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122-607: The area of Western Sahara is home to the Sahrawi people who became Spanish subjects when Spain colonized the area in 1884. The United Nations (UN) became involved with Western Sahara when the UN asked Spain on December 16, 1965, through a General Assembly resolution, to decolonize the former Spanish territory. King Hassan II of Morocco rejected claims of independence for Western Sahara as early as 1975, despite International Court of Justice findings that Morocco did not have legal ties to

244-692: A TV station, were also set on fire. Moroccan officials said five security personnel had been killed in the unrest. On 15 November 2010, the Moroccan government accused the Algerian secret services of orchestrating and financing the Gadaym Izik camp with the intent to destabilize the region. The Spanish press was accused of mounting a campaign of disinformation to support the Sahrawi initiative, and all foreign reporters were either prevented from traveling or else expelled from

366-459: A Western Sahara autonomy under Moroccan rule but only after Morocco's "inalienable right" to the territory was recognized as a precondition to the talks. The Algerian government has consistently refused, claiming it has neither the will nor the right to negotiate on the behalf of the Polisario Front. In May 2005, demonstrations and riots by supporters of independence or a referendum broke out in

488-516: A basic understanding of current issues, the liberal–conservative ideological dimension, and the relative ideological dilemma that are important to understand when making political decisions. Studies from other institutions have suggested that the physical appearance of candidates is a criterion upon which voters base their decision. Voting advice applications can increase political knowledge enabling to cast informed votes. Christadelphians , Jehovah's Witnesses , Old Order Amish , Rastafarians ,

610-523: A better quality of life . Jacob A. Mundy, writing in the Mediterranean Quarterly in 2004, described how while the United Nations was attempting to avoid a conflict similar to East Timor , they instead created the setting for a very similar situation. Human Rights Watch wrote in 1995, that both side of the conflict were creating obstacles in the process of identifying potential voters for

732-489: A candidate or party listed on the ballot, or a write-in where they write out the name of their preferred candidate (if it is not listed). An alternative method that is still paper-based known as ballot letters is used in Israel, where polling booths contain a tray with ballots for each party running in the elections; the ballots are marked with the letter(s) assigned to that party. Voters are given an envelope into which they put

854-555: A different number of votes - only one (single voting as in First-past-the-post voting , Single non-transferable voting and Single transferable voting ); as many as are being elected in a multiple-member district (multiple voting as used in Plurality block voting ; more than one but fewer than are being elected in a multiple-member district ( Limited voting ). Most allow a voter to put just one vote on each candidate, but others allow

976-444: A different voter or electorate who will vote in his stead. In South Africa, there is a strong presence of anti-voting campaigns by poor citizens. They make the structural argument that no political party truly represents them. This resulted in the " No Land! No House! No Vote! " campaign, which becomes very prominent each time the country holds elections. The campaign is prominent among three of South Africa's largest social movements:

1098-565: A family may decide which film to see by voting. The method of voting can range from formal submission of written votes, through show of hands , voice voting or audience response systems, to informal noting which outcome seems to be preferred by more people. Some votes are carried out in person if all the people eligible to vote are present. This could be by a show of hands or keypad polling . Deliberative assemblies —bodies that use parliamentary procedure to arrive at decisions —use several methods when voting on motions (formal proposals by

1220-515: A grain of its sand." In 2006, he created an appointed advisory body Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs (CORCAS), which proposes a self-governing Western Sahara as an autonomous community within Morocco. The UN has put forth no replacement strategy after the breakdown of Baker II, and renewed fighting has been raised as a possibility. In 2005, former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan reported increased military activity on both sides of

1342-422: A member or members of a deliberative assembly). The regular methods of voting in such bodies are a voice vote, a rising vote, and a show of hands. Additional forms of voting include a recorded vote and balloting. The assembly can decide on the voting method by adopting a motion on it. The most common voting method uses paper ballots on which voters mark their preferences. This may involve marking their support for

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1464-619: A multi-party system at the achievement of independence. It is presently based at the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, which it controls. It also controls the part of Western Sahara to the east of the Moroccan Wall, known as the liberated territories . This area has a very small population, estimated to be approximately 30,000 nomads. The Moroccan government views it as a no-man's land patrolled by UN troops. The SADR government whose troops also patrol

1586-560: A number between one and ten (the upper and lower bounds may vary). See cardinal voting systems . Some "multiple-winner" systems such as the Single Non-Transferable Vote, SNTV, used in Afghanistan and Vanuatu give a single vote or one vote per elector per available position. STV uses single ranked votes; block voting ( Plurality-at-large voting ) are often used for at-large positions such as on some city councils. Finally,

1708-559: A peace agreement with Polisario and when Mauritania withdrew, Morocco took up occupation of that land as well. Until 1991, when a cease-fire was brokered, Polisario Front ran a guerrilla war against the Moroccan Army. Over a period of thirty-five years, "over 100,000 Sahrawis have been displaced from the area." Because of the lack of agreement, the Saharwi people's voice in the matter has been marginalized, according to Toby Shelley, writing in

1830-860: A president, or a group, such as a committee or a parliament. In electing a parliament, either each of many small constituencies can elect a single representative, as in Britain; or each of a lesser number of multi-member constituencies may elect two or more representatives, as in Ireland; or multi-member districts and some single-member districts can be used; or the entire country can be treated as one "at-large" district, as in The Netherlands. Different voting systems use different ballot designs. Some ballots allow only one choice to be selected (single X voting); others allow ranking or selecting multiple options ( Ranked ballots ). Different voting systems allow each voter to cast

