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113-602: —  Events  — —  Figures  — —  Events and terms  — —  Events  — General resurrection or universal resurrection is the belief in a resurrection of the dead , or resurrection from the dead ( Koine : ἀνάστασις [τῶν] νεκρῶν , anastasis [ton] nekron ; literally: "standing up again of the dead") by which most or all people who have died would be resurrected (brought back to life). Various forms of this concept can be found in Christian , Islamic , Jewish , Samaritan and Zoroastrian eschatology . There are three explicit examples in

226-488: A Siddur Shalem ("complete siddur"). Below are listed many popular siddurim used by religious Jews. This list mostly excludes prayer books specifically for the High Holidays; see Machzor (Popular versions) . These siddurim follow the halakha of Rabbi Ovadia Yosef (1920–2013) a Talmudic scholar, and authority on Jewish religious law, and spiritual leader of Israel's ultra-orthodox Shas party. Yosef believed that

339-612: A stress accent system , and the monophthongization of several diphthongs: The Koine-period Greek in the table is taken from a reconstruction by Benjamin Kantor of New Testament Judeo-Palestinian Koine Greek. The realizations of most phonemes reflect general changes around the Greek-speaking world, including vowel isochrony and monophthongization, but certain sound values differ from other Koine varieties such as Attic, Egyptian and Anatolian. More general Koine phonological developments include

452-487: A supreme being , such as the philosophical first cause , but denied any significant personal or relational interaction with this figure. Deism, which was largely led by rationality and reason, could allow a belief in the immortality of the soul , but not necessarily in the resurrection of the dead. American deist Ethan Allen demonstrates this thinking in his work, Reason, the Only Oracle of Man (1784) where he argues in

565-560: A formal version of the Amidah was adopted at a rabbinical council in Yavne , under the leadership of Gamaliel II and his colleagues. However, the precise wording was still left open. The order, general ideas, opening and closing lines were fixed. Most of the wording was left to the individual reader. It was not until several centuries later that the prayers began to be formally fixed. By the Middle Ages

678-450: A more open pronunciation than other Koine dialects, distinguished as open-mid /ɛ/ vs. close-mid /e/ , rather than as true-mid /e̞/ vs. close-mid /e̝/ as has been suggested for other varieties such as Egyptian. This is evidenced on the basis of Hebrew transcriptions of ε with pataḥ/qamets /a/ and not tsere/segol /e/ . Additionally, it is posited that α perhaps had a back vowel pronunciation as /ɑ/ , dragged backwards due to

791-529: A place known as the spirit world , which is similar to, yet fundamentally distinct from, the traditional concept of Heaven and Hell. It is believed that the spirit retains its wants, beliefs, and desires in the afterlife. Doctrine of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that Jesus Christ was the first person to be resurrected, and that all those who have lived on the earth will be resurrected because of Jesus Christ, regardless of their righteousness. The Church teaches that not all are resurrected at

904-582: A resurrection of just and unjust, but of the very good and very bad, and of Jews only. The extent of the resurrection in 2 Baruch and 4 Ezra is debated by scholars. The resurrection of the dead is a core belief in the Mishnah which was assembled in the early centuries of the Christian era. The belief in resurrection is expressed on all occasions in the Jewish liturgy ; e.g., in the morning prayer Elohai Neshamah , in

1017-572: A resurrection of the dead, both of the just and unjust." Most Christian denominations profess the Nicene Creed , which affirms the resurrection of the dead; most English versions of the Nicene Creed in current use include the phrase: "We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come ." The Christian writers Irenaeus and Justin Martyr , in the 2nd century , wrote against

1130-554: A simplified form of Ionic . The view accepted by most scholars today was given by the Greek linguist Georgios Hatzidakis , who showed that despite the "composition of the Four", the "stable nucleus" of Koine Greek is Attic. In other words, Koine Greek can be regarded as Attic with the admixture of elements especially from Ionic, but also from other dialects. The degree of importance of the non-Attic linguistic elements on Koine can vary depending on

1243-522: A universal resurrection of all the dead, but in two resurrection events, one at either end of a millennium , such as Seventh-day Adventists . Other mortalist denominations deny a universal resurrection, such as Christadelphians and hold that the dead count three groups; the majority who will never be raised, those raised to condemnation, and a second final destruction in the " Second Death ", and those raised to eternal life . In Christian conditionalism , there are several Restorationist churches, such as

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1356-640: A universal resurrection of bodies for all immortal souls . According to the Catholic Encyclopedia : "No doctrine of the Christian Faith", says St. Augustine, "is so vehemently and so obstinately opposed as the doctrine of the resurrection of the flesh." This opposition had begun long before the days of St. Augustine. According to the Summa Theologica , spiritual beings that have been restored to glorified bodies will have four qualities. which are

1469-460: A very important source of information on the ancient Koine is the modern Greek language with all its dialects and its own Koine form, which have preserved some of the ancient language's oral linguistic details which the written tradition has lost. For example, Pontic and Cappadocian Greek preserved the ancient pronunciation of η as ε ( νύφε, συνέλικος, τίμεσον, πεγάδι for standard Modern Greek νύφη, συνήλικος, τίμησον, πηγάδι etc.), while

1582-529: A work that is now known as Meditations . Koine Greek continues to be used as the liturgical language of services in the Greek Orthodox Church and in some Greek Catholic churches . The English-language name Koine is derived from the Koine Greek term ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος ( hē koinḕ diálektos ), meaning "the common dialect". The Greek word κοινή ( koinḗ ) itself means "common". The word

