males may have belonged to haplogroups C3c or N1 , based on the distribution of these haplogroups in modern-day Eastern and Central Asian populations. A 2020 study published in Cell analyzed
4796-597: The Jin were similarly entertained by singing girls in Guide, Henan. There is no evidence that guest prostitution of unmarried Jurchen girls to Khitan men was resented by the Jurchens. It was only when the Khitans forced aristocratic Jurchen families to give up their wives as guest prostitutes to Khitan messengers that the Jurchens became resentful. This suggests that in Jurchen upper classes, only
4905-595: The Jurchens. The Liao dynasty eventually fell to the Jin dynasty of the Jurchen in 1125, who defeated and absorbed the Khitans to their military benefit. The Khitans considered the Khamag Mongols as their last hope when the Liao dynasty was invaded by the Jin, Song dynasty and Western Xia Empires. To defend against the Jurchens and Khitans, a Long Wall was built by Goryeo in 1033–1034, along with many border forts. One of
5014-537: The Kaifeng Chrysanthemum Cultural Festival since 1983 (renamed China Kaifeng Chrysanthemum Cultural Festival in 1994). The festival has since taken place between 18 October and 18 November of every year. The festival reached another milestone on 18 October 2012, when it celebrated its 30th birthday. The opening ceremony was broadcast live during the evening prime slot on Henan Television (HNTV), which broadcasts to all Chinese cities at or above
5123-596: The Khitan (whose state had since been renamed Liao) and took a more defiant stance. As an initial sign of that defiance, Shi Chonggui's did not submit a report to Emperor Taizong of his succession, but instead wrote a letter (indicating equal status and not subservience) in which he referred to himself as "grandson" (as Shi Jingtang had earlier honored Emperor Taizong as "father") but not as "your subject." This angered Emperor Taizong, who sent emissaries to rebuke Shi Chonggui, but to whom Jing responded insolently. The major Khitan general Zhao Yanshou , who had previously been
5232-748: The Khitan and Mongol empires, a male bias for East-Asian related ancestry is observed in the eastern steppe region. Two studies found evidence of Khitan mtDNA ancestry in modern-day people of the Daur ethnicity. This was one of the most significant findings of ethnic studies in China. Another group of 100,000 descendants are found in some Blang people and Yi people in Baoshan and Ruili in southwestern Yunnan province, near Myanmar. These people with surnames of A., Mang and Jiang claim to be descendants of Khitans rather than Blang people or Yi people. Kaifeng Kaifeng ( Chinese : 开封 ; pinyin : Kāifēng )
5341-458: The Khitan nobility escaped the area westwards towards Western Regions , establishing the short-lived Qara Khitai or Western Liao dynasty. After its fall, a small part under Buraq Hajib established a local dynasty in the southern Persian province of Kirman . These Khitans were absorbed by the local Turkic and Iranian populations, Islamized and left no influence behind them. As the Khitan language
5450-400: The Khitan tribes, founded the Liao dynasty in 907. The Liao territory included modern day northern and northeastern China, Mongolia, and parts of Central Asia and Siberia. Although transition to an imperial social and political organization was a significant change for the Khitans, the Khitan language , origin myth, shamanic religion and nomadic lifestyle endured. China was in chaos after
5559-712: The Khitans included the Northern Liao , Eastern Liao and Later Liao in China, as well as the Qutlugh-Khanid dynasty in Persia. The modern-day Daur people , a recognized minority ethnic group in Northeast China, are the genetic descendants of Khitans. The historical European name for China, Cathay , originates from the word Khitan. There is no consensus on the etymology of the name of Khitan. There are basically three speculations. Feng Jiasheng argues that it comes from
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#17331048794955668-467: The Khitans would have preferred to attack China, they invaded Goryeo in 993. Khitan forces failed to advance beyond the Chongchon River and were persuaded to withdraw, though Khitan dissatisfaction with Goryeo's conquest of the Jurchen prompted a second invasion in 1010. This time the Khitans, led by their emperor, sacked the capital city Kaesong . A third and final invasion in 1018 was repelled by Goryeo's forces, bringing an end to 30 years of war between
