112-493: The Seima-Turbino culture , also Seima-Turbinsky culture or Seima-Turbino phenomenon , is a pattern of burial sites with similar bronze artifacts. Seima-Turbino is attested across northern Eurasia , particularly Siberia and Central Asia , maybe from Fennoscandia to Mongolia , Northeast China , Russian Far East , Korea , and Japan . The homeland is considered to be the Altai Mountains . These findings have suggested
224-481: A biodegradable capsule that will not harm the surrounding earth. The biodegradable capsule doubles as a seed which can be customized to grow into either a birch , maple , or eucalyptus tree. The goal of this method is to create parks full of trees that loved ones can walk through and mourn, as opposed to a graveyard full of tombstones. This method aims to return the body to the earth in the most environmentally friendly way possible. The tree pod method originated in
336-422: A dead body is placed into the ground, sometimes with objects. This is usually accomplished by excavating a pit or trench, placing the deceased and objects in it, and covering it over. A funeral is a ceremony that accompanies the final disposition. Evidence suggests that some archaic and early modern humans buried their dead. Burial is often seen as indicating respect for the dead. It has been used to prevent
448-423: A 'bad death'. This gradually changed as the upper and middle class started holding funerals in the mortuaries of hospitals. This posed an issue for hospitals because of the rapid increase in funerals being held and maxing occupancy. This resolved when a law was passed to allow the civilian population to hold funerals in the mortuaries of hospitals. The lower class then followed suit, copying the newly set traditions of
560-567: A 3-year-old child at Panga ya Saidi cave in Kenya dating to 78,000 years ago also show signs suggestive of a burial, such as the digging of a pit, laying of the body in a fetal position and intentional rapid covering of the corpse. In ancient Egypt , burial customs developed during the Predynastic period . Round graves with one pot were used in the Badarian Period (4400–3800 B.C.E.), continuing
672-575: A Sulawesi province in Eastern Indonesia, experiences death as a process, rather than an event. The culture of Tana Toraja views funerals as the most important event in a person's life. Because of this importance placed on death, Tana Toraja landscape is covered in the rituals and events transpired after death. The hierarchy of an individual's life is based on the sacrifices of animals made after their death. Funerals tend to be celebrated by Tana Toraja people, typically lasting days to even weeks long. Death
784-485: A common point of cultural origin, possession of advanced metal working technology, and unexplained rapid migration. The buried were nomadic warriors and metal-workers, traveling on horseback or two-wheeled carts . Anthony (2007) dated Seima-Turbino to "before 1900 BCE onwards." Currently, both Childebayeva (2017) and Marchenko (2017) date the Seima-Turbino complex to ca. 2200 – 1900 BCE. The name derives from
896-501: A display of status, and as many as 200 large pieces were buried with their owner for use in the afterlife, as in the Tomb of Fu Hao , a Shang queen. In the tomb of the first Qin Emperor and multiple Warring States period tombs, extremely sharp swords and other weapons were found, coated with chromium oxide, which made the weapons rust resistant. The layer of chromium oxide used on these swords
1008-449: A financial burden causing some to turn to green burials as a cheaper alternative. Some people view green burials as more meaningful, especially for those who have a connection to a piece of land, such as current residence or other places that hold meaning for them. Conservation burial is a type of burial where burial fees fund the acquisition and management of new land to benefit native habitat, ecosystems and species. This usually involves
1120-450: A fining hearth. If iron ores are heated with carbon to 1420–1470 K, a molten liquid is formed, an alloy of about 96.5% iron and 3.5% carbon. This product is strong, can be cast into intricate shapes, but is too brittle to be worked, unless the product is decarburized to remove most of the carbon. The vast majority of Chinese iron manufacture, from the late Zhou dynasty onward, was of cast iron. However forged swords began to be made in
1232-410: A foundation in truth. South Korea 's funeral arrangements have drastically changed in the course of only two decades according to Chang-Won Park. Park states that around the 1980s at home funeral ceremonies were the general norm, straying away from anywhere that was not a family home. Dying close to home, with friends and family, was considered a 'good death', while dying away from home was considered
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#17328444219351344-488: A frontier of some 4,000 miles. Supposedly this migration took place in just five to six generations and enabled people from Finland in the west to Thailand in the east to employ the same metal working technology and in some areas, horse breeding and riding. However, further excavations and research in Ban Chiang and Ban Non Wat (both Thailand) argue the idea that Seima-Turbino brought metal workings into southeast Asia
1456-494: A further coffin or coffins on top of the first one. In such cases, more than six feet may be dug, to provide the required depth of soil above the top coffin. In the United States, there is no nationwide regulation of burial depth. Each local authority is free to determine its own rules. Requirements for depth can vary according to soil type and by method of burial. California , for instance, requires only 19 inches of soil above
1568-455: A highly sophisticated and massive bronze industry. Various types of Seima-Turbino style objects are known from the early cultures of China: It has been conjectured that changes in climate in this region around 2000 BCE and the ensuing ecological, economic and political changes triggered a rapid and massive migration westward into northeast Europe, eastward into Korea , and southward into Southeast Asia ( Vietnam and Thailand ) across