1695-543: Is a Jewish prayer book containing a set order of daily prayers . The word siddur comes from the Hebrew root ס־ד־ר ‎, meaning 'order.' Other terms for prayer books are tefillot ( תְּפִלּוֹת‎ ) among Sephardi Jews , tefillah among German Jews , and tiklāl ( תכלאל ) among Yemenite Jews . The earliest parts of Jewish prayer books are the Shema Yisrael ("Hear O Israel") ( Deuteronomy 6:4 et seq ) and

1808-509: Is a term used for present tense verbs that are used in some narrative sections of the New Testament to describe events that are in the past with respect to the speaker. This is seen more in works attributed to Mark and John than Luke . It is used 151 times in the Gospel of Mark in passages where a reader might expect a past tense verb. Scholars have presented various explanations for this; in

1921-455: Is an all-encompassing nusach that is valid for any Jew, no matter what his ancestral tribe or identity, a view attributed to the Maggid of Mezeritch . The Mahzor of each rite is distinguished by hymns ( piyyutim ). The most important writers are Jose ben Jose , probably in the 4th-5th century CE, chiefly known for his compositions for Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur ; Yanai ; Eleazar Kalir ,

2034-606: Is based on Christ's resurrection. There was no ancient Greek belief in a general resurrection of the dead. Indeed, they held that once a body had been destroyed, there was no possibility of returning to life as not even the gods could recreate the flesh. Several early Church Fathers, like Pseudo-Justin , Justin Martyr, Tatian , Irenaeus, and Athenagoras of Athens argue about the Christian resurrection beliefs in ways that answer to this traditional Greek scepticism to post-mortal physical continuity. The human body could not be annihilated, only dissolved – it could not even be integrated in

2147-504: Is called resurrection of the body ( resurrectio carnis, resurrectio mortuorum, anastasis ton nekron ) for a double reason: first, since the soul cannot die , it cannot be said to return to life; second the heretical contention of Hymeneus and Philitus that the Scriptures denote by resurrection not the return to life of the body, but the rising of the soul from the death of sin to the life of grace , must be excluded." The Catechism of

2260-570: Is often mentioned as Common Attic . The first scholars who studied Koine, both in Alexandrian and Early Modern times, were classicists whose prototype had been the literary Attic Greek of the Classical period and frowned upon any other variety of Ancient Greek . Koine Greek was therefore considered a decayed form of Greek which was not worthy of attention. The reconsideration on the historical and linguistic importance of Koine Greek began only in

2373-623: Is pronounced / k ɔɪ ˈ n eɪ / , / ˈ k ɔɪ n eɪ / , or / k iː ˈ n iː / in US English and / ˈ k ɔɪ n iː / in UK English. The pronunciation of the word koine itself gradually changed from [koinéː] (close to the Classical Attic pronunciation [koi̯.nɛ̌ː] ) to [cyˈni] (close to the Modern Greek [ciˈni] ). In Modern Greek,

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2486-610: Is rendered in a reconstructed pronunciation representing a hypothetical conservative variety of mainland Greek Koiné in the early Roman period. The transcription shows raising of η to /eː/ , partial (pre-consonantal/word-final) raising of ῃ and ει to /iː/ , retention of pitch accent, and retention of word-initial /h/ (the rough breathing ). περὶ peri ὧν hoːn Θισ[β]εῖς tʰizbîːs λόγους lóɡuːs ἐποιήσαντο· epojéːsanto; Siddur A siddur ( Hebrew : סִדּוּר sīddūr , [siˈduʁ, 'sɪdəʁ] ; plural siddurim סִדּוּרִים [siduˈʁim] )

2599-808: Is sometimes used for the Greek written by the Greek Church Fathers , the Early Christian theologians in late antiquity. Christian writers in the earliest time tended to use a simple register of Koiné, relatively close to the spoken language of their time, following the model of the Bible. After the 4th century, when Christianity became the state church of the Roman Empire , more learned registers of Koiné also came to be used. Koine period Greek differs from Classical Greek in many ways: grammar , word formation , vocabulary and phonology (sound system). During

2712-528: The Shemoneh 'Esreh and in the funeral services . Jewish halakhic authority Maimonides set down his Thirteen Articles of Faith which have ever since been printed in all Rabbinic Siddur (prayer books). Resurrection is the thirteenth principle: "I firmly believe that there will take place a revival of the dead at a time which will please the Creator, blessed be His name." Modern Orthodox Judaism holds belief in

2825-723: The Book of Isaiah (Yeshayahu), Book of Ezekiel (Yeḥez'qel), and Book of Daniel (Dani'el). Samaritans base it solely on a verse in the Song Of Moses in the Samaritan Pentateuch , since they accept only the Torah and reject the rest of the Hebrew Bible . During the Second Temple period , Judaism developed a diversity of beliefs concerning the resurrection. The concept of resurrection of

2938-525: The Kabbalistic sefirot of those names, while the Nusach Ashkenaz, as well as Western Sephardic and other Hasidic versions retain the older wording "חננו מאתך דעה בינה והשכל", "Graciously bestow upon us from You knowledge, understanding, and reason". In some cases, however, the order of the preparation for the Amidah is drastically different, reflecting the different halakhic and kabbalistic formulae that

3051-773: The Last Day . In the First Epistle to the Corinthians chapter 15, ἀνάστασις νεκρῶν is used for the resurrection of the dead. In verses 54–55, Paul the Apostle is conveyed as quoting from the Book of Hosea 13:14 where he speaks of the abolition of death. In the Pauline epistles of the New Testament , Paul the Apostle wrote that those who will be resurrected to eternal life will be resurrected with spiritual bodies , which are imperishable;