5777-415: The Later Jin dynasty surrendered to the Khitans. The Khitan emperor left the conquered city of Kaifeng and unexpectedly died from an illness while travelling in May 947. Relations between Goryeo and the Khitans were hostile after the Khitans destroyed Balhae . Goryeo would not recognize the Liao dynasty and supported the fledgling Song dynasty , which had formed south of the Khitans' territory. Though
5886-418: The Later Liang and founded the Later Tang dynasty in 923, but by 926 the former allies had grown apart. In 934 Yelü Bei , Abaoji's son, wrote to his brother Emperor Taizong of Liao from the Later Tang court: " Li Cong Ke has slain his liege-lord , why not attack him?" In 936, the Khitans supported Shi Jing Tang ' s rebellion against the Later Tang Emperor Li Cong Ke. Shi Jing Tang became emperor of
5995-477: The Later Tang capital Luoyang . Shi Jingtang was prepared to leave one son at Taiyuan to serve as the titular defender, and he called out all of his sons for Emperor Taizong to choose. Emperor Taizong chose Shi Chonggui, stating, "This large-eyed child can be it." Shi Jingtang thereafter left Shi Chonggui in charge at Taiyuan, giving him the titles of defender of the northern capital (i.e., Taiyuan), mayor of Taiyuan, and military governor of Hedong. Subsequently, as
6104-438: The Liao army escorting them, such that their attendants and ladies in waiting had to forage fruits and leaves for food. When they reached Jin Prefecture (錦州, in modern Jinzhou , Liaoning ), they were forced to bow at the tomb of Emperor Taizong's father Emperor Taizu . Shi Chonggui was so humiliated that he stated in tears, "Xue Chao ruined me!" Empress Feng tried to obtain poison so that they could commit suicide together, but
6213-417: The Liao army had turned around and was heading for them. They tried to withdraw, but became surrounded near Yangcheng (陽城, in modern Baoding). Du panicked and was reluctant to engage the Liao army, but at Fu's advocacy, Fu, Zhang Yanze , Yao Yuanfu ( 藥元福 ), and Huangfu Yu ( 皇甫遇 ), attacked the Liao army fiercely, causing the Liao army to panic and flee. Later in 945, there was an incident where Du, fearing
6322-419: The Liao dynasty still undertook hunting campaigns in late summer in the tradition of their ancestors. After the fall of the Liao dynasty, the Khitans returned to a more nomadic life. The Khitans practiced shamanism in which animals played an important role. Hunters offered a sacrifice to the spirit of the animal they were hunting and wore a pelt from the same animal during the hunt. There were festivals to mark
6431-430: The Liao dynasty used two independent writing systems for their language: Khitan small script and Khitan large script . After the fall of the Liao dynasty in 1125 following the Jurchen invasion , many Khitans followed Yelü Dashi 's group westward to establish the Qara Khitai or Western Liao dynasty, in Central Asia , which lasted nearly a century before falling to the Mongol Empire in 1218. Other regimes founded by
6540-542: The Marquess of Fuyi (負義侯, i.e., "the marquess who turned against righteousness"), and prepared to have him and his family exiled deep into Liao territory, to Huanglong (黃龍, in modern Changchun , Jilin ). (He offered Empress Dowager Li the choice of not going into exile with Shi Chonggui, but she declined, pointing out that he was filially pious to her, and that as his adoptive mother, she should accompany him.) The group included him, Empress Dowager Li, Consort Dowager An, Empress Feng, Shi Chongrui, Shi Yanxu, and Shi Yanbao. It
6649-452: The State of Wei, Kaifeng was destroyed and abandoned except for a mid-sized market town, which remained in place. During the Han dynasty , the city underwent some reconstruction. Kaifeng became the capital of Liu Wu (son of Han emperor Wen ) when he was enfeoffed as Prince of Liang. Liu Wu restored and constructed many buildings and old city walls. Kaifeng became a center of music, art, a refuge for artists, and of splendid gardens despite
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#17331048794956758-403: The Turks used it to launch their own raids into Hebei. Like the Tuyuhun and Tangut , the Khitan remained an intermediate power along the borderlands through the 7th and 8th centuries. The Khitans rose to prominence in a power vacuum that developed in the wake of the Kyrgyz takeover of the Uyghur Khaganate, and the collapse of the Tang dynasty. Abaoji , who had been successful in uniting