1680-433: A large quantity of red copper". "The seventy-two brothers of Chiyou had copper heads and iron fronts; they ate iron and stones [...] In the province of Ji where Chiyou is believed to have lived (Chiyou shen), when we dig the earth and we find skulls that seem to be made of copper and iron, they are identified as the bones of Chiyou." Chiyou was the leader of the indigenous Sanmiao (or Jiuli) tribes who defeated Xuanyuan,
1792-456: A legal document such as a conservation easement . Such burials go beyond other forms of natural burial, which aim to prevent environmental damage caused by conventional burial techniques, by actually increasing benefits for the environment. The idea is for the burial process to be a net positive for the earth rather than just neutral. Scientists have argued that such burials could potentially generate enough funds to save every endangered species on
1904-542: A long history, with the earliest metal objects in China dating back to around 3,000 BCE. The majority of early metal items found in China come from the North-Western Region (mainly Gansu and Qinghai , 青海). China was the earliest civilization to use the blast furnace and produce cast iron . Archaeological evidence indicates that the earliest metal objects in China were made in the late fourth millennium BCE. Copper
2016-444: A more cost effective and environmentally friendly way to memorialize loved ones, this method also offers emotional support. The memories of loved ones will be immortalized through the concept of a deceased person having a medium (trees) that will continue to live and grow. Embalming is the practice of preserving a body against decay and is used in many cultures. Mummification is a more extensive method of embalming, further delaying
2128-448: A result, burial grounds are found throughout the world. Through time, mounds of earth , temples , and caverns were used to store the dead bodies of ancestors . In modern times, the custom of burying dead people below ground, with a stone marker to indicate the burial place, is used in most cultures ; although other means such as cremation are becoming more popular in the West (cremation is
2240-412: A sign of respect even when burial is impossible. In nonstandard burial practices, such as mass burial , the body may be positioned arbitrarily. This can be a sign of disrespect to the deceased, or at least nonchalance on the part of the inhumer, or due to considerations of time and space. Most often, a burial will be oriented to a specific direction for religious purposes, as are the case for persons of
2352-412: A single grave either by choice (as in the case of married couples), due to space concerns, or in the case of mass graves as a way to deal with many bodies at once. Alternatives to burial include cremation (and subsequent interment), burial at sea and cryopreservation . Some human cultures may bury the remains of beloved animals . Intentional burial, particularly with grave goods , may be one of
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#17328444219352464-569: Is based on inaccurate and unreliable radiocarbon dating at the site of Ban Chiang. It is now agreed by virtually every specialist in Southeast Asian prehistory that the Bronze Age of Southeast Asia occurred too late to be related to ST, and the cast bronzes are quite different. The distribution of Seima-Turbino sites is argued to display a correlation with the range of paternal haplogroup N-M231 (N3a3’6 [corrected to 2020: "N" basic]) as well as
2576-519: Is highly unusual and generally symbolic. Occasionally suicides and assassins were buried upside down, as a post-mortem punishment and (as with burial at cross-roads ) to inhibit the activities of the resulting undead . In Gulliver's Travels , the Lilliputians buried their dead upside down: They bury their dead with their heads directly downward, because they hold an opinion, that in eleven thousand moons they are all to rise again; in which period
2688-513: Is ongoing debate regarding the reliability of the dating method, some scholars believe the earliest human burial dates back 100,000 years. Archeological expeditions have discovered human skeletal remains stained with red ochre in the Skhul cave at Qafzeh in Israel. A variety of grave goods were present at the site, including the mandible of a wild boar in the arms of one of the skeletons. The remains of
2800-453: Is practiced in permitted oceans in the U.S., specifically in locations around Florida, South Carolina, North Carolina, Maryland, New Jersey, Texas and Virginia. Alkaline hydrolysis , also referred to as resomation, is another approach to natural burial. It uses high temperature water mixed with potassium hydroxide to dissolve human remains. During this process, the body is put into an enclosed, stainless steel chamber. The chamber fills with
2912-540: Is seen as a transformation, rather than a private loss. A Torajan is not considered 'dead' until their family members are able to collect the resources necessary to hold a funeral that expresses the status of the deceased. Until these funerals are upheld the deceased are held in Tongkonan , built to house corpses that are not considered 'dead'. The deceased can be held in Tongkonan for years, waiting for their families to collect
3024-466: The Abrahamic faiths . Standard Jewish burials are made supine east–west, with the head at the western end of the grave, in order to face Jerusalem . In other cases, the body may be buried on a north–south axis, or, simply facing towards the exit of the cemetery or burial grounds. This is done in order to facilitate the return to Israel foretold of all those who are resurrected at the end of time following
3136-611: The Banpo culture. Archaeologists have found remains of copper metallurgy in various cultures from the late fourth to the early third millennia BCE. These include the copper-smelting remains and copper artifacts of the Hongshan culture (4700–2900) and copper slag at the Yuanwozhen site. This indicates that inhabitants of the Yellow River valley had already learned how to make copper artifacts by
3248-642: The Ordos region of Inner Mongolia , are known for numerous artifacts reminiscent of the Scytho-Siberian art of Central Asia. During the Qing dynasty the gold and silver smiths of Ningbo were noted for the delicacy and tastefulness of their work. Chinese mythology generally reflects a time when metallurgy had long been practiced. According to the Romanian anthropologist, orientalist, and philosopher Mircea Eliade ,