3164-650: The Priestly Blessing ( Numbers 6:24-26), which are in the Torah . A set of eighteen (currently nineteen) blessings called the Shemoneh Esreh or the Amidah ( Hebrew , "standing [prayer]"), is traditionally ascribed to the Great Assembly in the time of Ezra , at the end of the biblical period. The name Shemoneh Esreh , literally "eighteen", is a historical anachronism, since it now contains nineteen blessings. It

3277-571: The Septuagint , the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible , and the Greek New Testament . The teaching of these texts was aimed at the most common people, and for that reason, they use the most popular language of the era. Other sources can be based on random findings such as inscriptions on vases written by popular painters, mistakes made by Atticists due to their imperfect knowledge of Attic Greek or even some surviving Greco-Latin glossaries of

3390-480: The Seventh-day Adventist Church , Christadelphians , Jehovah's Witnesses , and theologians of different traditions who reject the idea of the immortality of a non-physical soul as a vestige of Neoplatonism , and other pagan traditions. In this school of thought, the dead remain dead (and do not immediately progress to a Heaven , Hell , or Purgatory ) until a physical resurrection of some or all of

3503-536: The Tsakonian language preserved the long α instead of η ( ἁμέρα, ἀστραπά, λίμνα, χοά etc.) and the other local characteristics of Doric Greek . Dialects from the southern part of the Greek-speaking regions ( Dodecanese , Cyprus , etc.), preserve the pronunciation of the double similar consonants ( ἄλ-λος, Ἑλ-λάδα, θάλασ-σα ), while others pronounce in many words υ as ου or preserve ancient double forms ( κρόμμυον – κρεμ-μυον, ράξ – ρώξ etc.). Linguistic phenomena like

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3616-596: The canonical gospels , the resurrection of Jesus is described as a resurrection of the flesh: from the empty tomb in Mark; the women embracing the feet of the resurrected Jesus in Matthew; the insistence of the resurrected Jesus in Luke that he is of "flesh and bones" and not just a spirit or pneuma ; to the resurrected Jesus encouraging the disciples to touch his wounds in John. In Acts of

3729-507: The pseudonym Gamaliel ben Pedahzur; a different translation was released in the United States in 1837. Readings from the Torah (five books of Moses) and the Nevi'im ("Prophets") form part of the prayer services. To this framework various Jewish sages added, from time to time, various prayers, and, for festivals especially, numerous hymns. The earliest existing codification of the prayerbook

3842-581: The "New Testament does not speak of a natural immortality of the soul, as if we never actually die. It speaks of resurrection of the body, the claim that is made each time we state the historic Apostles' Creed and classic Nicene Creed," given in The United Methodist Hymnal . In ¶128 of the Book of Discipline of the Free Methodist Church it is written: "There will be a bodily resurrection from

3955-449: The "flesh and blood" of natural, perishable bodies cannot inherit the kingdom of God, and, likewise, those that are corruptible will not receive incorruption (1 Corinthians 15:35–54). Even though Paul does not explicitly establish that immortality excludes physical bodies, some scholars understand that according to Paul, flesh is simply to play no part, as people are made immortal . The Gospel of Matthew has Jesus famously teach/preach for

4068-573: The 16th century and Seligman Baer in the 19th century; siddurim have also been published reflecting the views of Jacob Emden and the Vilna Gaon . There are differences among, amongst others, the Sephardic (including Spanish and Portuguese and Mizrachim ), Teimani (Yemenite), Hasidic , Ashkenazic (divided into German, Polish and other European and eastern-European rites), Bené Roma or Italkim , Romaniote (Greek, once extending to Turkey, Crimea and

4181-463: The 17th to the 19th century, the language of popular piety no longer evoked the resurrection of the soul but everlasting life . Although theological textbooks still mentioned resurrection, they dealt with it as a speculative question more than as an existential problem." This shift was supported not by any scripture, but largely by the popular religion of the Enlightenment, deism . Deism allowed for

4294-574: The Apostles the expression ἀναστάσεως νεκρῶν was used by the Apostles and Paul to defend the doctrine of the resurrection. Paul brought up the resurrection in his trial before Ananias ben Nedebaios . The expression was variously used in reference to a general resurrection (Acts 24:21) at the end of this present age (Acts 23:6, 24:15). Acts 24:15 in the King James Version reads: "... there shall be

4407-503: The Catholic Church says: 997 What is "rising"? In death, the separation of the soul from the body, the human body decays and the soul goes to meet God, while awaiting its reunion with its glorified body. God, in his almighty power, will definitively grant incorruptible life to our bodies by reuniting them with our souls, through the power of Jesus' Resurrection. 998 Who will rise? All the dead will rise, "those who have done good, to

4520-510: The Four). This view was supported in the early twentieth century by Paul Kretschmer in his book Die Entstehung der Koine (1901), while Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff and Antoine Meillet , based on the intense Ionic elements of the Koine – σσ instead of ττ and ρσ instead of ρρ ( θάλασσα – θάλαττα , 'sea'; ἀρσενικός – ἀρρενικός , 'potent, virile') – considered Koine to be

4633-646: The Hebrew Bible of people being resurrected from the dead: While there was no belief in personal afterlife with reward or punishment in Judaism before 200 BCE, in later Judaism and Samaritanism it is believed that the God of Israel will one day give teḥiyyat ha-metim ("life to the dead") to the righteous during the Messianic Age , and they will live forever in the world to come ( Olam Ha-Ba ). Jews today base this belief on