6867-408: The area inside the inner city wall of the early Song remained settled and the two outer rings were abandoned. As the imperial capital of the Song, Kaifeng was conveniently situated along the Grand Canal for logistics supply but militarily vulnerable due to its position on the floodplains of the Yellow River . Kaifeng served as the Jurchen "southern capital" from 1157 (other sources say 1161) and
6976-436: The atmosphere. The Ma Yu Ching's Bucket Chicken House ( 马豫兴桶子鸡; ; Mǎ Yùxīng Tǒngzi Jī ), located in Kaifeng, is by some accounts the world's oldest restaurant. The chrysanthemum is the city flower of Kaifeng. The tradition of cultivating varieties of chrysanthemums extends back 1600 years, and the scale of cultivation reached its height during the Song dynasty until its loss to the Jürchens in 1126. The city has held
7085-548: The bones would be cremated. The Khitan believed that the souls of the dead rested at a place called the Black Mountain, near Rehe Province . Khitan tents always faced east, and they revered the sun, but the moon did not have a large role in their religion. They also practiced a form of divination where they went to war if the shoulder blade of a white sheep cracked while being heated ( scapulimancy ). Khitan women hunted, rode horses and practiced archery . They did not practice foot binding , which started becoming popular among
7194-408: The border" and figuratively "hidden" and "vengeance". Its name was originally Qifeng ( Chinese : 啓封 ), but the syllable qi (Baxter-Sagart: /*kʰˤijʔ/) was changed to the essentially synonymous kai (/*Nə-[k]ʰˤəj/, /*[k]ʰˤəj/) to avoid the naming taboo of Liu Qi ( Emperor Jing of Han ). The prefecture-level city of Kaifeng administers five districts and four counties : Kaifeng is one of
7303-399: The capital of Henan Jiangbei Province , which was established in 1277. In the Mongol siege of Kaifeng, the Mongols and Han Chinese (who defected to the Mongols) slaughtered the male members of the Jin Jurchen Wanyan Imperial family and took the royal women including the Jin concubines and princesses to Mongolia as war booty. Mongols looted the city when it fell, but atypical to most sieges in
7412-420: The catching of the first fish and wild goose, and annual sacrifices of animals to the sky, earth, ancestors, mountains, rivers, and others. Every male member of the Khitan would sacrifice a white horse, white sheep, and white goose during the Winter solstice . When a Khitan nobleman died, burnt offerings were sacrificed at the full and new moons. The body was exposed for three years in the mountains, after which
7521-559: The causes of the Jurchen rebellion and the fall of the Liao was the custom of raping married Jurchen women by Khitan envoys, which caused resentment from the Jurchens. The custom of having sex with unmarried girls by the Khitans was itself not a problem, since the practice of guest prostitution – giving female companions, food and shelter to guests – was common among Jurchens. Unmarried daughters of Jurchen families of lower and middle classes in Jurchen villages were provided to Khitan messengers for sex, as recorded by Hong Hao. Song envoys among
7630-466: The city wall. Typhus was an acute problem in the city. The historian Jacques Gernet provides a lively picture of life in this period in his Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250-1276, which often draws on Dongjing Meng Hua Lu , a nostalgic memoir of the city of Kaifeng. In 1049, the Youguosi Pagoda ( 佑國寺塔 ) – or Iron Pagoda as it is called today – was constructed measuring 54.7 m (179 ft) in height. It has survived
7739-416: The city was abandoned again. In 1662, during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor in the Qing dynasty , Kaifeng was rebuilt. Another reconstruction in 1843 followed flooding in 1841, shaping Kaifeng as it stands today. From the 8th to 9th century and up to the 19th century, Kaifeng is known for having the oldest extant Jewish community in China , the Kaifeng Jews . As of 2016, there are 20 Jews still left in
7848-559: The city. On 6 June 1938, the city was occupied by the invading Japanese Imperial Army . Kaifeng remained the capital of Henan province until 1954, when it was moved to Zhengzhou . In 1969, the former President of the People's Republic of China , Liu Shaoqi , died from medical neglect while under house arrest in Kaifeng. In 1948, the Battle of Kaifeng occurred between Chinese communist forces and Chinese Nationalist forces but ultimately lead to