1952-445: A quota of 1st preferences; to any pair of candidates with two quotas of 1st/2nd preferences; and if seats are still to be filled, to those candidates with the highest MBC scores. In a voting system that uses multiple votes ( Plurality block voting ), the voter can vote for any subset of the running candidates. So, a voter might vote for Alice, Bob, and Charlie, rejecting Daniel and Emily. Approval voting uses such multiple votes. In

2074-421: A simple lab experiment where students in a class vote for their favorite marble. If five marbles are assigned names and are placed "up for election", and if three of them are green, one is red, and one is blue, then a green marble will rarely win the election. The reason for the green's lack of success is vote splitting. The three green marbles will split the votes of those who prefer green. In fact, in this analogy,

2196-449: A very common way of reaching a decision peacefully. The right to vote is usually restricted to certain people. Members of a society or club, or shareholders of a company, but not outsiders, may elect its officers, or adopt or change its rules, in a similar way to the election of people to official positions. A panel of judges, either formal judicial authorities or judges of the competition, may decide by voting. A group of friends or members of

2318-560: A voice in the future of the territory. The referendum was then supposed take place in 1992, but this never happened, as both parties did not agree over who should be allowed to vote on Western Saharan independence. The UN reported that the Settlement Plan had become a " zero-sum game " where each side felt that winning was paramount and both felt the stakes for losing were high. Each group only cooperated when they felt that they would be able to achieve an outcome desirable to them. Part of

2440-423: A voter's votes to be piled on to one candidate. Different voting systems require different levels of support to be elected. Plurality voting ( First-past-the-post voting ) elects the candidate with more votes than any other single candidate. It does not require the winner to achieve a voting majority, to have more than half of the total votes cast. In First-past-the-post voting , when more than two candidates run,

2562-465: A voting system that uses a ranked vote , the voter ranks the candidates in order of preference. For example, they might mark a preference for Bob in the first place, then Emily, then Alice, then Daniel, and finally Charlie. Ranked voting systems , such as those used in Australia and Ireland, use a ranked vote. In a voting system that uses a scored vote (or range vote ), the voter gives each alternative

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2684-595: A €25 million ($ 27 million) investment in Guelmim-Oued Noun , which includes part of the Western Sahara. Sovereignty over Western Sahara is contested between Morocco and the Polisario Front and its legal status remains unresolved. The United Nations considers it to be a " non-self-governing territory ". Formally, Morocco is administered by a bicameral parliament under a constitutional monarchy wherein

2806-440: Is also used in a PR format. PR-STV is used in Australia, Ireland and Malta. Quota is calculated. In say a four-seat constituency, quota (if Droop quota is used) is 20 percent of the valid vote plus 1. Every candidate with quota (of 1st preferences alone or combination of first preferences and later preferences) will be elected. If a candidate has more than a quota and seats are yet to be filled, his/her surplus will be distributed to

2928-469: Is an official none of the above option and it is counted as a valid vote. Usually, blank and null votes are counted (together or separately) but are not considered valid. Modern political science has questioned whether average citizens have sufficient political knowledge to cast meaningful votes. A series of studies coming out of the University of Michigan in the 1950s and 1960s argued that many voters lack

3050-436: Is elected; others without quota (but with more votes than any other single candidate) may be declared elected as well. Side effects of First-past-the-post voting include a waste of votes due to vote splitting , a two-party system and political polarization due to electing candidates that do not support centrism . To understand why a race using First-past-the-post voting tends to favor less-centric candidates, consider

3172-446: Is generally confined to periodic elections . In a democracy, the government is elected by the people who vote in an election : a way for an electorate to elect , that is choose , from several different candidates. It is more than likely that elections will be between two opposing parties. These two will be the most established and most popular parties in the country. For example, in the US,

3294-448: Is rare. Western Sahara contains four terrestrial ecoregions : Saharan halophytics , Mediterranean acacia-argania dry woodlands and succulent thickets , Atlantic coastal desert , and North Saharan steppe and woodlands . The earliest known inhabitants of Western Sahara were the Gaetuli . Depending on the century, Roman-era sources describe the area as inhabited by Gaetulian Autololes or

3416-415: Is the subject of a branch of welfare economics known as social choice theory . In smaller organizations, voting can occur in many different ways: formally via ballot to elect others for example within a workplace, to elect members of political associations, or to choose roles for others; or informally with a spoken agreement or a gesture like a raised hand. In larger organizations, like countries , voting

3538-483: Is thinned to the number of remaining open seats. In the Quota Borda System (QBS), the voters also cast their preferences, 1,2,3,4... as they wish. In the analysis, all 1st preferences are counted; all 2nd preferences are counted; after these preferences have been translated into points per the rules of a Modified Borda Count (MBC), the candidates' points are also counted. Seats are awarded to any candidates with

3660-638: Is to try to achieve the most authentic outcome, without any risk of pressure, threat, or services linked to one's vote; this way, a person is able to express their actual preferences. Voting often takes place at a polling station but voting can also be done remotely by mail or using internet voting (such as in Estonia ). Voting is voluntary in some countries, like the UK, but it may be required by law in others, such as Australia. There are many electoral methods. The purpose of an election may be to choose one person, such as

3782-539: The Middle East Report . The territory of Western Sahara also plays a part in the struggle of Algeria and Morocco over "regional preeminence" of Northern Africa . Morocco views Western Sahara as a "check on Algeria's regional ambitions being pursued via Polisario surrogates." The United Nations became more involved with the conflict in 1976. In 1979, the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) also became involved in