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4746-558: The Last Judgment. This will be "the hour when all who are in the tombs will hear [the Son of man's] voice and come forth, those who have done good, to the resurrection of life, and those who have done evil, to the resurrection of judgment" (Jn 5:28-29). Pope John Paul II , in his work Theology of the Body , taught that the resurrected saint will be deified beyond any understanding of deification, since

4859-577: The Moroccan siddurim which generally contain fewer Kabbalistic elements:) (Usually characterised by presence of Kabbalistic elements:) The Baladi Jews (from Arabic balad , country) follow the legal rulings of the Rambam ( Maimonides ) as codified in his work the Mishneh Torah . Rabbi Yiḥye Tsalaḥ (Maharits) revised this liturgy to end friction between traditionalists (who followed Rambam's rulings and

4972-491: The New Testament , W.F. Howard argues that the heavy use of the historical present in Herodotus and Thucydides , compared with the relatively infrequent usage by Polybius and Xenophon was evidence that heavy use of this verb tense is a feature of vernacular Koine, but other scholars have argued that the historical present can be a literary form to "denote semantic shifts to more prominent material." The term patristic Greek

5085-497: The Roman period, e.g.: Καλήμερον, ἦλθες; Bono die, venisti? Good day, you came? Ἐὰν θέλεις, ἐλθὲ μεθ' ἡμῶν. Si vis, veni mecum . If you want, come with us. Ποῦ; Ubi? Where? Πρὸς φίλον ἡμέτερον Λύκιον. Ad amicum nostrum Lucium. To our friend Lucius. Τί γὰρ ἔχει; Quid enim habet? Indeed, what does he have? What is it with him? Ἀρρωστεῖ. Aegrotat. He's sick. Finally,

5198-556: The Sephardic diaspora by envoys and merchants in the late 17th century and 18th century. The "local rabbinic leadership resisted the new versions....Nevertheless, the new prayer books were widely accepted." As part of that process, the Shami modified their rites to accommodate the usages of the Ari to the maximum extent. The text of the Shami siddur now largely follows the Sephardic tradition, though

5311-474: The Sephardic halakhic tradition favoured leniency, and these principles are reflected in his siddurim. please note, these siddurim are also for the Edot Ha-mizrach communities. Some notable editions are: (Characterised by relative absence of Kabbalistic elements:) (Usually characterised by presence of Kabbalistic elements:) (Usually characterised by presence of Kabbalistic elements, except for

5424-450: The Sephardic piyyutim. Therefore, on holidays he would daven (recite the prescribed liturgical prayers) with Ashkenazim -- as opposed to his practice the rest of the year to daven with Sephardim -- in order to recite their piyyutim, which include many more earlier piyyutim. For this reason, many Hasidim (such Belz and Viznitz) recite many piyyutim on Yom Tov and the sabbaths of the four special portions preceding Passover in accordance with

5537-566: The Sephardic rite together with the usages of the Ari were published, both by actual Sephardic communities and for the use of Hasidim and other Ashkenazim interested in Kabbalah. In 1803, Rabbi Schneur Zalman of Liadi compiled an authoritative siddur from the sixty siddurim that he checked for compliance with Hebrew grammar, Jewish law, and Kabbalah: some call this siddur "Nusach Ari", and is used by Lubavitch Hasidim . Those that use Nusach HaAri claim that it

5650-578: The United Kingdom and were not manifested in law until the passing of the Anatomy Act in 1832. Cremation was accepted more slowly; the first UK cremation did not take place till October 1882, on private land, and cremation was not declared lawful until 1884, when Dr. William Price, a Druid High priest, was tried and acquitted at South Glamorgan Assizes for the attempted cremation of the body of his baby son. In Catholicism , Augustine of Hippo believed in

5763-556: The above imply that those characteristics survived within Koine, which in turn had countless variations in the Greek-speaking world. Biblical Koine refers to the varieties of Koine Greek used in Bible translations into Greek and related texts. Its main sources are: There has been some debate to what degree Biblical Greek represents the mainstream of contemporary spoken Koine and to what extent it contains specifically Semitic substratum features. These could have been induced either through

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5876-590: The belief that Christ rose triumphant over death, sin, and hell in a bodily resurrection from the dead." Many Dispensationalist Evangelicals believe in a universal resurrection, but divided into two separate resurrections; at the Second Coming and then again at the Great White Throne . The Doctrinal Basis of the Evangelical Alliance affirms belief in "the resurrection of the body, the judgment of

5989-411: The bodies of those who devoured it. Thus God only had to reassemble the minute parts of the dissolved bodies in the resurrection. Traditional Christian Churches , i.e. ones that adhere to the creeds , continue to uphold the belief that there will be a general and universal resurrection of the dead at "the end of time ", as described by Paul when he said: "He hath appointed a day, in which he will judge

6102-435: The body in combination with the immortal soul . According to the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS), on the last day all the dead will be resurrected. Their souls will then be reunited with the same bodies they had before dying. The bodies will then be changed, those of the wicked to a state of everlasting shame and torment, those of the righteous to an everlasting state of celestial glory. In Anglicanism , scholars such as

6215-414: The creation and evolution of Koine Greek throughout the entire Hellenistic and Roman eras of history until the start of the Middle Ages. The linguistic roots of the Common Greek dialect had been unclear since ancient times. During the Hellenistic period , most scholars thought of Koine as the result of the mixture of the four main Ancient Greek dialects, " ἡ ἐκ τῶν τεττάρων συνεστῶσα " (the composition of