7957-592: The event occurs along the famous Zhengkai Express Way ( 郑开大道 ). At its launch in 2007, 5600 athletes competed. By 2012, almost 25000 athletes from 28 countries and regions have participated in the ZK International Marathon. Kaifeng is the headquarters of the 20th Group Army of the People's Liberation Army , one of three group armies that compose the Jinan Military Region responsible for the defense of
8066-487: The exchange. During the reign of Empress Wu , nearly one century later, the Second Turkic Khaganate raided along northern China's borderlands. The Tang Empress, in what scholars consider a major strategic error, formed an ill-fated alliance with the Turkic leader Qapaghan Qaghan to punish the Khitan for raiding Hebei province . Khitan territory was much closer to northern China proper than Turkic lands, and
8175-439: The fall of that dynasty. Examples of the scripts appeared most often on epitaphs and monuments , although other fragments sometimes surface. The Khitan scripts have not been fully deciphered and more research and discoveries will be necessary for a proficient understanding of them. Nomadic Khitans originally engaged in stockbreeding , fishing , and hunting . Looting Chinese villages and towns as well as neighboring tribes
8284-576: The fall of the Tang dynasty in 907. Known as the Wudai Shiguo period , Five Dynasties ruled northern China in rapid succession with only nominal support from the Ten Kingdoms of southern China. The Tang dynasty had been supported by Shatuo Turks until Zhu Wen murdered the last Tang emperor and founded the Later Liang dynasty. The Shatuo Turks, who had been allied with the Khitans since 905, defeated
8393-473: The fall, as Emperor Shizong was returning to his capital Linhuang (臨潢, in modern Chifeng , Inner Mongolia ), Empress Dowager Li decided to intercept him before he went back to Linhuang, and requested that he resettle their household near a Han city and give them land for agriculture. Emperor Shizong agreed, and sent her back to Chaoyang with Shi Yanxu. He later resettled them at Jian Prefecture (建州, in modern Chaoyang , Liaoning ). (Consort Dowager An died on
8502-468: The generals Gao Xingzhou, Fu Yanqing , and Shi Gongba ( 石公霸 ) were put under siege by Liao troops at Qicheng (戚城, in modern Puyang , Henan ) and Jing, overseeing the operations against Liao, refused to launch a relief army, it was Shi Chonggui himself who led his army to the three generals' rescue. Because of the other generals' hatred of Jing's control of authority, Shi Chonggui used this incident as an opportunity to remove him from his chancellorship, and
8611-441: The imperial guard general Jing Yanguang , concluded that as the realm was not calm yet, an older emperor was needed, so they supported Shi Chonggui, who then took the throne. Shi Chonggui honored his adoptive mother Empress Li as empress dowager , and his biological mother Lady An as consort dowager. It was said that he served both of them with filial piety. However, he displeased Empress Dowager Li when he, even while observing
8720-575: The joint Khitan/Later Jin forces approached Luoyang, Li Congke, finding the situation hopeless, committed suicide with his family, ending Later Tang. Shi Jingtang then entered Luoyang unopposed. Still, the realm was not calmed, and in one of the rebellions against Shi Jingtang in 937, the general Zhang Congbin ( 張從賓 ) killed two more sons of Shi Jingtang's, Shi Chongxin ( 石重信 ) and Shi Chong'ai ( 石重乂 ). As another son of Shi Jingtang's, Shi Chonggao ( 石重杲 ), had died in childhood, all that were left of Shi Jingtang's sons at this point, other than Shi Chonggui,
8829-564: The latter invading the territory of the Later Jin in 946 and 947, resulting in the destruction of the Later Jin. Shi Chonggui was born in 914, at the Fenyang Neighborhood ( 汾陽里 ) of Taiyuan , during the rule of Li Cunxu the Prince of Jin . His father was Shi Jingru ( 石敬儒 ), and his mother was Lady An , likely Shi Jingru's wife. Shi Jingru served as a cavalry officer under Li Cunxu, but died early, so Shi Jingru's brother Shi Jingtang ,