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3904-451: The Assemblies of Yahweh , and some other religious groups , have a policy of not participating in politics and this extends to voting. Rabbis from all Jewish denominations encourage voting and some even consider it a religious obligation. The Catholic Church teaches that it is morally obligatory to vote. Whenever several people who do not all agree need to make some decision, voting is

4026-558: The Berlin Conference in 1884 on the division of spheres of influence in Africa , the same year Spain seized control of Western Sahara and established it as a Spanish colony. Despite establishing their first colony in the region at Río de Oro Bay in 1884, the Spanish were unable to pacify the interior of the region until the 1930s. Raids and rebellions by the indigenous Saharan population kept

4148-632: The Lamtuna nomadic Berbers of the Sahara . Over roughly five centuries, through a complex process of acculturation and mixing seen elsewhere in the Maghreb and North Africa, some of the indigenous Berber tribes mixed with the Maqil Arab tribes and formed a culture unique to Morocco and Mauritania . The Spanish presence in the region of modern-day Western Sahara lasted from 1884 to 1975. While initial Spanish interest in

4270-881: The Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara and the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, respectively. Morocco and organizations such as France Libertés consider Algeria to be directly responsible for any crimes committed on its territory, and accuse the country of having been directly involved in such violations. Morocco has been repeatedly criticized for its actions in Western Sahara by international human rights organizations including: Voting Condorcet methods Positional voting Cardinal voting Quota-remainder methods Approval-based committees Fractional social choice Semi-proportional representation By ballot type Pathological response Strategic voting Paradoxes of majority rule Positive results Voting refers to

4392-737: The UN Secretary General . In 1996, Eric Jensen, the Acting Special Representative, attempted to renegotiate the process, with little success. In 1997, former United States Secretary of State , James Baker , was appointed as a UN envoy by new UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan . The initial peace talks left many people in the area hopeful. First Baker reviewed the prior proposals and consulted with all parties involved. He, along with Chester A. Crocker and John R. Bolton , conducted private talks with Polisario and Morocco along with Algeria and Mauritania acting as observers. Eventually,

4514-710: The Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign , Abahlali baseMjondolo , and the Landless Peoples Movement . Other social movements in other parts of the world also have similar campaigns or non-voting preferences. These include the Zapatista Army of National Liberation and various anarchist-oriented movements. It is possible to make a blank vote , carrying out the act of voting, which may be compulsory, without selecting any candidate or option, often as an act of protest. In some jurisdictions, there

4636-512: The cease-fire terms , but most observers seem to consider armed conflict unlikely without the green light from Algeria , which houses the Sahrawis' refugee camps and has been the main military sponsor of the movement. In April 2007, the government of Morocco suggested that a self-governing entity, through the CORCAS, should govern the territory with some degree of autonomy for Western Sahara. The project

4758-413: The monarch retains significant powers, such as the capacity to appoint the government and to dissolve parliament. The last elections to the parliament's lower house were deemed reasonably free and fair by international observers. The Morocco-controlled parts of Western Sahara are divided into several provinces that are treated as integral parts of the kingdom. The Moroccan government heavily subsidizes

4880-421: The 1974 Spanish Census lists (see below) to vote, while Morocco has insisted that the census was flawed by evasion and sought the inclusion of members of Sahrawi tribes that escaped from Spanish invasion to the north of Morocco by the 19th century. Efforts by the UN special envoys to find a common ground for both parties did not succeed. By 1999 the UN had identified about 85,000 voters, with nearly half of them in

5002-728: The 8th century played a major role in the development of the Maghreb region. Trade developed further, and the territory may have been one of the routes for caravans , especially between Marrakesh and Tombouctou in Mali . In the 11th century, the Maqil Arabs (fewer than 200 individuals) settled in Morocco (mainly in the Draa River valley, between the Moulouya River , Tafilalt and Taourirt ). Towards

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5124-577: The African Union works with the UN mission to maintain the ceasefire and reach a peace agreement. The African Union provides a peacekeeping contingent to the UN mission which is used to control a buffer zone near the de facto border walls built by Morocco. Western Sahara is located on the north-west coast in West Africa and on the cusp of North Africa , bordering the North Atlantic Ocean to

5246-508: The Condorcet rule is used (sometimes) in decision-making. The voters or elected representatives cast their preferences on one, some, or all options, 1,2,3,4... as in PR-STV or QBS. In the analysis, option A is compared to option B, and if A is more popular than B, then A wins this pairing. Next, A is compared with option C, then D, and so on. Likewise, B is compared with C, D, etc. The option which wins

5368-557: The Gaetulian Daradae tribes. Berber heritage is still evident from regional and place-name toponymy , as well as from tribal names. Other early inhabitants of Western Sahara may be the Bafour and later the Serer . The Bafour were later replaced or absorbed by Berber-speaking populations, which eventually merged in turn with the migrating Beni Ḥassān Arab tribes. The arrival of Islam in

5490-636: The Houston Agreement (1997), Morocco officially declared that it was "no longer necessary" to include an option of independence on the ballot, offering instead autonomy. Erik Jensen, who played an administrative role in MINURSO, wrote that neither side would agree to a voter registration in which they were destined to lose (see Western Sahara: Anatomy of a Stalemate ). As personal envoy of the Secretary-General, James Baker visited all sides and produced