3360-594: The Seyma cemetery near the confluence of the Oka River and Volga River , first excavated around 1914, and the Turbino cemetery in Perm , first excavated in 1924. Seima-Turbino (ST) weapons contain tin bronze ore originating from the Altai Mountains region (central Mongolia and southern Siberia ), with further ST discoveries pointing more specifically to the southeastern portions of
3472-759: The Shijiahe site complex in Hubei , some pieces of copper were discovered; they are the earliest copper objects discovered in southern China. The Linjia site (林家遺址, Línjiā yízhǐ) has the earliest evidence for bronze in China, dating to c. 3000 BCE. Bronze technology was imported to China from the steppes. The oldest bronze object found in China was a knife found at a Majiayao culture site in Dongxiang , Gansu, and dated to 2900–2740 BC. Further copper and bronze objects have been found at Machang-period sites in Gansu. Metallurgy spread to
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3584-745: The Sintashta culture ), to that of the Late Neolithic/Bronze Age Eastern Siberians , which peaks among Uralic-speaking Nganasan people . They also displayed affinity to Okunevo culture remains, which in turn is affiliated with the Seima-Turbino culture. One male could be modelled as deriving their ancestry entirely from Sintashta Middle-Late Bronze Age. Two males were assigned to the Y-haplogroup R1a (R1a-M417 and R1a-Z645), two to C2a, one to N1a1a1a1a (N-L392), one to Q1b (Q-M346), and one to R1b1a1a (R1b-M73). The mtDNA haplogroups of
3696-511: The Song dynasty . Shen Kuo 's written work of 1088 contains, among other early descriptions of inventions, a method of repeated forging of cast iron under a cold blast similar to the modern Bessemer process . Chinese metallurgy was widely practiced during the Middle Ages; during the 11th century, the growth of the iron industry caused vast deforestation due to the use of charcoal in
3808-637: The Warring-States-period : "Earliest iron and steel Jian also appear, made by the earliest and most basic forging and folding techniques." Iron would become, by around 300 BCE, the preferred metal for tools and weapons in China. The primary advantage of the early blast furnace was in large scale production and making iron implements more readily available to peasants. Cast iron is more brittle than wrought iron or steel, which required additional fining and then cementation or co-fusion to produce, but for menial activities such as farming it sufficed. By using
3920-450: The 'dwarf" blast furnaces were found in Dabieshan . In construction, they are both around the same level of technological sophistication There is no evidence of the bloomery in China after the appearance of the blast furnace and cast iron. In China, blast furnaces produced cast iron, which was then either converted into finished implements in a cupola furnace, or turned into wrought iron in
4032-501: The 5th century BC, employing workforces of over 200 men in iron smelters from the 3rd century onward. The earliest known blast furnaces are attributed to the Han dynasty in the 1st century AD. These early furnaces had clay walls and used phosphorus -containing minerals as a flux . Chinese blast furnaces ranged from around two to ten meters in height, depending on the region. The largest ones were found in modern Sichuan and Guangdong , while
4144-737: The Altai and Xinjiang . These sites have been identified with the origin of the ST culture. Originally, the lack of tin ore in Eurasian steppes meant that metallurgy was initially based on copper or " arsenical bronze " (actually copper with more or less arsenic content, with the effect of hardening it). It is only from the rise of the Seima-Turbino culture in the Saiano-Altai region that tin bronze (alloys of copper and tin) began to be used, initially through forging and progressively through casting techniques, marking
4256-613: The Altai mountains to the west and to the east. These cultures are noted for being nomadic forest and steppe societies with metal working, sometimes without having first developed agricultural methods. The development of this metalworking ability appears to have occurred quite quickly. ST bronzes have been discovered as far west as the Baltic Sea and the Borodino treasure in Moldavia . The Seima-Turbino culture may have been identical with
4368-705: The Bronze Age in China is the section mold process. When the lost-wax method was introduced into China is also a topic of academic discussion. But there is no doubt that the lost-wax method already existed in China during the Spring and Autumn period. In 1978, the Bronze Zun-Pan unearthed from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng in Leigudun, Suixian County, Hubei Province, used a mixed process of section mold method and lost-wax method. The early Iron Age in China began before 1000 BCE, with
4480-767: The General Resurrection they may rise facing, and ready to minister to, their people. In an Islamic funeral , the grave should be aligned perpendicular to the Qibla (the direction to the Kaaba in Mecca ) with the face turned to the right along the Qibla. For humans, maintaining an upside-down position, with the head vertically below the feet, is highly uncomfortable for any extended period of time, and consequently burial in that attitude (as opposed to attitudes of rest or watchfulness, as above)
4592-516: The Iron Age produced a large number of rites, myths and symbols; the blacksmith was the main agent of diffusion of mythology, rites and metallurgical mysteries. The secret knowledge of metallurgists and their powers made them founders of the human world and masters of the spirit world. This metallurgical model was reinterpreted again by Taoist alchemists. Some metalworkers illustrate the close relationship between Chinese mystical and sovereign power and
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4704-644: The Qijia culture and Central Asia. Similar sites have been found in Xinjiang in the west and Shandong , Liaoning and Inner Mongolia in the east and north. The Central Plain sites associated with the Erlitou culture also contain early metalworks . Copper manufacturing, more complex than jade working, gradually appeared in the Yangshao period (5000–3000 BCE). Jiangzhai is the only place where copper artifacts were found in