8938-599: The officer Zhao Xingshi ( 趙行實 ), who had previously served under Zhao Yanshou, delivering the letter. Zhao Yanshou wrote back (to try to lead Later Jin forces into a trap), stating, "I have long been in a foreign land, and I want to return to China . Please launch a major army to support me, so that I can pull myself out and return with it." Subsequently, under Emperor Taizong's orders, Liao's prefect of Ying Prefecture (瀛州, in modern Cangzhou , Hebei), Liu Yanzuo ( 劉延祚 ), also offered to defect to Later Jin. Shi thus put Du and Li Shouzhen in command of an army to attack north, with
9047-533: The operations against An Chongrong if the rebellion occurred. He left Shi Chonggui in charge of Kaifeng as its defender. However, he was also apprehensive that An Congjin the military governor of Shannan East Circuit (山南東道, headquartered in modern Xiangyang , Hubei ), would rebel as well. At the advice of the chancellor He Ning , Shi Jingtang left a number of signed, blank edicts, so that Shi Chonggui could react quickly if An Congjin did rebel. When An Congjin did rebel after Shi Jingtang left Kaifeng, Shi Chonggui
9156-689: The provincial capital Zhengzhou and Kaifeng. The railway currently terminates at Songchenglu , and is planned to be extended to Kaifeng railway station . The designed top speed is 200 km/h (120 mph). Kaifeng North railway station of the Xuzhou–Lanzhou high-speed railway is the main high-speed railway station of the city. It started operation on 10 September 2016. There are 4 main coach stations in Kaifeng: There are frequent services to many neighboring counties, other provincial cities and long-distance services to other provinces. Kaifeng
9265-711: The rationale that it was Sang who initially negotiated the alliance, and that it was Jing who broke it) and that Shunguo and Yiwu (義武, headquartered in modern Baoding , Hebei ) Circuits be ceded to Liao, and then a peace could be reentered. Shi found the demand insulting, and cut off further negotiations. Believing that the victory at Yangcheng affirmed his empire's military strength, he became increasingly arrogant and extravagant in collecting expensive items and building palace halls, as well as awarding his favored opera performers, despite Sang's attempts to discourage him. At one point in 945, Shi fell seriously ill. During that time, there happened to be an occasion where Sang had sent
9374-426: The related Kumo Xi , Shiwei , and Xianbei whom they are believed to be descended from. During their early history the Khitan were composed of eight tribes. Their territory was between the present-day Xar Moron River and Chaoyang, Liaoning . The Khitan's territory bordered Goguryeo , the Central Plains , and the lands of the Eastern Turks. Between the 6th and 9th centuries, they were successively dominated by
9483-468: The remainder of Shi Chonggui's life came from the discoveries of the tombstones of himself and of Shi Yanxu, which were received by the Chaoyang City Museum in 2000 and 1998 respectively. According to his tombstone, he died in 974, during the reign of Emperor Muzong's successor (Emperor Shizong's son) Emperor Jingzong . The tombstone mentioned that he was buried with Empress Feng, implying that she
9592-570: The rivals. The Liao dynasty proved to be a significant power north of the Chinese plain , continuously moving south and west, gaining control over former Chinese and Turk-Uyghur territories. In 1005 Chanyuan Treaty was signed, and peace remained between the Liao dynasty and the Song dynasty for the next 120 years. During the reign of the Emperor Daozong of Liao , corruption was a major problem and prompted dissatisfaction among many people, including
9701-421: The senior official Sang Weihan was put in charge of the army overall operations, as his chief of staff ( Shumishi ). After the Liao forces were repelled and withdrew, Shi Chonggui sent the general Li Shouzhen against Yang, and subsequently, faced with certain defeat but with Yang unwilling to surrender, Yang's son Yang Chengxun ( 楊承勳 ) forcibly put Yang Guangyuan under arrest and surrendered. (Yang Guangyuan
9810-501: The stated objectives being to first recapture the prefectures Shi Jingtang previously ceded to Liao (the Sixteen Prefectures ), and then to destroy Liao. (Zhao Ying, however, had reservations, pointing out that Du, despite his honored position, was still often dissatisfied with his station, and therefore suggested to Li Song and Feng that Li Shouzhen be put in command by himself; Zhao Ying's suggestions were not listened to, however.) When Du and Li Shouzhen advanced, though, they were met by