5612-500: The Liberation of Saguía el Hamra and Río de Oro. The movement tried without success to gain backing from several Arab governments, including Algeria and Morocco. Spain began rapidly to divest itself of most of its remaining colonial possessions. By 1974–75 the government issued promises of a referendum on independence in Western Sahara. At the same time, Morocco and Mauritania , which had historical and competing claims of sovereignty over

5734-640: The Moroccan-Israeli normalisation deal, the United States established a temporary consulate post in Dakhla in January 2021 as a transition to establishing a permanent consulate within the near future. The Western Sahara conflict has resulted in severe human-rights abuses, constantly reported by external reporters and human rights activists, most notably the displacement of tens of thousands of Sahrawi civilians from

5856-487: The Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara." The UN moved 373 peacekeepers into the area to help validate Western Saharan voters. Polisario believed that Morocco was identifying tribal groups as voters who did not have a close connection to Western Sahara. During this time, King Hassan also moved 37,000 people from Morocco into Western Sahara to act as potential voters, which "infuriated Polisario and shocked

5978-514: The Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara and in parts of southern Morocco (notably the town of Assa ). They were met by police. Several international human rights organizations expressed concern at what they termed abuse by Moroccan security forces, and a number of Sahrawi activists have been jailed. Pro-independence Sahrawi sources, including the Polisario, have given these demonstrations

6100-490: The Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara or Southern Morocco, and the others scattered between the Tindouf refugee camps , Mauritania and other places of exile. Polisario accepted this voter list, as it had done with the previous list presented by the UN (both of them originally based on the Spanish census of 1974), but Morocco refused and, as rejected voter candidates began a mass-appeals procedure, insisted that each application be scrutinized individually. This again brought

6222-442: The Polisario Front and Morocco broke down, leading to armed clashes between both sides. On 10 December 2020, the United States announced that it would recognize full Moroccan sovereignty over Western Sahara in exchange for Morocco normalizing relations with Israel with a view for subsequent establishment of diplomatic relations . In February 2021, Morocco proposed to Spain the creation of an autonomy for Western Sahara under

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6344-424: The Polisario Front rejected what became known as Baker Plan I. In 2003 Baker Plan II was rejected by Morocco and accepted by Algeria and the Polisario Front. In June 2004, James Baker resigned his post as UN Envoy to Western Sahara. In 2006, Morocco introduced a plan where the Sahrawi people could govern themselves, as long as they were under Moroccan rule. That plan was rejected. Polisario has threatened to end

6466-492: The Polisario Front, which opposed both Moroccan and Mauritanian claims and demanded full independence of Western Sahara. The UN attempted to settle these disputes through a visiting mission in late 1975, as well as a verdict from the International Court of Justice (ICJ). It acknowledged that Western Sahara had historical links with Morocco and Mauritania, but not sufficient to prove the sovereignty of either State over

6588-550: The Sahara was focused on using it as a port for the slave trade , by the 1700s Spain had transitioned economic activity on the Saharan coast towards commercial fishing. By the 19th century, Spain had claimed the southern coastal region and penetration of the hinterland gradually followed; later in 1904 the northern region was acquired. After an agreement among the European colonial powers at

6710-408: The Saharan provinces under its control with cut-rate fuel and related subsidies, to appease nationalist dissent and attract immigrants from Sahrawis and other communities in Morocco proper. The exiled government of the self-proclaimed Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) is a form of single-party parliamentary and presidential system, but according to its constitution, this will be changed into

6832-574: The Settlement Plan. The UN and the OAU introduced a plan in the late 1980s and negotiated with parties for about five years. On July 20, King Hassan of Morocco agreed to a referendum "for the self-determination" of the Western Saharan people. Once eligible voters were identified for the referendum, the people of Western Sahara would vote on whether they would be independent or become part of Morocco. The plan "was accepted in principle by Morocco and Polisario at

6954-456: The Spanish forces out of much of the territory for a long time. The territory was eventually subdued by joint Spanish and French forces in 1934, the same year the Spaniards divided their Saharan territories into two regions named after the rivers: Saguía el-Hamra and Río de Oro . After 1939 and the outbreak of World War II , this area was administered by Spanish Morocco . In 1958, Spain joined

7076-632: The UN General Assembly requesting that a referendum be held by Spain on self-determination. In 1975, Spain relinquished administrative control of the territory to a joint administration by Morocco and Mauritania . A war erupted between those countries and a Sahrawi nationalist movement, the Polisario Front , which proclaimed itself the rightful leadership of the SADR with a government-in-exile in Tindouf , Algeria . Mauritania withdrew its claims in 1979, and Morocco secured de facto control of most of

7198-463: The UN had ever recognized Moroccan sovereignty over parts of Western Sahara. In 2020, the US recognized Moroccan sovereignty over Western Sahara in exchange for Moroccan normalization of relations with Israel . In 2023, Israel recognized Moroccan sovereignty. In 1984, the African Union 's predecessor, the Organisation of African Unity , recognized the SADR as one of its full members, with

7320-461: The United Nations allowed each side to erode and derail the process, rather than "developing and sticking to a strategy designed to tackle head-on the difficulties in dealing with this conflict." Michael Rubin , writing in The Journal of International Security Affairs , believes that Moroccan rule of the Saharwi people is the best way for the area to remain stable, free from terrorism and will provide

7442-622: The area have proclaimed a village in the area, Bir Lehlou and Tifariti , as SADR's former and actual temporary factual capitals. On 18 December 2019, the Comoros became the first nation to open a consulate in Laayoune in support of Moroccan claims to Western Sahara. In January 2020, The Gambia and Guinea opened consulates in Dakhla ; meanwhile, Gabon opened a consulate general in Laayoune. As part of