4816-413: The Seima-Turbino complex." They further state that the genetic data is "temporally and geographically consistent with the proposal that Uralic languages could have spread within the ST network", which also correlates to the spread of haplogroup N-L392 and Eastern Siberian ancestry westwards. Burial site Burial , also known as interment or inhumation , is a method of final disposition whereby
4928-567: The Seima-Turbino culture to the north, were made precisely at the same time the Shang reported intense protracted conflicts with the northern tribes of the "Guifang". This would suggest that the Guifang were the Altaic Seima-Turbino culture itself, and that their century-long conflict with the Shang led to the transfer of various object and manufacturing techniques. Particularly, the introduction of
5040-521: The U.S. Green burials are developing in Canada (Victoria, BC, and Cobourg, Ontario), as well as in Australia and Ireland. The increase in popularity of alternative burials can be seen as a direct choice of the individual's want to distance themselves from religious practices and spiritual locations as well as an opportunity to exercise their act of choice. The desire to live through nature as well as concern for
5152-467: The UK but is now becoming a more popular method of burial. The definition of natural burial grounds suggests that people are being buried without any kind of formaldehyde-based embalming fluid or synthetic ingredients, and that the bodies that are being returned to the earth will also be returning nutrients to the environment, in a way that is less expensive than other available burial methods. Not only are tree pods
5264-473: The blast and cupola furnace remained widespread during the Song and Tang dynasties . By the 11th century, the Song dynasty Chinese iron industry made a switch of resources from charcoal to coke in casting iron and steel, sparing thousands of acres of woodland from felling. This may have happened as early as the 4th century AD. Blast furnaces were also later used to produce gunpowder weapons such as cast iron bomb shells and cast iron cannons during
5376-483: The blast furnace, it was possible to produce larger quantities of tools such as ploughshares more efficiently than the bloomery. In areas where quality was important, such as warfare, wrought iron and steel were preferred. Nearly all Han period weapons are made of wrought iron or steel, with the exception of axe-heads, of which many are made of cast iron. The effectiveness of the Chinese human and horse powered blast furnaces
5488-455: The blocks they were made. If they can't be removed, they can be broken with a hammer. The bronze will come out, and after grinding, it is the finished product. According to some scholars, lost-wax casting was used in China already during the Spring and Autumn period (770 – 476 BCE), although this is often disputed. The lost-wax method is used in most parts of the world. As the name suggests,
5600-400: The body in a flexed position with the legs bent or crouched with the legs folded up to the chest. Warriors in some ancient societies were buried in an upright position. In Islam , the body is placed in supine position , hands along the sides and the head is turned to its right with the face towards the Qibla . Many cultures treat placement of dead people in an appropriate position to be
5712-457: The body was borne to the grave, sprinkled with holy water and buried in consecrated ground . It must be laid head up with its feet to the east, for it was from this direction that Christ would return, from New Jerusalem, at the Apocalypse, when the worthy dead would be resurrected. [...] If burial rituals went awry, one's immortal soul was jeopardised. [...] Personal salvation – breaking free from
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#17328444219355824-546: The call of Gabriel 's trumpet. Gabriel's trumpet would be blown near the Eastern sunrise. In the Baháʼí Faith , burial law prescribes both the location of burial and burial practices and precludes cremation of the dead. It is forbidden to carry the body for more than one hour's journey from the place of death. Before interment the body should be wrapped in a shroud of silk or cotton, and a ring should be placed on its finger bearing
5936-413: The chemical and water solution and is then lightly circulated. After a couple of hours, the body is worn down and bone is the only thing that remains. The bones are then pressed down into a powder and returned to the associated family. The outcome is comparable to cremation, but results in an environmentally friendly process that does not release chemical emissions and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, as
6048-413: The clay model, and also engrave the inscriptions and inscriptions of the bronze ware decoration on the clay model. After the clay mold are done, put it in a cool place to dry in the shade, and then put it into the furnace for roasting. After the mold are heated, they become pottery molds unearthed during modern archaeological discoveries. After the pottery mold is fired, do not rush out of the furnace. After
6160-470: The combination of a belt drive , a crank-and-connecting-rod, other connecting rods , and various shafts, into the reciprocal motion necessary to operate a push bellow. Donald Wagner suggests that early blast furnace and cast iron production evolved from furnaces used to melt bronze . Certainly, though, iron was essential to military success by the time the State of Qin had unified China (221 BC). Usage of
6272-495: The coming of the Messiah . Historically, Christian burials followed similar principles, where the body was placed east–west, to mirror the layout of Christian churches , which were themselves oriented as such for much the same reason; to view the coming of Christ on Judgment day ( Eschaton ). In many Christian traditions, ordained clergy are traditionally buried in the opposite orientation, and their coffins carried likewise, so that at
