Segheneytī Tigrinya : ሰገነይቲ (sometimes anglicized as Segheneity and known also as Saganeiti, Seganeiti, Seganeyti, Segeleyti, Segeneyti, Segeneytī, Segheneiti) is a small town in the Southern Region of Eritrea . Segeneyti was the third largest settlement in the historical province of Akele Guzai , after Mendefera and Senafe .
108-483: Segheneyti is widely known in Eritrea for its production of Prickly pear cactus , which is locally known as Beles. The fruit was first introduced to the town by a priest in the 1950s. It is widely eaten as a snack and as fruit preserve . Large-scale production of the fruit has become more common in the area as it has both economic and health benefits. Segheneyti is located at the eastern escarpment of Eritrea which
216-567: A referendum in Eritrea supervised by the United Nations (dubbed UNOVER) in which the Eritrean people overwhelmingly voted for independence, Eritrea declared its independence and gained international recognition in 1993. The EPLF seized power, established a one-party state along nationalist lines and banned further political activity. As of 2020, there have been no elections. On 28 May 1993, Eritrea
324-479: A UN General Assembly decision in 1952, Eritrea would govern itself with a local Eritrean parliament, but for foreign affairs and defense, it would enter into a federal status with Ethiopia for ten years. However, in 1962, the government of Ethiopia annulled the Eritrean parliament and formally annexed Eritrea . The Eritrean secessionist movement organised the Eritrean Liberation Front in 1961 and fought
432-614: A coastal strip but expanded subsequently inland into territory controlled by the Ethiopian emperor. Here Ismail occupied regions originally claimed by the Ottomans when they had established the Habesh Eyalet in the 16th century. New economically promising projects, like huge cotton plantations in the Barka delta , were started. In 1872, Bogos (with the city of Keren ) was annexed by the governor of
540-588: A faster route to India. This made Egypt increasingly reliant on Britain for both military and economic aid. Isma'il made no effort to reconcile with the European powers, who pressured the Ottoman sultan into removing him from power. Isma'il was succeeded by his eldest son Tewfik , who, unlike his younger brothers, had not been educated in Europe. He pursued a policy of closer relations with Britain and France but his authority
648-525: A fight; the Shaigiya Confederation immediately beyond the province of Dongola were defeated; the remnant of the Mamluks dispersed; and Sennar was reduced without a battle. Muhammad Bey , the defterdar , with another force of about the same strength, was then sent by Muhammad Ali against Kordofan with like result, but not without a hard-fought engagement. In October 1822, Ismaʿil, with his retinue,
756-446: A fleet and in training, under the supervision of French instructors, native officers and artificers; though it was not till 1829 that the opening of a dockyard and arsenal at Alexandria enabled him to build and equip his own vessels. By 1823, moreover, he had succeeded in carrying out the reorganization of his army on European lines, the turbulent Turkish and Albanian elements being replaced by Sudanese and fellahin . The effectiveness of
864-470: A formidable mutiny in Cairo. Muhammad Ali's life was endangered, and he sought refuge by night in the citadel, while the soldiery committed many acts of plunder. The revolt was reduced by gifts to the chiefs of the insurgents, and Muhammad Ali ordered compensation from the treasury for those who had suffered in the disturbances. The Nizam-i Cedid (New System) project was, in consequence of this mutiny, abandoned for
972-554: A government of the Khedive and international controls which were in place to streamline Egyptian financing since 1876. Egyptian Fundamental Ordinance of 1882, a constitution, followed an abortive attempt to promulgate a constitution in 1879 . The document was limited in scope and was effectively more of an organic law of the Consultative Council to the khedive than an actual constitution. British occupation ended nominally with
1080-559: A northern extension of the Ethiopian Highlands , I home to montane grasslands and woodlands . Habitats here vary from the sub-tropical rainforest at Filfil Solomona to the precipitous cliffs and canyons of the southern highlands. Filfil receives over 1,100 mm of rainfall annually. There is a steep escarpment along the eastern side of the highlands, which is the western wall of the East African Rift. The western slope of