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7564-473: The area. The protest coincided with a fresh round of negotiations at the UN. In 2016, the European Union (EU) declared that "Western Sahara is not part of Moroccan territory." In March 2016, Morocco "expelled more than 70 U.N. civilian staffers with MINURSO" due to strained relations after Ban Ki-moon called Morocco's annexation of Western Sahara an "occupation". In November 2020, the ceasefire between

7686-616: The area. However, a Moroccan rule of the area can be traced to Islamic expansion in the area, starting with the Midrarid dynasty (823-977 AD). In October 1975, King Hassan ordered an invasion of Western Sahara, and the United States pressured Spain to withdraw. After Spain withdrew from Western Sahara in 1976, an ongoing dispute began between the former territory and Morocco . In November 1975, Moroccan troops, ordered by King Hassan, lead 350,000 civilians into Western Sahara in order to "seize

7808-456: The ceasefire, but without aid from Algeria, it has not done so. The ceasefire was eventually ended in 2020 after Morocco launched a military operation near Guerguerat . Focusing mainly on self-determination for the territory may have excluded other possible solutions to the conflict. Samuel J. Spector has criticized the UN's "tendency to ignore Morocco's strategic interest in the territory and historical rights." Anna Theofilopoulou discusses how

7930-509: The competition is between the Republicans and the Democrats. In an indirect democracy, voting is the method by which the person elected (in charge) represents the people, whilst making decisions. Direct democracy is the complete opposite, the people make the policy decisions directly without selecting a representative to do it for them. A majority vote is when more than half of voters vote for

8052-411: The country, the expulsion of tens of thousands of Moroccan civilians by the Algerian government from Algeria, and numerous casualties of war and repression. During the war years (1975–1991), both sides accused each other of targeting civilians. Moroccan claims of Polisario terrorism have generally had little to no support abroad, with the US, European Union, African Union and UN all refusing to include

8174-579: The current United Nations Secretary General . The referendum was written up as Security Council Resolution 690 on April 29, 1991. Resolution 690 also created the United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO). Polisario hoped that the Settlement Plan would have "an outcome similar to the Evian Accords ." Polisario also supported the right of native Western Saharans to have

8296-428: The developing world. The Polisario Front has won formal recognition for the SADR from 46 UN member states and South Ossetia , and was extended membership of the African Union . Morocco has won support from several African governments and most of the Muslim world and Arab League . In most instances, recognitions are extended or withdrawn due to a change in relations with Morocco. Until 2020, no other member state of

8418-446: The district of Saguia el-Hamra (the "Red River") in the north with the Río de Oro (in the south) to form the province of Spanish Sahara, following Morocco's claiming these regions in 1957. As a consequence, Ahmed Belbachir Haskouri , the Chief of Cabinet, General Secretary of the Government of Spanish Morocco, cooperated with the Spanish to select governors in that area. The Saharan lords who were already in prominent positions, such as

8540-406: The document known as the "Baker Plan". This was discussed by the United Nations Security Council in 2000, and envisioned an autonomous Western Sahara Authority (WSA), which would be followed after five years by the referendum. Every person present in the territory would be allowed to vote, regardless of birthplace and with no regard to the Spanish census. It was rejected by both sides, although it

8662-441: The end of Francisco Franco 's rule. There was a global trend towards complete decolonization . Spain abandoned most territories within neighboring Morocco in 1956, but resisted encroachment by the Moroccan Liberation Army within Ifni and Spanish Sahara from 1956 to 1958. In 1971, Sahrawi (an Arabic term for those from Sahara ) students in Moroccan universities began organizing what came to be known as The Embryonic Movement for

8784-501: The end of August 1988." The referendum was written up in Security Council Resolution 658 . The United Nations Security Council became involved in 1991. The agreement resulted in a cease-fire between Morocco and Polisario, which went into effect on September 6, 1991. The cease-fire was treated as a separate issue from the rest of the Settlement Plan, which included voter registration for the referendum, by Pérez de Cuéllar ,

8906-769: The end of the Almohad Caliphate , the Beni Hassan, a sub-tribe of the Maqil, were called by the local ruler of the Sous to quell a rebellion; they settled in the Sous Ksours and controlled such cities as Taroudant . During Marinid dynasty rule, the Beni Hassan rebelled but were defeated by the Sultan and escaped beyond the Saguia el-Hamra dry river. The Beni Hassan then were at constant war with

9028-410: The first preferences. If no single candidate has 50% of the vote, then the candidate with the fewest votes is excluded and their votes are redistributed according to the voter's nominated order of preference. The process repeats itself until a candidate has 50% or more votes. The system is designed to produce the same result as an exhaustive ballot but using only a single round of voting. Ranked voting

9150-405: The front and breaches of several cease-fire provisions against strengthening military fortifications. Morocco has repeatedly tried to engage Algeria in bilateral negotiations, based on its view of Polisario as the cat's paw of the Algerian military. It has received vocal support from France and occasionally (and currently) from the United States. These negotiations would define the exact limits of

9272-524: The government coalition, the Polisario Front, as well as members of the governing party, who support a solution "that respects the democratic will of the Saharawi people". In July 2023, Israel officially recognized Moroccan sovereignty over Western Sahara. In October 2024, in a speech to the Parliament of Morocco , French President Emmanuel Macron backed Morocco's autonomy proposal. Macron also unveiled