6384-414: The copper furnace has liquefied the required copper, the pottery mold that still has residual temperature is taken out and poured. In this way, the temperature difference between the copper liquid and the pottery mold is not large, and the pottery mold is not easy to burst. The quality of the finished product is relatively high. After the copper liquid is poured, remove the pottery molds and molds according to
6496-518: The corporeal prison and ascending to a spiritual sphere unencumbered by materiality – is the logical culmination of the myth of humanity's supposed dominion over nature. [...]. After death, a body will decay. Burial is not necessarily a public health requirement. Contrary to conventional wisdom, the World Health Organization advises that only corpses carrying an infectious disease strictly require burial. Human burial practices are
6608-430: The corpse. An additional benefit of using containers to hold the body is that if the soil covering the corpse is washed away by a flood or some other natural process then the corpse will still not be exposed to open air. The body may be dressed in fancy and/or ceremonial clothes. Personal objects of the deceased, such as a favorite piece of jewelry or photograph, may be included with the body. This practice, also known as
6720-528: The dead body while others feed the body to vultures and birds or burned the bodies. Body parts cut during the procedure are sometimes buried separately. In the African-American slave community, slaves quickly familiarized themselves with funeral procedures and the location of gravesites of family and friends. Specific slaves were assigned to prepare dead bodies, build coffins, dig graves, and construct headstones. Slave funerals were typically at night when
6832-518: The dead close to provide guidance to the living, while others "banish" them by locating burial grounds at a distance from inhabited areas. Some religions consecrate special ground to bury the dead, and some families build private family cemeteries . Most modern cultures document the location of graves with headstones , which may be inscribed with information and tributes to the deceased. However, some people are buried in anonymous or secret graves for various reasons. Sometimes multiple bodies are buried in
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#17328444219356944-501: The decay process. Bodies are often buried wrapped in a shroud or placed in a coffin (or in some cases, a casket ). A larger container may be used, such as a ship . In the U.S., coffins are usually covered by a grave liner or a burial vault , which prevents the coffin from collapsing under the weight of the earth or floating away during a flood. These containers slow the decomposition process by (partially) physically blocking decomposing bacteria and other organisms from accessing
7056-458: The dynasty. The burial of bodies in the extended position, i.e., lying flat with arms and legs straight, or with the arms folded upon the chest, and with the eyes and mouth closed. Extended burials may be supine (lying on the back) or prone (lying on the front). However, in some cultures, being buried face down shows marked disrespect like in the case of the Sioux. Other ritual practices place
7168-748: The earliest detectable forms of religious practice since, as Philip Lieberman suggests, it may signify a "concern for the dead that transcends daily life ". Evidence points to the Neanderthals as the first human species known to practice burial behavior and to intentionally bury their dead; they did so using shallow graves furnished with stone tools and animal bones. Exemplary sites include Shanidar in Iraq, Kebara Cave in Israel and Krapina in Croatia. Some scholars, however, argue that such "buried" bodies may have been disposed of for secular reasons. Though there
7280-682: The early Iron Age , following the arrival of new technological skills from the Central Asian steppes, even before the establishment of the Xiongnu (209 BCE-150 CE). These technological and artistic exchanges attest to the magnitude of communication networks between China and the Mediterranean, even before the establishment of the Silk Road . The sites of Dongtalede (Ch: 东塔勒德, 9th–7th century BCE) in Xinjiang , or Xigoupan (Ch:西沟畔, 4th–3rd century BCE) in
7392-406: The earth (which they conceive to be flat) will turn upside down, and by this means they shall, at their resurrection, be found ready standing on their feet. The learnèd among them confess the absurdity of this doctrine; but the practice still continues, in compliance to the vulgar. Swift's notion of inverted burial might seem the highest flight of fancy, but it appears that among English millenarians
7504-487: The earth to decompose naturally in soil, and in some cases even protect native and endangered wildlife. Natural burial became popularized in the UK in the early 1990s by Ken West, a professional cremator operator for the city of Carlisle , responding to the U.K's call for changes in government that aligned with the United Nations' Environmental Program Local Agenda 21 . In addition, there are multiple green burial sites in
7616-434: The eco-friendly reefs are placed into the ocean among other coral reefs where they help to repair damage to the reefs while also providing new habitats for fish and other sea communities. It has become a new way to memorialize the passing person while also protecting the marine environment. The high cost of the memorial reefs has caused this alternative form of burial to remain minimal and uncommon. This kind of natural burial
7728-446: The environment have been the backbone of the green burial movement. The use of coffins made from alternative materials such as wicker and biodegradable materials as well as trees and other flora are being used in place of headstones . Both practices provide sustainable alternatives to traditional burial practices. Natural burials have been attracting people for reasons outside of environmental and sustainability factors as well. With
7840-463: The expansion of urban centres, ecological corridors gradually disappear. Cemeteries for burial plots preclude alternative uses of the land for a long time. By combining these two aspects (need for connectivity and land take imposed by cemeteries), two positive results can be achieved: protecting memories of the past and connecting ecosystems with multiple-use corridors. Green burials appeal to people for economic reasons. Traditional burial practices can be