1188-428: A referendum be held immediately to settle the Eritrean question of sovereignty. The United Nations Commission of Enquiry arrived in Eritrea in early 1950 and after about six weeks returned to New York to submit its report. Two reports were presented. The minority report presented by Pakistan and Guatemala proposed that Eritrea be independent after a period of trusteeship. The majority report compiled by Burma, Norway, and
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#17328583599941296-461: A religious purpose in pre- Christian times. One of these granite columns, the Obelisk of Aksum , is the largest such structure in the world, standing at 90 feet (27 metres). Under Ezana ( fl. 320–360), Aksum later adopted Christianity. Christianity was the first world religion to be adopted in modern Eritrea and the oldest monastery in the country, Debre Sina , was built in the fourth century. It
1404-615: A result of the Convention of London (1840) , Muhammad Ali gave up all conquered lands with the exception of the Sudan and was, in turn, granted the hereditary governorship of the Sudan. By 1848, Muhammad Ali was old and senile enough for his tuberculosis-ridden son, Ibrahim , to demand his accession to the governorship. The Ottoman sultan acceded to the demands, and Muhammad Ali was removed from power. However, Ibrahim died of his disease months later, outlived by his father, who died in 1849. Ibrahim
1512-552: A small Egyptian force. In the autumn of 1824, a fleet of 60 Egyptian warships carrying a large force of 17,000 disciplined troops concentrated in Suda Bay , and, in the following March, with Ibrahin as commander-in-chief landed in the Morea . His naval superiority wrested from the Greeks the command of a great deal of the sea, on which the fate of the insurrection ultimately depended, while on land
1620-471: A southern Ethiopian kingdom, recognized the Italian occupation of his rivals' lands of Bogos , Hamasien , Akkele Guzay , and Serae in exchange for guarantees of financial assistance and continuing access to European arms and ammunition. His subsequent victory over rival kings and enthronement as Emperor Menelek II (r. 1889–1913) made the treaty formally binding upon the entire territory. In 1888,
1728-523: A time. While Ibrahim was engaged in the second Arabian campaign the pasha turned his attention to strengthening the Egyptian economy. He created state monopolies over the chief products of the country. He set up factories and began digging in 1819 a new canal to Alexandria called the Mahmudiyya after the sultan. The old canal had long fallen into decay and the necessity of a safe channel between Alexandria and
1836-480: A visit to Eritrea was the Portuguese explorer Francisco Alvares in 1520. His books have the first description of the local powers of Tigray , the kingdom of Axum and Barnagais (the lord of the lands by the sea) The contemporary coast of Eritrea was the one that guaranteed the connection to the region of Tigray where the Portuguese had a small colony, and therefore the connection to the interior Ethiopian , allies of
1944-511: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Eritrea Eritrea ( / ˌ ɛr ɪ ˈ t r iː ə / ERR -ih- TREE -ə or /- ˈ t r eɪ -/ - TRAY - ; , pronounced [ʔer(ɨ)trä] ), officially the State of Eritrea , is a country in the Horn of Africa region of Eastern Africa , with its capital and largest city being Asmara . It
2052-747: Is a member of the African Union , the United Nations , and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development , and is an observer state in the Arab League alongside Brazil and Venezuela . The name Eritrea is derived from the ancient (originally Greek) name for the Red Sea , the Erythraean Sea ( Ἐρυθρὰ Θάλασσα Erythra Thalassa , based on the adjective ἐρυθρός erythros "red"). It
2160-587: Is bordered by Ethiopia in the south , Sudan in the west, and Djibouti in the southeast. The northeastern and eastern parts of Eritrea have an extensive coastline along the Red Sea . The nation has a total area of approximately 117,600 km (45,406 sq mi), and includes the Dahlak Archipelago and several of the Hanish Islands . Human remains found in Eritrea have been dated to 1 million years old and anthropological research indicates that