9394-421: The group on their lists of terrorist organizations. Polisario leaders maintain that they are ideologically opposed to terrorism, and insist that collective punishment and forced disappearances among Sahrawi civilians should be considered state terrorism on the part of Morocco. Both Morocco and the Polisario additionally accuse each other of violating the human rights of the populations under their control, in

9516-451: The independence camp. Morocco was also allowed to keep its army in the area and retain control over all security issues during both the autonomy years and the election. In 2002, the Moroccan king stated that the referendum idea was "out of date" since it "cannot be implemented"; Polisario retorted that that was only because of the King's refusal to allow it to take place. In 2003, a new version of

9638-596: The largest city of Western Sahara. Previously occupied by Spain as the Spanish Sahara until 1975, Western Sahara has been on the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories since 1963 after a Moroccan demand. In 1965, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution on Western Sahara, asking Spain to decolonize the territory. A year later, resolution 2229 (XXI) was passed by

9760-685: The majority runs multiple candidates, and if the minority group runs just one candidate. This minority rule success can also result if multiple winners are elected and voters cast multiple votes ( Plurality block voting ). But even if the majority is split among multiple candidates, proportionate results can still be produced if votes can be transferred, as under STV, or if multiple winners are elected and each voter has just one vote. Alternatives to First-past-the-post voting include approval voting , two-round , proportional representation , and instant-runoff voting . With approval voting , voters are encouraged to vote for as many candidates as they approve of, so

9882-761: The members of Maa El Ainain family, provided a recommended list of candidates for new governors. Together with the Spanish High Commissioner, Belbachir selected from this list. During the annual celebration of Muhammad 's birthday, these lords paid their respects to the caliph to show loyalty to the Moroccan monarchy. As time went by, Spanish colonial rule began to unravel with the general wave of decolonization after World War II ; former North African and sub-Saharan African possessions and protectorates gained independence from European powers. Spanish decolonization proceeded more slowly, but internal political and social pressures for it in mainland Spain built up towards

10004-452: The most individual votes (i.e. they may have lose the popular vote but still win the seat count). (It is also possible for a party to win plurality in a minority of constituencies (but more than any other one party) and thus win minority government.) All modern liberal democracies use voting by secret ballot to prevent individuals from becoming influenced by other people and to protect their political privacy . The objective of secret ballots

10126-600: The most pairings, (if there is one), is the Condorcet winner.--> When the citizens of a country are invited to vote, they are participating in an election. However, people can also vote in referendums and initiatives . Since the end of the eighteenth century, more than five hundred national referendums (including initiatives) were organized in the world; among them, more than three hundred were held in Switzerland . Australia ranked second with dozens of referendums. Most referendums are binary. The first multi-option referendum

10248-464: The name " Independence Intifada ", while most sources have tended to see the events as being of limited importance. International press and other media coverage have been sparse, and reporting is complicated by the Moroccan government's policy of strictly controlling independent media coverage within the territory. Demonstrations and protests still occur, even after Morocco declared in February 2006 that it

10370-537: The north. In the waning days of General Franco 's rule, and after the Green March , the Spanish government signed a tripartite agreement with Morocco and Mauritania as it moved to transfer the territory on 14 November 1975. The accords were based on a bipartite administration, and Morocco and Mauritania each moved to annex the territories, with Morocco taking control of the northern two-thirds of Western Sahara as its Southern Provinces , and Mauritania taking control of

10492-401: The northwest, Morocco proper to the north-northeast , Algeria to the east-northeast , and Mauritania to the east and south . Among the most arid and inhospitable on the planet, the land along the coast is low flat desert and rises, especially in the north, to small mountains reaching up to 600 metres (2,000 ft) on the eastern side. While the area can experience flash flooding in

10614-407: The only way that a green marble is likely to win is if more than three-fifths of the voters prefer green. If the same number of people prefer green as those who prefer red and blue, that is to say, if one-third of the voters prefer green, one-third prefer blue, and one-third prefer red, then each green marble will only get one-ninth of the vote, if the green marbles each take same number of votes, while

10736-459: The option between independence or affirming integration with Morocco, but it quickly stalled. In 1997, the Houston Agreement attempted to revive the proposal for a referendum but likewise has hitherto not had success. As of 2010 , negotiations over terms have not resulted in any substantive action. At the heart of the dispute lies the question of who qualifies to be registered to participate in

10858-447: The other candidates in proportion to all of that candidate's 2nd preferences, in line with secondary preferences marked on the vote if any. If there are still candidates to be elected and no surplus votes to be transferred, the least-popular is eliminated, as above in AV or IRV, and the process continues until four candidates have reached a quota or are declared elected when the field of candidates

10980-481: The peacekeepers." Polisario believed that limiting voters to those were listed as "Western Saharan" on the 1974 Spanish census would lead to a vote for independence and did not want additional voters identified. During the voter registration process, United Nations personnel faced further difficulties in deploying MINURSO peacekeepers from Morocco and the Moroccan government forbid Western Saharans from making contact with any foreign person. Polisario also interrupted

11102-500: The plan was made official, with some additions spelling out the powers of the WSA, making it less reliant on Moroccan devolution . It also provided further detail on the referendum process in order to make it harder to stall or subvert. This second draft, commonly known as Baker II, was accepted by the Polisario as a "basis of negotiations" to the surprise of many. This appeared to abandon Polisario's previous position of only negotiating based on