7952-410: The family, still being cared for by family members. Northern Territory Australian Aboriginals have unique traditions associated with a loved one's death. The death of a loved one sparks a series of events such as smoking out the spirit, a feast, and leaving out the body to decompose. Immediately after death, a smoking ceremony is held in the deceased's home. The smoking ceremonies purpose is to expel
8064-476: The future Yellow Emperor. Chiyou, a rival of the Yellow Emperor, belonged to a clan of blacksmiths. The advancement of weaponry is sometimes attributed to the Yellow Emperor and Chiyou, and Chiyou reportedly discovered the process of casting . Kunwu is associated with a people, a royal blacksmith, a mountain which produces metals, and a sword. Kui , a master of music and dance cited by Shun, was succeeded by Yu
8176-538: The highest point of the coffin, unless the burial authority consider the soil to be suitable for a depth of only two feet. The earliest known reference to a requirement for a six-foot burial occurred in 1665 during the Great Plague of London . John Lawrence , the Lord Mayor of London , ordered that the bodies of plague victims "...shall be at least six foot deep." The city officials apparently believed this would inhibit
8288-406: The idea that the world would be "turned upside down" at the Apocalypse enjoyed some currency. There is at least one attested case of a person being buried upside down by instruction; a Major Peter Labilliere of Dorking (d. 4 June 1800) lies thus upon the summit of Box Hill . Similar stories have attached themselves to other noted eccentrics, particularly in southern England, but not always with
8400-464: The impact traditional burial approaches have on the environment. It is an eco-friendly process which consists of dressing the cadaver in a bodysuit with mushroom spores woven into it, nicknamed the Infinity Burial Suit. Rhim developed her own mushrooms by feeding them her hair, skin, and nails to create a mushroom variety that will best decompose human remains. As the mushrooms grow, they consume
8512-586: The inclusion of grave goods , serves several purposes: Burials may be placed in a number of different positions. Bodies with the arms crossed date back to ancient cultures such as Chaldea in the 10th century BC, where the "X" symbolized their sky god. Later ancient Egyptian gods and royalty, from approximately 3500 B.C. are shown with crossed arms, such as the god Osiris, the Lord of the Dead , or mummified royalty with crossed arms in high and low body positions, depending upon
8624-407: The individuals included those common in both east Eurasia (A10, C1, C4, G2a1) and west Eurasia (H1, H101, U5a, R1b, R1a). According to the study authors, the Seima-Turbino associated samples "harbor an extremely diverse mix of western and eastern Eurasian ancestries", and the observed genetic heterogeneity "can either suggest a group at an early stage of admixture, or signify the heterogeneous nature of
8736-715: The inscription "I came forth from God, and return unto Him, detached from all save Him, holding fast to His Name, the Merciful, the Compassionate". The coffin should be of crystal, stone or hard fine wood. Also, before interment, a specific Prayer for the Dead is ordained. The body should be placed with the feet facing the Qiblih . The formal prayer and the ring are meant to be used for those who have reached 15 years of age. History of metallurgy in China Metallurgy in China has
8848-555: The introduction of ironware, such as knives, swords, and arrowheads, from the west into Xinjiang , before it further diffused to Qinghai and Gansu. In 2008, two iron fragments were excavated at the Mogou site , in Gansu . They have been dated to the 14th century BCE, belonging to the period of Siwa culture . One of the fragments was made of bloomery iron rather than meteoritic iron . Cast iron farm tools and weapons were widespread in China by
8960-679: The later Yangshao period. The Qijia culture (c. 2500–1900) of Qinghai , Gansu, and western Shaanxi produced copper and bronze utilitarian items and gold, copper, and bronze ornaments. The earliest metalworks in this region are found at a Majiayao site at Linjia , Dongxiang , Gansu. "Their dates range from 2900 to 1600 BCE. These metal objects represent the Majiayao 馬家窯 type of the Majiayao culture (c. 3100–2700 BCE), Zongri 宗日 Culture (c. 3600–2050 BCE), Machang 馬廠 Type (c. 2300–2000 BCE), Qijia 齊家 Culture (c. 2050–1915 BCE), and Siba 四壩 Culture (c. 2000–1600 BCE)." At Dengjiawan, in
9072-424: The lost-wax method is to use wax as a mold, and heat it to melt the wax mold and lose it, thereby casting bronze ware, making the model (the outer layer of the wax model is coated with mud), lost-wax (heating to make the wax flow out), pouring copper liquid to fill the cavity left by the wax model, etc. The development and spread of the lost-wax method in the West has never stopped, but the main bronze casting method in
9184-553: The lost-wax process. The earliest bronze ware found in China is the bronze knife (F20: 18) unearthed at the Majiayao in Linjia, Dongxiang, Gansu, and dated to about 3000 BC. This bronze knife uses the section mold process, which is spliced by two molds. The section mold process is a commonly used bronze casting method in the Shang dynasty, that is, the mud is selected, and after selecting, filtration, showering, deposition and other procedures,
9296-513: The manifestation of the human desire to demonstrate "respect for the dead". Cultures vary in their mode of respect. Some reasons follow: In many cultures , human corpses were usually buried in soil. The roots of burial as a practice reach back into the Middle Palaeolithic and coincide with the appearance of Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens , in Europe and Africa respectively. As
9408-877: The middle and lower Yellow River region in the late 3rd millennium BC. Contacts between the Afanasievo culture and the Majiayao culture and the Qijia culture have been considered for the transmission of bronze technology. From around 2000 BCE, cast bronze objects such as the socketed spear with single side hook were imported and adapted from the Seima-Turbino culture . The Erlitou culture (c. 1900 – 1500 BCE), Shang dynasty (c. 1600 – 1046 BCE) and Sanxingdui culture (c. 1250 – 1046 BCE) of early China used bronze vessels for rituals (see Chinese ritual bronzes ) as well as farming implements and weapons. By 1500 BCE, excellent bronzes were being made in China in large quantities, partly as