6328-704: The daily psalm. The ark is opened for the duration of the song. Hasidim, though usually ethnically Ashkenazi, usually use liturgies with varying degrees of Sephardic influence, such as Nusach Sefard and Nusach Ari , in order to follow the order of the prayers set by Rabbi Isaac Luria , often called "Ari HaKadosh", or "The Holy Lion". Although the Ari himself was born Ashkenazi, he borrowed many elements from Sephardi and other traditions, since he felt that they followed Kabbalah and Halacha more faithfully. The Ari did not publish any siddur, but orally transmitted his particular usages to his students with interpretations and certain meditations. Many siddurim containing some form of

6441-413: The dead occurs at the end of time, or in Paradise restored on earth, in a general resurrection. Some groups, Christadelphians in particular, consider that it is not a universal resurrection, and that at this time of resurrection that the Last Judgment will take place. Latter Day Saints believe that God has a plan of salvation . Before the resurrection, the spirits of the dead are believed to exist in

6554-492: The dead of both the just and the unjust, they that have done good unto the resurrection of life, they that have done evil unto the resurrection of the damnation. The resurrected body will be a spiritual body, but the person will be whole identifiable. The Resurrection of Christ is the guarantee of resurrection unto life to those who are in Him." With regard to Baptists , James Leo Garrett Jr. , E. Glenn Hinson, and James E. Tull write that "Baptists traditionally have held firmly to

6667-457: The dead raised? With what kind of body do they come?" You foolish man! What you sow does not come to life unless it dies. and what you sow is not the body which is to be, but a bare kernel ....What is sown is perishable, what is raised is imperishable.... the dead will be raised imperishable.... For this perishable nature must put on the imperishable, and this mortal nature must put on immortality.(1 Cor 15:35-37. 42. 53). 1001 When? Definitively "at

6780-416: The dead" in the Dead Sea scrolls texts. Both Josephus and the New Testament record that the Sadducees did not believe in an afterlife , but the sources vary on the beliefs of the Pharisees . The New Testament claims that the Pharisees believed in the resurrection, but does not specify whether this included the flesh or not. According to Josephus , who himself was a Pharisee, the Pharisees held that only

6893-469: The early 19th century, where renowned scholars conducted a series of studies on the evolution of Koine throughout the entire Hellenistic period and Roman Empire . The sources used on the studies of Koine have been numerous and of unequal reliability. The most significant ones are the inscriptions of the post-Classical periods and the papyri , for being two kinds of texts which have authentic content and can be studied directly. Other significant sources are

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7006-420: The early 20th century some scholars argued that the use of the historical present tense in Mark was due to the influence of Aramaic , but this theory fell out of favor in the 1960s. Another group of scholars believed the historical present tense was used to heighten the dramatic effect, and this interpretation was favored in the New American Bible translation. In Volume II of the 1929 edition of A Grammar of

7119-513: The earth "without tasting of death." This is referred to as translation , and these individuals are believed to have retained their bodies in a purified form, though they too will eventually be required to receive resurrection. Koine Greek Koine Greek included styles ranging from conservative literary forms to the spoken vernaculars of the time. As the dominant language of the Byzantine Empire, it developed further into Medieval Greek , which then turned into Modern Greek . Literary Koine

7232-415: The final hei (ה) of the Tetragrammaton. In some editions, there is a Psalm in the preparations for the Amidah that is printed in the outline of a menorah , and the worshipper meditates on this shape as he recites the psalm. While the Ashkenazic rite does contain some kabbalistic elements, such as acrostics and allusions to the sefirot ("To You, God, is the greatness [gedullah], and the might [gevurah], and

7345-426: The first time in 4:17, "Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand." Matthew 6:19-21. It introduces the expression ἀναστάσεως τῶν νεκρῶν, which is used in a monologue by Jesus who speaks to the crowds about "the resurrection" called simply ῇ ἀναστάσει (Mat. 22:29–33). This type of resurrection refers to the raising up of the dead, all mankind, at the end of this present age, the general or universal resurrection. In

7458-423: The first time, I understood what it meant to be made in God's image. To think of God as a woman like myself, to see Her as both powerful and nurturing, to see Her imaged with a woman's body, with womb, with breasts – this was an experience of ultimate significance. Was this the relationship that men have had with God for all these millennia? How wonderful to gain access to those feelings and perceptions. Following in

7571-555: The footsteps of feminist prayerbooks, liberal prayerbooks tend increasingly to avoid male-specific words and pronouns, seeking that all references to God in translations be made in gender-neutral language. For example, the UK Liberal movement 's Siddur Lev Chadash (1995) does so, as does the UK Reform Movement 's Forms of Prayer (2008). In Mishkan T'filah , the American Reform Jewish prayer book released in 2007, references to God as “He” have been removed, and whenever Jewish patriarchs are named (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob), so also are

7684-423: The former Bishop of Durham N. T. Wright , have defended the primacy of the resurrection in Christian faith. Interviewed by Time in 2008, Wright spoke of "the idea of bodily resurrection that people deny when they talk about their 'souls going to Heaven,'" adding: "I've often heard people say, 'I'm going to heaven soon, and I won't need this stupid body there, thank goodness.' That's a very damaging distortion, all

7797-489: The founder of the payyetanic style, perhaps in the 7th century; Saadia Gaon ; the Spanish school, consisting of Joseph ibn Abitur (died in 970), ibn Gabirol , Isaac Gayyath , Moses ibn Ezra , Abraham ibn Ezra and Judah ha-Levi , Moses ben Nahman ( Nahmanides ) and Isaac Luria ; and the Ashkenazic and French schools including Shimon bar Yitzchak , Meir bar Yitzchak and many others. The Ari recited only early piyyutim, such as those by Eleazar Kalir , but did not like