9919-502: The time period, they permitted trade. The richest residents of the city sold their luxury belongings to Mongol soldiers for critically needed food supplies. Male members of the Jurchen Jin Wanyan royal family residing in the city were captured and executed. All Jin imperial concubines, including the empress dowager, were captured and taken north. In 1260, Marco Polo arrived at Kaifeng, and wrote about it in his diaries. The city
10028-523: The trivial political importance of the city at this period. Early in the 7th century, Kaifeng was transformed into a major commercial hub when it was connected to the Grand Canal as well as through the construction of a canal running to western Shandong . In 781 during the Tang dynasty , a new city was reconstructed and named Bian ( 汴 ). Bian was the capital of the Later Liang , Later Jin (936–946), Later Han (947–950), and Later Zhou (951–960) of
10137-438: The vicissitudes of war and floods to become the oldest landmark in this ancient city. Another Song-dynasty pagoda, Po Tower [ zh ] , dating from 974, has been partially destroyed. Another well-known sight was the astronomical clock tower of the engineer, scientist, and statesman Su Song (1020–1101 AD). It was crowned with a rotating armillary sphere that was hydraulically powered (i.e. by water wheel and
10246-487: The way from Chaoyang to Jian Prefecture.) The military governor at Jian Prefecture, Zhao Yanhui ( 趙延暉 ), yielded his headquarters for them to live in. Shi Chonggui had his followers till the land and establish an agricultural settlement. Soon thereafter, though, Emperor Shizong's cousin Yelü Jing seized Shi Chonggui's favorite concubines Consorts Zhao and Nie and made them his own. Empress Dowager Li fell ill in 950. There
10355-508: Was Shi Chongrui ( 石重睿 ). Later in 937, Shi Jingtang summoned Shi Chonggui to then-capital Kaifeng , and made him an imperial guard general. In 938, he made Shi Chonggui the mayor of Kaifeng and created him the Prince of Zheng. In late 941, Shi Jingtang, in anticipation of a possible rebellion by An Chongrong the military governor of Chengde Circuit (成德, headquartered in modern Shijiazhuang , Hebei ), decided to head to Yedu (鄴都, in modern Handan , Hebei ), so that he could better coordinate
10464-444: Was also a helpful source of slaves , Chinese handicrafts, and food, especially in times of famine. Under the influence of China, and following the administrative need for a sedentary administration, the Khitans began to engage in farming, crop cultivation and the building of cities. Unlike the Chinese and Balhae farmers, who cultivated wheat and sorghum millet , the Khitan farmers cultivated panicled millet. The ruling class of
10573-633: Was briefly captured around the mid-14th century by the Red Turban rebels who made it their capital for ten years. They were crushed by the newly established Ming forces. At the beginning of the Ming dynasty in 1368, Kaifeng was made the capital of Henan province. In 1642, Kaifeng was flooded by the Ming army with water from the Yellow River to prevent the peasant rebel Li Zicheng from taking over. After this disaster,
10682-438: Was killed by his subordinates, while An Congjin committed suicide. In summer 942, Shi Jingtang fell seriously ill. He summoned the senior chancellor Feng Dao , and then had Shi Chongrui come out to bow to Feng, and then put Shi Chongrui into Feng's lap, intending to show that he wanted Shi Chongrui to inherit the throne with Feng guiding the young emperor. However, after Shi Jingtang subsequently died, Feng, in consultation with
10791-478: Was left essentially defenseless, and Shi Chonggui, after initially considering suicide by fire but was stopped by the general Xue Chao ( 薛超 ), felt compelled to surrender, ending Later Jin. Emperor Taizong subsequently entered Daliang. Shi's surrender petition, as drafted by the imperial scholar Fan Zhi , stated: Your grandson and your subject, Chonggui, had his spirit deluded into disaster, and his state's fortune has been ended by heaven. Now, he shall, along with
10900-475: Was no longer alive at the time of his death. Apparently, by the time of his death, he was much honored by the Liao court, with the title of Prince of Jin, and there was official mourning held for him at the court at the time of his death. Khitan people The Khitan people ( Khitan small script : [REDACTED] ; Chinese : 契丹 ; pinyin : Qìdān ) were of a Turko - Mongol origin and historical nomadic people from Northeast Asia who, from