9520-401: The mining and metallurgy industries. Although the name Huangdi is absent from Shang or Zhou inscriptions, it appears in the Spring and Autumn period 's Guoyu and Zuo zhuan . According to Mitarai (1984), Huangdi may have lived in early antiquity and led a regional ethnic group who worshiped him as a deity; "The Yellow Emperor fought Chiyou at Mount Kunwu whose summit was covered with
9632-403: The mud is cooled to a moderate hardness as a backup, and then the mud is made according to the shape of the vessel to be made. There are two types of molds, which is inner mold and outer mold. The inner mold is only the shape of the bronze ware, without decoration; the outer model should consider the division of the bronze ware after casting in the future, that is, the block during the production of
9744-400: The necessary resources to hold a funeral. The Tongkonan represents both the identity of the family and the process of birth and death. The process of birth and death is shown by having the houses that individuals are born in be the same structure as the Tongkonan, houses that individuals die in. Up until the funeral the deceased being housed in the Tongkonan are symbolically treated as members of
9856-449: The norm in India and mandatory in big metropolitan areas of Japan ). Some burial practices are heavily ritualized ; others are simply practical. It is a common misconception that graves must be dug to a depth of six feet (1.8 metres). This is reflected in the common euphemism for death of six feet under . In fact, graves are rarely dug to this depth except when it is intended to later bury
9968-642: The northern tribes of the Guifang ("Devil's Country") reported by Chinese historical chronicles of the Shang dynasty (c. 1600 BC–c. 1046 BC). Several of the Shang dynasty artifacts of the Yin Ruins and from the tomb of Fu Hao (died c.1200 BCE), excavated in Shang capital of Anyang , are similar to Seima-Turbino culture artifacts, such as socketed spearheads with a single side hook, jade figurines and knives with deer-headed pommel. These Late Shang artifacts, visibly derived from
10080-411: The odor of decay, to give family members closure and prevent them from witnessing the decomposition of their loved ones, and in many cultures it has been seen as a necessary step for the deceased to enter the afterlife or to give back to the cycle of life. Methods of burial may be heavily ritualized and can include natural burial (sometimes called "green burial"); embalming or mummification ; and
10192-442: The planet. The Green Burial Council certifies natural and conservation burial grounds in the U.S. and Canada. The memorial reef is a natural, alternative approach to burial. The cremated remains of a person are mixed in with concrete and then placed into a mold to make the memorial reef or eternal reef. After the concrete sets, family members are allowed to customize the reef with writing, hand prints and chalk drawings. After this,
10304-606: The regions of Romania , Hungary , the Czech Republic , Slovakia , Switzerland , Austria , Germany , the Low Countries , France , and South-eastern England . Medieval European Christianity sometimes developed complex burial rituals and attached great importance to their correct performance: the fate of the soul of the deceased might depend on observing the proper ceremonial. For example: If you were to make it to heaven [...] you had to be interred correctly, for burial
10416-412: The remains within the suit as well as the toxins that are being released by the body. Rhim and her colleagues created this suit as a symbol of a new way for people to think about the relationship between their body after death and the environment. Another method of natural burial is being developed to plant the human body in fetal position inside an egg shaped pod. The pod containing the body will form
10528-419: The reopening of graves and manipulation of the corpses or artifacts contained within them was a widespread phenomenon and a common part of the life course of early medieval cemeteries across Western and Central Europe . The reopening of furnished or recent burials occurred especially from the 5th to the 8th centuries CE over the broad zone of European row-grave-style furnished inhumation burial, which comprised
10640-627: The smelting process. To remedy the problem of deforestation, the Song Chinese discovered how to produce coke from bituminous coal as a substitute for charcoal. Although hydraulic-powered bellows for heating the blast furnace had been written about since Du Shi 's (d. 38) invention of them in the 1st century CE, the first known illustration of a bellows in operation is found in a book written in 1313 by Wang Zhen ( fl. 1290–1333). Gold-crafting technology developed in Northwest China during
10752-515: The socketed spearheads with a single side hook seems to date back to the period of the Taosi culture , when the earliest and most faithful Seima-Turbino types start to appear in China, circa 2100-2000 BCE. These early artifacts suggest that Chinese bronze metallurgy initially derived from the cultures of the Eurasian steppes. Soon however, China was able to appropriate this technology and refine it, particularly through its mastery of bronze casting, to create
10864-489: The spirit of the deceased from their living quarters. A feast is held where mourners are covered in ochre , an earthy pigment associated with clay, while they eat and dance. The traditional corpse disposal of the Aboriginals includes covering the corpse in leaves on a platform. The corpse is then left to decompose. Graves are free if the owner is poor, some ancient people ancient Iranians burial [ fa ] colored
10976-410: The spread of the disease, not realising that the true vector was fleas living on rats in the streets. In the event, there were so many victims that very few were buried in individual graves. Most were placed in massive plague pits so it is unlikely that this event alone gave rise to the "six feet" tradition. Natural burial —also called "green burial" —is the process by which a body is returned to