7910-414: The glory [tiferet], longevity [netzach],..." etc.), these are not easily seen unless the reader is already initiated. It is notable that although many other traditions avoid using the poem Anim Zemiroth on the Sabbath, for fear that its holiness would be less appreciated due to the frequency of the Sabbath, the poem is usually sung by Ashkenazi congregations before concluding the Sabbath Musaf service with

8023-462: The idea that only the soul survived. (The word "soul" is unknown in the Aramaic; it entered Christian theology through the Greek.) Justin Martyr insists that a man is both soul and body and Christ has promised to raise both, just as his own body was raised. The first-century treatise Didache comments 'Not the resurrection of everyone, but, as it says, "The Lord will come and all his holy ones with him" (16.7) The Christian doctrine of resurrection

8136-453: The initial stage in the fortition of the second element in the αυ/ευ diphthongs) and the loss of vowel-timing distinctions are carried through. On the other hand, Kantor argues for certain vowel qualities differing from the rest of the Koine in the Judean dialect. Although it is impossible to know the exact realizations of vowels, it is tentatively argued that the mid-vowels ε / αι and η had

8249-523: The language is referred to as Ελληνιστική Κοινή , "Hellenistic Koiné", in the sense of "Hellenistic supraregional language "). Ancient scholars used the term koine in several different senses. Scholars such as Apollonius Dyscolus (second century AD) and Aelius Herodianus (second century AD) maintained the term koine to refer to the Proto-Greek language , while others used it to refer to any vernacular form of Greek speech which differed somewhat from

8362-519: The last day," "at the end of the world." Indeed, the resurrection of the dead is closely associated with Christ's Parousia: For the Lord himself will descend from heaven, with a cry of command, with the archangel's call, and with the sound of the trumpet of God. and the dead in Christ will rise first. (1 Thess 4:16) 1038 The resurrection of all the dead, "of both the just and the unjust" (Acts 24:15), will precede

8475-435: The last day; for then (as Scripture doth most manifestly testify) to all that be dead their own bodies, flesh and bone shall be restored, that the whole man may (according to his works) have either reward or punishment, as he hath lived virtuously, or wickedly." In Methodism , M. Douglas Meeks, professor of theology and Wesleyan studies at Vanderbilt Divinity School , states that "it is very important for Christians to hold to

8588-469: The life after life after death." Among the original Forty-Two Articles (1553) of the Church of England , Article 39 ("The resurrection of the dead is not yeat brought to passe") reads (in modernised English orthography): "The resurrection of the dead is not as yet brought to pass, as though it only belonged to the soul, which by the grace of Christ is raised from the death of sin, but it is to be looked for at

8701-403: The literary language. When Koine Greek became a language of literature by the first century BC, some people distinguished two forms: written as the literary post-classical form (which should not be confused with Atticism ), and vernacular as the day-to-day vernacular . Others chose to refer to Koine as "the dialect of Alexandria " or "Alexandrian dialect" ( ἡ Ἀλεξανδρέων διάλεκτος ), or even

8814-679: The main of the Greek language. S. J. Thackeray, in A Grammar of the Old Testament in Greek According to the Septuagint (1909), wrote that only the five books of the Pentateuch , parts of the Book of Joshua and the Book of Isaiah may be considered "good Koine". One issue debated by scholars is whether and how much the translation of the Pentateuch influenced the rest of the Septuagint, including

8927-411: The more so for being unintentional." Instead, Wright explains: "In the Bible we are told that you die, and enter an intermediate state ." This is "conscious," but "compared to being bodily alive, it will be like being asleep." This will be followed by resurrection into new bodies, he says. "Our culture is very interested in life after death, but the New Testament is much more interested in what I've called

9040-426: The notion of meeting and gathering of men, without any particular character. Therefore, etymologizing this word could be needless, or even misleading, when it could guide to false meanings, for example that ἐκκλησία is a name used for the people of God, Israel. The authors of the New Testament follow the Septuagint translations for over half their quotations from the Old Testament. The " historical present " tense

9153-452: The opening of ε . Influence of the Aramaic substrate could have also caused confusion between α and ο , providing further evidence for the back vowel realization. The following texts show differences from Attic Greek in all aspects – grammar, morphology, vocabulary and can be inferred to show differences in phonology. The following comments illustrate the phonological development within

9266-399: The period generally designated as Koine Greek, a great deal of phonological change occurred. At the start of the period, the pronunciation was virtually identical to Ancient Greek phonology , whereas in the end, it had much more in common with Modern Greek phonology . The three most significant changes were the loss of vowel length distinction, the replacement of the pitch accent system by

9379-523: The period of Koine. The phonetic transcriptions are tentative and are intended to illustrate two different stages in the reconstructed development, an early conservative variety still relatively close to Classical Attic, and a somewhat later, more progressive variety approaching Modern Greek in some respects. The following excerpt, from a decree of the Roman Senate to the town of Thisbae in Boeotia in 170 BC,

9492-510: The physical body is found in 2 Maccabees , according to which it will happen through recreation of the flesh. Resurrection of the dead also appears in detail in the extra-canonical books of Enoch , in the Apocalypse of Baruch , and 2 Esdras . According to the British scholar in ancient Judaism Philip R. Davies , there is "little or no clear reference ... either to immortality or to resurrection from

9605-486: The post-Classical period of Greek is defined as beginning with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, when cultures under Greek sway in turn began to influence the language. The passage into the next period, known as Medieval Greek , is sometimes dated from the foundation of Constantinople by Constantine the Great in 330 AD, but often only from the end of late antiquity . The post-Classical period of Greek thus refers to