11224-522: The plan, but he was met with rejection. King Hassan II of Morocco initially supported the referendum idea in principle in 1982, and signed contracts with Polisario and the UN in 1991 and 1997. No major powers have expressed interest in forcing the issue, however, and Morocco has shown little interest in a real referendum. Hassan II's son and successor, Mohammed VI , has opposed any referendum on independence, and has said Morocco will never agree to one: "We shall not give up one inch of our beloved Sahara, not

11346-460: The problem with voter registration was a lack of agreement between Polisario and Morocco over who could claim Saharawi ethnicity and who should be allowed to vote on the referendum. Morocco interpreted a December 1991 broadening of the voter eligibility criteria "as a license to submit applications on behalf of individuals with questionable ties to the Western Sahara." In addition, Morocco may have "improperly influenced Sahrawi tribal leaders who live in

11468-573: The process of choosing officials or policies by casting a ballot , a document used by people to formally express their preferences. Republics and representative democracies are governments where the population chooses representatives by voting. The procedure for identifying the winners based on votes varies depending on both the country and the political office. Political scientists call these procedures electoral systems , while mathematicians and economists call them social choice rules . The study of these rules and what makes them good or bad

11590-513: The process to a halt. According to a NATO delegation, MINURSO election observers stated in 1999, as the deadlock continued, that "if the number of voters does not rise significantly the odds were slightly on the SADR side". By 2001, the process had effectively stalemated and the UN Secretary-General asked the parties for the first time to explore other, third-way solutions. Indeed, shortly after

11712-401: The red and blue marbles will each get one-third, putting the green marbles at a serious disadvantage. If the experiment is repeated with other colors, the color that is in the majority (if the majority is split among multiple choices) will still rarely win. In other words, from a purely mathematical perspective, a single-winner system tends to favor a winner that is different from the majority, if

11834-473: The referendum, and, since about the year 2000, Morocco considers that since there is no agreement on persons entitled to vote, a referendum is not possible. Meanwhile, Polisario still insisted on a referendum with independence as a clear option, without offering a solution to the problem of who is qualified to be registered to participate in it. Both sides blame each other for the stalling of the referendum. The Polisario has insisted on only allowing those found on

11956-557: The referendum. In a 2006 report to the United States Congress , Carol Migdalovitz writes that without a resolution on a settlement plan for Western Sahara, diplomatic relations between Morocco and Algeria will remain strained. Western Sahara Western Sahara is a disputed territory in North-western Africa . It has a surface area of 272,000 square kilometres (105,000 sq mi). Approximately 30% of

12078-466: The rest of the territory. It gradually contained the guerrillas by setting up the extensive sand-berm in the desert (known as the Border Wall or Moroccan Wall) to exclude guerrilla fighters. Hostilities ceased in a 1991 cease-fire, overseen by the peacekeeping mission MINURSO , under the terms of a UN Settlement Plan . The referendum, originally scheduled for 1992, foresaw giving the local population

12200-409: The same person or party. However, whilst it is usually said each individual's vote does count, many countries use a combination of factors to decide who has power, not the at-large "popular vote". Most influential of these factors are districts that divide the electorate. For example, in the UK a party winning plurality in a majority of constituencies wins majority government, but they may not always have

12322-465: The same status as Morocco, and Morocco protested by suspending its membership of the OAU. Morocco was readmitted to the Union in 2017, after promising conflicting claims would be resolved peacefully and it would stop building walls to extend its military control. Meanwhile, the African Union has not issued any formal statement about the border separating the sovereign territories of Morocco and the SADR. Instead,

12444-541: The southern third as Tiris al-Gharbiyya . Spain terminated its presence in Spanish Sahara within three months, repatriating Spanish remains from its cemeteries. The Moroccan and Mauritanian annexations were resisted by the Polisario Front , which had gained backing from Algeria . It initiated guerrilla warfare and, in 1979, Mauritania withdrew due to pressure from Polisario, including a bombardment of its capital and other economic targets. Morocco extended its control to

12566-555: The sovereignty of the King of Morocco . In March 2022, the Spanish government abandoned its traditional position of neutrality in the conflict, siding with the Moroccan government and recognising the autonomy proposal "as the most serious, realistic and credible basis for the resolution of the dispute". This sudden turnaround was generally rejected by both the Opposition, the parties that make up

12688-671: The spring, there are no permanent streams. At times, a cool off-shore current can produce fog and heavy dew. The interior experiences extreme summer heat, with average highs reaching 43–45 °C (109–113 °F) in July and in August; during winter, days are still hot to very hot, with average highs from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F); however, in the northern part of the territory, the thermometer may drop below 0 °C (32 °F) at night and it can be freezing in December and in January, although this

12810-518: The standards of voter identification from 1991 (i.e. the Spanish census). After that, the draft quickly garnered widespread international support, culminating in the UN Security Council's unanimous endorsement of the plan in the summer of 2003. Baker resigned his post at the United Nations in 2004; his term did not see the crisis resolved. His resignation followed several months of failed attempts to get Morocco to enter into formal negotiations on

12932-452: The talks, which covered the "issues of refugees, reduction of Moroccan troops, prisoners of war and political prisoners," along with an agreement on a code of conduct for the voter registration, eventually led to the Houston Agreement . Voter identification began again on December 3, 1997. A referendum was meant to occur by 1998. However, due to Morocco's refusal to accept the census results, and thus unlikelihood of accepting referendum based on

13054-610: The territory (82,500 km (31,900 sq mi)) is controlled by the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR); the remaining 70% is occupied and administered by neighboring Morocco . It is the most sparsely populated territory in Africa and the second most sparsely populated territory in the world , mainly consisting of desert flatlands. The population is estimated at 618,600. Nearly 40% of that population lives in Morocco-controlled Laayoune ,