11088-467: The top of the coffin, but more commonly 30 to 36 inches are required in other places. In some areas, such as central Appalachia , graves were indeed once dug to a depth of six feet to prevent the body being disturbed by burrowing animals. However, this was unnecessary once metal caskets and concrete vaults started to be used. In the United Kingdom, soil is required to be to a depth of three feet above
11200-580: The tradition of Omari and Maadi cultures. Archeologists refer to unmarked prehistoric cemeteries using the neutral term " grave field ". Grave fields are one of the chief sources of information on prehistoric cultures, and numerous archaeological cultures are labelled and defined by their burial customs, such as the Urnfield culture of the European Bronze Age . During the Early Middle Ages ,
11312-410: The true start of the Bronze Age . The bronzes found were technologically advanced for the time, including lost wax casting, and showed high degree of artist input in their design. Horses were the most common shapes for the hilts of blades. Weapons such as spearheads with hooks, single-bladed knives and socketed axes with geometric designs traveled west and east from Xinjiang. The culture spread from
11424-487: The upper classes. With this change, the practice of cremation became viewed more as an alternative to traditional burials. Cremation was first introduced by Buddhism , but was banned in 1470. It was not until the Japanese colonization period that cremation was reintroduced in 1945 and later lifted the ban. It took until 1998 for cremation to rapidly grow in popularity. A TED Talk by Kelli Swazey discusses how Tana Toraja ,
11536-537: The use of containers for the dead, such as shrouds , coffins , grave liners , and burial vaults , all of which can slow decomposition of the body. Sometimes objects or grave goods are buried with the body, which may be dressed in fancy or ceremonial garb. Depending on the culture, the manner in which the body is positioned may have great significance. The location of the burial may be determined by taking into account concerns surrounding health and sanitation, religious concerns, and cultural practices. Some cultures keep
11648-519: The westwards spread of "Neo-Siberian" ancestry, both being maximized among the Uralic-speaking Nganasans . Seima-Turbino material culture and "Neo-Siberian" ancestry are suggested to have arrived in the western part of Eurasia (Northeastern Europe) during the interval of 4.2–3.7 kya , paralleling the suggested arrival time of Uralic languages , although one study argued that the first influx of "Neo-Siberian" ancestry to northeast Europe
11760-413: The workday was over, with the master present to view all the ceremonial procedures. Slaves from nearby plantations were regularly in attendance. At death, a slave's body was wrapped in cloth. The hands were placed across the chest, and a metal plate was placed on top of their hands. The reasoning for the plate was to hinder their return home by suppressing any spirits in the coffin. Often, personal property
11872-538: Was 10 to 15 micrometers and left them in pristine condition to this day. Chromium was first scientifically attested in the 18th century. The beginning of new breakthroughs in metallurgy occurred towards the Yangzi River's south in China's southeastern region in the Warring States period such as gilt-bronze swords. There are two types of bronze smelting techniques in early China, namely the section mold process and
11984-640: Was already 7,500 years ago. Childebayeva et al. (2024) analysed DNA from nine individuals (eight males and one female) buried at the Seima-Turbino-associated site of Rostovka in Omsk (Russia), one of the few Seima-Turbino sites with preserved human remains. The individuals were found to carry diverse ancestry components, ranging between a genetic profile represented by the Western Steppe Middle-Late Bronze Age Herders (similar to
12096-494: Was buried with slaves to appease spirits. The coffins were nailed shut once the body was inside, and carried by hand or wagon, depending on the property designated for slave burial site. Slaves were buried oriented East to West, with feet at the Eastern end (head at the Western end, thus raising facing East). According to Christian doctrine, this orientation permitted rising to face the return of Christ without having to turn around upon
12208-634: Was confirmed after a review by the Health Council of the Netherlands. After this process, the water used goes to a regular water treatment facility where it is filtered and cleaned and returned to the water cycle. At this time, resomation is permitted for commercial use in areas throughout the U.S. However, several other countries, including the UK are considering using this technology within their medical schools and universities. Mushroom burial has been developed by Jae Rhim Lee and her colleagues to address
12320-413: Was enhanced during this period by the engineer Du Shi (c. AD 31), who applied the power of waterwheels to piston - bellows in forging cast iron. Early water-driven reciprocators for operating blast furnaces were built according to the structure of horse powered reciprocators that already existed. That is, the circular motion of the wheel, be it horse driven or water driven, was transferred by
12432-466: Was generally the earliest metal to be used by humanity, and was used in China since at least 3000 BCE. Early metal-using communities have been found at the Qijia and Siba sites in Gansu . The metal knives and axes recovered in Qijia apparently point to some interactions with Siberian and Central Asian cultures, in particular with the Seima-Turbino complex , or the Afanasievo culture . Archeological evidence points to plausible early contact between
12544-490: Was the passage out of this world. The body had to be shrouded in the expectation that it would be reborn into eternal life . Then, on the eve of burial, the corpse had to be taken to church on a torch-lit bier and placed in the darkness of the nave, then laid in front of the high altar, surrounded by candles. The next day, in front of the whole community, a requiem mass was to be sung and the paschal candle lit [...]. Following this, there were prayers, hymns, special masses, and
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