9718-502: The practice of the Ari. However, in Sephardic communities which accepted most of the practices of the Ari, they never accepted the Ashkenazic piyyutim. Some siddurim have only prayers for weekdays; others have prayers for weekdays and Shabbat . Many have prayers for weekdays, Shabbat, and the three Biblical festivals , Sukkot (the feast of Tabernacles), Shavuot (the feast of weeks) and Pesach (Passover). The latter are referred to as

9831-505: The practice of translating closely from Biblical Hebrew or Aramaic originals, or through the influence of the regional non-standard Greek spoken by originally Aramaic-speaking Hellenized Jews . Some of the features discussed in this context are the Septuagint's normative absence of the particles μέν and δέ , and the use of ἐγένετο to denote "it came to pass". Some features of Biblical Greek which are thought to have originally been non-standard elements eventually found their way into

9944-422: The preface that nearly every philosophical problem is beyond humanity's understanding, including the miracles of Christianity, although he does allow for the immortality of an immaterial soul. In Christian theology, it was once widely believed that to rise on Judgment Day the body had to be whole and preferably buried with the feet to the east so that the person would rise facing God. An Act of Parliament from

10057-664: The pronunciation, chant and customs are still Yemenite in flavour. All of the following are published by the Central Conference of American Rabbis : Prayer books edited by Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan and others: Kol Haneshamah Prayerbook series, ed. David Teutsch : Siddur Nashim , by Margaret Wenig and Naomi Janowitz in 1976, was the first Jewish prayer book to refer to God using female pronouns and imagery. Reconstructionist Rabbi Rebecca Alpert ( Reform Judaism , Winter 1991) commented: The experience of praying with Siddur Nashim ... transformed my relationship with God. For

10170-517: The region of the Hellenistic world. In that respect, the varieties of Koine spoken in the Ionian colonies of Anatolia (e.g. Pontus , cf. Pontic Greek ) would have more intense Ionic characteristics than others and those of Laconia and Cyprus would preserve some Doric and Arcadocypriot characteristics, respectively. The literary Koine of the Hellenistic age resembles Attic in such a degree that it

10283-448: The reign of King Henry VIII stipulated that only the corpses of executed murderers could be used for dissection. Restricting the supply to the cadavers of murderers was seen as an extra punishment for the crime. If one believes dismemberment stopped the possibility of resurrection of an intact body on judgment day, then a posthumous execution is an effective way of punishing a criminal. Attitudes towards this issue changed very slowly in

10396-413: The result of deification and the beatific vision : According to the Catholic Encyclopedia (1911) article on "General resurrection" "The Fourth Lateran Council (1215) teaches that all men, whether elect or reprobate , "will rise again with their own bodies which they now bear about with them" (chapter " Firmiter "). In the language of the creeds and professions of faith this return to life

10509-440: The resurrection of life, and those who have done evil, to the resurrection of judgment." 999 How? Christ is raised with his own body: "See my hands and my feet, that it is I myself"; but he did not return to an earthly life. So, in him, "all of them will rise again with their own bodies which they now bear," but Christ "will change our lowly body to be like his glorious body," into a "spiritual body": But someone will ask, "How are

10622-804: The resurrection of the body." John Wesley , the founder of the Methodist Church, in his sermon On the Resurrection of the Dead , defended the doctrine, stating "There are many places of Scripture that plainly declare it. St. Paul, in the 53d verse of this chapter, tells us that 'this corruptible must put on incorruption, and this mortal must put on immortality.' [1 Corinthians 15:53]." In addition, notable Methodist hymns, such as those by Charles Wesley , link 'our resurrection and Christ's resurrection". F. Belton Joyner in United Methodist Answers , states that

10735-557: The resurrection of the dead to be one of the cardinal principles of Rabbinic Judaism . Harry Sysling, in his 1996 study of Teḥiyyat Ha-Metim in the Palestinian Targumim , identifies a consistent usage of the term " second death " in texts from the Second Temple period and early rabbinical writings , but not in the Hebrew Bible. "Second death" is identified with judgment, followed by resurrection from Gehinnom (" Gehenna ") at

10848-492: The saint will experience the beatific vision not just by contemplation but with the whole self - all of one's senses, abilities, virtues, etc. - when one's whole self will rise as perfect as Jesus' risen humanity. This type of deification, John Paul II taught, cannot be obtained before the general resurrection because it will be given by Jesus at his Second Coming. In her dairy, Saint Faustina taught that resurrected saints' happiness will forever grow in quantity and quality, because

10961-457: The saints will forever contemplate God more and more. In Lutheranism , Martin Luther personally believed and taught the resurrection of the dead, perhaps in combination with soul sleep , though other scholars hold that his view was more nuanced or even that he held to the immortality of the soul. The mainstream teaching of Lutheranism and what Lutherans traditionally believe is in resurrection of

11074-542: The same time; the righteous will be resurrected in a "first resurrection" and unrepentant sinners in a "last resurrection." The resurrection is believed to unite the spirit with the body again, and the Church teaches that the body (flesh and bone) will be made whole and become incorruptible, a state which includes immortality. There is also a belief in Latter-day Saint doctrine that a few exceptional individuals were removed from

11187-519: The siddur as it developed in Yemen) and Kabbalists who followed the innovations of the Ari . This prayer book makes very few additions or changes and substantially follows the older Yemenite tradition as it had existed prior to this conflict. The Shami Jews (from Arabic ash-Sham , the north, referring to Palestine or Damascus ) represent those who accepted the Sephardic rite, after being exposed to new inexpensive, typeset prayer books brought from Israel and