11009-632: Was no physician or medication available at Jian Prefecture, and her conditions grew worse. As she fell extremely ill, she held Shi Chonggui's hands and cursed Du Wei and Du's deputy Li Shouzhen , stating, "Even after I die I will not spare you!" She died shortly after. That was last traditional Chinese historical reference to Shi Chonggui, other than a reference that during Later Zhou 's Xiande era (954-962), there were people coming from Liao lands who reported that Shi and Empress Feng were still living in fairly good condition, but that over half of his attendants had escaped or died. The only things known about
11118-474: Was reconstructed during this time. The Jurchen kept their main capital further north until 1214 when they were forced to move the imperial court southwards to Kaifeng in order to flee from the onslaught of the Mongols . In 1232 they succumbed to the combined Mongol and Song forces in the Mongol siege of Kaifeng . The Mongols captured the city and in 1279 conquered all of China . During the Yuan dynasty Bianliang became
11227-416: Was removed from his posts as chancellor and chief of staff, and made the mayor of Kaifeng. Zhao Ying , who was then the mayor of Kaifeng, was made chancellor, and Li Song was made chief of staff, to replace him. In 946, there were rumors that Zhao Yanshou was planning on defecting to Later Jin. This rumor was believed by Li Song and Feng. They had Du write a letter to Zhao, encouraging him to do so, with
11336-411: Was said that Sang did not dare to make major policy suggestions after this point and requested retirement, citing a foot injury. However, it was also said that shortly thereafter, at Sang's suggestion, Shi sent the emissary Zhang Hui ( 張暉 ) to the Liao court, apologizing and requesting peaceful relations again. Emperor Taizong responded that he wanted to have Sang and Jing Yanguang sent to see him (under
11445-596: Was said that on the way, his train was poorly supplied, and sometimes even he and Empress Dowager Li would run out of food. The only Later Jin regional governor who dared to meet him on the way was Li Gu the prefect of Ci Prefecture (磁州, in modern Handan) and provide him with whatever Li Gu himself had on hand. When he reached Zhongdu Bridge and saw the remnants of camps that Du Wei had left, he bitterly wept and stated, "O Heaven! What has my clan done to him, that this bandit destroyed it!" Once Shi Chonggui's train entered into Liao proper, they received no further supplies from
11554-458: Was shorter in stature. Other than Shi Chonggui, Shi Jingtang had six other sons, five of whom were biological. After Shi Jingtang received the command of Hedong Circuit (河東, headquartered at Taiyuan) in 932, late in the reign of Li Siyuan as Later Tang's emperor, he had one Wang Zhen ( 王震 ) teach Shi Chonggui about the Book of Rites , but Shi Chonggui was unable to understand it, stating to Wang, "This
11663-596: Was subsequently secretly killed on Shi Chonggui's orders.) In late 944, Liao again made a major invasion, advancing all the way to the Yedu region, but soon withdrew again. Shi decided to have his uncle by marriage, Du Wei (husband of Shi Jingtang's and Shi Jingru's sister), then the military governor of Shunguo Circuit (順國, i.e., formerly Chengde), lead a punitive counterattack, with Li Shouzhen as Du's deputy. They crossed into Liao territory and captured Qi ( 祁州 ) and Tai ( 泰州 ) (both in modern Baoding), but soon received news that
11772-452: Was thus able to commission the necessary generals, with Gao Xingzhou in overall command, to attack An Congjin. Shortly after, Shi Jingtang summoned Shi Chonggui to Yedu and made the defender of Yedu, Li Dechong ( 李德珫 ), the defender of Kaifeng. After Shi Chonggui arrived at Yedu, Shi Jingtang made him the defender of Yedu and changed his princely title to Prince of Qi. Both An Chongrong and An Congjin were subsequently defeated; An Chongrong
11881-439: Was unable to. However, after Emperor Taizong's death shortly after and succession by his nephew Emperor Shizong , Shi Chonggui's fortune changed somewhat, as, after Emperor Shizong then defeated his grandmother (Emperor Taizu's wife) Empress Dowager Shulü , who opposed his claim to the throne, Emperor Shizong had Shi's train redirected to Liaoyang (遼陽, in modern Liaoyang , Liaoning ) to be settled there. When Shi then submitted
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