13176-469: The territory at the time of the Spanish colonization. The population of the territory thus possessed the right of self-determination . On 6 November 1975 Morocco initiated the Green March into Western Sahara; 350,000 unarmed Moroccans converged on the city of Tarfaya in southern Morocco and waited for a signal from King Hassan II of Morocco to cross the border in a peaceful march. A few days before, on 31 October, Moroccan troops invaded Western Sahara from

13298-435: The territory for Morocco" in the Green March . After the march, Spain divided the territory between Morocco and Mauritania . The Polisario Front was formed by Saharwi people in 1973. The group started fighting for the independence of Western Sahara. The group has been backed by Algeria . Polisario's fight for independence caused Mauritania to relinquish its claim on Western Sahara in 1978. In August 1979, Mauritania signed

13420-671: The territory has been administered by the Moroccan government , with tacit support from France and the United States. The remainder is administered by the SADR, backed by Algeria . The only part of the coast in SADR territory is the extreme south. Internationally, countries such as Russia have taken an ambiguous and neutral position on each side's claims and pressed parties to agree on a peaceful resolution. Morocco and Polisario have sought to boost their claims by accumulating formal recognition, especially from African, Asian, and Latin American states in

13542-491: The territory, argued that it had been artificially separated from their territories by the European colonial powers. Algeria , which also bordered the territory, viewed their demands with suspicion, as Morocco also claimed the Algerian provinces of Tindouf and Béchar . After arguing for a process of decolonization to be guided by the United Nations , the Algerian government under Houari Boumédiènne in 1975 committed to assisting

13664-412: The territory, including all major cities and most natural resources. The UN considers the Polisario Front the legitimate representative of the Sahrawi people , and maintains the Sahrawis have a right to self-determination . Western Sahara is the last African colonial state yet to achieve independence and has been dubbed "Africa's last colony". Since a UN-sponsored ceasefire agreement in 1991, most of

13786-529: The two candidates with the most significant plurality run again for the second round of voting. Variants exist regarding these two points: the requirement for being elected at the first round is sometimes less than 50%, and the rules for participation in the runoff may vary. With single-round ranked voting, such as instant-runoff voting system as used in some elections in Australia and the United States, voters rank each candidate in order of preference (1,2,3,4 etc.). Votes are distributed to each candidate according to

13908-496: The voter identification process, during which they questioned the integrity of MINURSO. The process stalled in 1995, during which the United Nations Security Council was sent to assess the situation, the consequences of which raised the stakes of the process for all parties involved. By 1996, recommendations for complete withdrawal of peacekeepers and the suspension of the voter registration process were called for by

14030-520: The voters proposed, the UN Secretary General suspended the Settlement Plan. In 1999, King Hassan died and Mohammed VI took over. King Mohammed "strongly reasserted Morocco's claim to the region." Also in 1999, Abdelaziz Bouteflika , who supported the independence of Western Sahara, became president of Algeria. Other solutions were sought by the UN Secretary-General's Special Envoy James Baker in 2001, and Morocco accepted these, but Algeria and

14152-449: The winner commonly has less than half of the vote, as few as 18 percent was recorded in 2014 in Toronto. In Instant-runoff voting , a candidate must have a majority of votes to be elected, although presence of exhausted votes may mean that the majority at time of final count is not majority of votes cast. In STV, any candidate who takes quota (usually set at much less than half of the votes)

14274-402: The winner is much more likely to be any one of the five marbles because people who prefer green will be able to vote for every one of the green marbles. With two-round elections, the field of candidates is thinned prior to the second round of voting. In most cases, the winner must receive a majority of the votes, which is more than half. If no candidate obtains a majority in the first round, then

14396-403: Was contemplating a plan for devolving a limited variant of autonomy to the territory but still explicitly refused any referendum on independence. As of January 2007, the plan had not been made public, though the Moroccan government claimed that it was more or less complete. Polisario has intermittently threatened to resume fighting, referring to the Moroccan refusal of a referendum as a breach of

14518-463: Was held in New Zealand in 1894, and most of them are conducted under a two-round system. New Zealand had a five-option referendum in 1992, while Guam had a six-option plebiscite in 1982, which also offered a blank option, in case some voters wanted to (campaign and) vote for a seventh option. Proxy voting is a form of voting in which a registered citizen who can legally vote passes on his or her vote to

14640-436: Was home to more than 12,000 people. In November 2010, Moroccan security forces entered Gadaym Izik camp in the early hours of the morning, using helicopters and water cannon to force people to leave. The Polisario Front said Moroccan security forces had killed a 26-year-old protester at the camp, a claim denied by Morocco. Protesters in Laayoune threw stones at police and set fire to tires and vehicles. Several buildings, including

14762-406: Was initially derived from a Moroccan proposal. According to Baker's draft, tens of thousands of post-annexation immigrants from Morocco proper (viewed by Polisario as settlers but by Morocco as legitimate inhabitants of the area) would be granted the vote in the Sahrawi independence referendum, and the ballot would be split three ways by the inclusion of an unspecified " autonomy ", further undermining

14884-435: Was presented to the UN Security Council in mid-April 2007. The stalemating of the Moroccan proposal options has led the UN in the recent "Report of the UN Secretary-General" to ask the parties to enter into direct and unconditional negotiations to reach a mutually accepted political solution. In October 2010, Gadaym Izik camp was set up near Laayoune as a protest by displaced Sahrawi people about their living conditions. It

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