11300-480: The soul was immortal and the souls of good people will be reincarnated and "pass into other bodies," while "the souls of the wicked will suffer eternal punishment." Paul the Apostle , who also was a Pharisee, said that at the resurrection what is "sown as a natural body is raised a spiritual body." Jubilees refers only to the resurrection of the soul, or to a more general idea of an immortal soul. The Second Temple Judaism tradition at Qumran held that there would be

11413-507: The souls of the righteous go to Heaven . At the close of the medieval period, the modern era brought a shift in Christian thinking from an emphasis on the resurrection of the body back to the immortality of the soul. This shift was a result of a change in the zeitgeist , as a reaction to the Renaissance and later to the Enlightenment . André Dartigues has observed that especially "from

11526-489: The southern Italian peninsula) and also Persian , Kurdish , Bukharian , Georgian , Mountain Jewish , Ethiopian and Cochin-Jewish liturgies. Most of these are slight differences in the wording of the prayers; for instance, Oriental Sephardic and some Hasidic prayer books state "חננו מאתך חכמה בינה ודעת", "Graciously bestow upon us from You wisdom ( ḥochmah ), understanding ( binah ) and knowledge ( daat )", in allusion to

11639-429: The spirantization of Γ , with palatal allophone before front-vowels and a plosive allophone after nasals, and β . φ, θ and χ still preserve their ancient aspirated plosive values, while the unaspirated stops π, τ, κ have perhaps begun to develop voiced allophones after nasals. Initial aspiration has also likely become an optional sound for many speakers of the popular variety. Monophthongization (including

11752-527: The texts of the prayers were nearly fixed, and in the form in which they are still used today, albeït with significant variations across communities. The Siddur was printed by Soncino in Italy as early as 1486, though a Siddur was first mass-distributed only in 1865. The Siddur began appearing in the vernacular as early as 1538. The first English translation was published in London in 1738 by an author writing under

11865-427: The translation of Isaiah. Another point that scholars have debated is the use of ἐκκλησία ekklēsía as a translation for the Hebrew קָהָל qāhāl . Old Testament scholar James Barr has been critical of etymological arguments that ekklēsía refers to "the community called by God to constitute his People". Kyriakoula Papademetriou explains: He maintains that ἐκκλησία is merely used for designating

11978-684: The universal dialect of its time. Modern classicists have often used the former sense. Koine Greek arose as a common dialect within the armies of Alexander the Great . Under the leadership of Macedon , their newly formed common variety was spoken from the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt to the Seleucid Empire of Mesopotamia . It replaced existing ancient Greek dialects with an everyday form that people anywhere could understand. Though elements of Koine Greek took shape in Classical Greece ,

12091-558: The various scholars relied on in assembling their prayer books, as well as the minhagim , or customs, or their locales. Some forms of the Sephardic rite are considered to be very overtly kabbalistic , depending on how far they reflect the ritual of Isaac Luria (see Lurianic Kabbalah ). This is partly because the Tetragrammaton frequently appears with varying vowel points beneath the letters (unpronounced, but to be meditated upon) and different Names of God appear in small print within

12204-599: The world by our Lord Jesus Christ, with the eternal blessedness of the righteous, and the eternal punishment of the wicked." Some millennialists interpret the Book of Revelation as requiring two physical resurrections of the dead, one before the Millennium , the other after it. Mortalists , those Christians who do not believe that humans have immortal souls , may believe in a universal resurrection, such as Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan . Some mortalist denominations may believe in

12317-399: The world" (Acts 17:31 KJV) and "There shall be a resurrection of the dead, both of the just and unjust" (Acts 24:15 KJV). Early Christian church fathers defended the resurrection of the dead against the pagan belief that the immortal soul went to the underworld immediately after death, and afterwards it would be reincarnated into another body ( metempsychosis ). It is a Christian belief that

12430-574: Was based on the ideas of his teacher, Rashi . Another formulation of the prayers was that appended by Maimonides to the Book of Love in his Mishneh Torah : this forms the basis of the Yemenite liturgy , and has had some influence on other rites. From this point forward all Jewish prayerbooks had the same basic order and contents. Two authoritative versions of the Ashkenazi siddur were those of Shabbetai Sofer in

12543-573: Was drawn up by Amram ben Sheshna of Sura Academy in Sawad , the Abbasid Caliphate , an area known as "Babylonia" in Jewish texts, about 850 CE ( Seder Rav ʿAmram ). Half a century later, Saadia Gaon , also of Sura, composed a siddur (see Siddur of Saadia Gaon ), in which the rubrical matter is in Judeo-Arabic . These were the basis of Simhah ben Samuel of Vitry 's 11th century Machzor Vitry , which

12656-612: Was only near the end of the Second Temple period that the eighteen prayers of the weekday Amidah became standardized. Even at that time their precise wording and order was not yet fixed, and varied from locale to locale. Many modern scholars believe that parts of the Amidah came from the Hebrew apocryphal work Ben Sira . According to the Talmud , soon after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem

12769-658: Was the medium of much post-classical Greek literary and scholarly writing, such as the works of Plutarch and Polybius . Koine is also the language of the Septuagint (the 3rd century BC Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible ), the Christian New Testament , and of most early Christian theological writing by the Church Fathers . In this context, Koine Greek is also known as "Biblical", "New Testament", "ecclesiastical", or "patristic" Greek. The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote his private thoughts in Koine Greek in

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