2268-549: Is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as an important market place for ivory , which was exported throughout the ancient world. At the time, Aksum was ruled by Zoskales , who also governed the port of Adulis . The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own Aksumite currency . After the decline of Aksum, the Eritrean highlands fell under the domain of the Christian Zagwe dynasty , and later, fell under
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#17328583599942376-578: Is one of the oldest monasteries in Africa and the world. Debre Libanos , the second oldest monastery, was said to have been founded in the late fifth or early sixth century. Originally located in the village of Ham, it was moved to an inaccessible location on the edge of a cliff below the Ham plateau. Its church contains the Golden Gospel, a metal-covered bible dating to the thirteenth century during which Debre Libanos
2484-658: Is suitable for the plant as it favours warm climate and rocky environment. Yebio, Natnael (August 6, 2017). "Eritrea: Picking Prickly Pear (Beles)" . tesfanews.net . tesfanews.net tesfanews.net . Retrieved August 20, 2023 . Woldu, Berhane (September 6, 2021). " Beles Prickly Pear Cactus fruit!" . shidamedia.com . Shida Media . Retrieved August 20, 2021 . "Bahta Hagos Rebellion Against Italian Occupation" . zantana.net . Retrieved August 20, 2023 . 15°03′10″N 39°11′14″E / 15.05278°N 39.18722°E / 15.05278; 39.18722 This Eritrea location article
2592-429: Is the probable location of a triple junction where three tectonic plates are pulling away from one another. The highest point of the country, Emba Soira , is located in the center of Eritrea, at 3,018 m (9,902 ft) above sea level . Eritrea has volcanic activity in the southeastern parts of the country. In 2011 Nabro Volcano had an eruption. The main cities of the country are the capital city of Asmara and
2700-607: The Barka Valley dating from 8,000 BC appear to offer the first concrete evidence of human settlement in the area. Research also shows that many of the ethnic groups of Eritrea were the first to inhabit these areas. Excavations in and near Agordat in central Eritrea yielded the remains of an ancient pre-Aksumite civilization known as the Gash Group . Ceramics were discovered that were dated back to between 2,500 and 1,500 BC. Around 2,000 BC, parts of Eritrea were most likely part of
2808-653: The Battle of Tel el-Kebir . Urabi was tried for treason and sentenced to death, but the sentence was commuted to exile. After the revolt, the Egyptian army was reorganized on a British model and commanded by British officers. Meanwhile, a religious rebellion had broken out in the Sudan, led by Muhammad Ahmed , who proclaimed himself the Mahdi . The Mahdist rebels had seized the regional capital of Kordofan and annihilated two British-led expeditions sent to quell it. The British soldier-adventurer Charles George Gordon , an ex-governor of
2916-637: The Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF), a successor of the ELF , defeated the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea and helped a coalition of Ethiopian rebel forces take control of the Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa . In the 1980s a non-government organization called the Eritrea Inter-Agency Consortium (EIAC) aided in the development projects for the Eritrean Liberation movement. Following
3024-546: The Eritrean War of Independence until Eritrea gained de facto independence in 1991. Eritrea gained de jure independence in 1993 after an independence referendum . Contemporary Eritrea is a multi-ethnic country with nine recognised ethnic groups, each of which has a distinct language. The most widely spoken languages are Tigrinya and Arabic . The others are Tigre , Saho , Kuinama , Nara , Afar , Beja , Bilen and English . Tigrinya , Arabic and English serve as
3132-533: The Eritrean government's human rights record is among the worst in the world. The Eritrean government has dismissed these allegations as politically motivated. Freedom of the press in Eritrea is extremely limited; the Press Freedom Index consistently ranks it as one of the least free countries. As of 2022 Reporters Without Borders considers the country to be among those with the least press freedom. Eritrea
3240-583: The Habesh Eyalet . Massawa served as the new province's first capital. When the city became of secondary economical importance, the administrative capital was soon moved across the Red Sea to Jeddah . The Turks tried to occupy the highland parts of Hamasien in 1559 but withdrew after they encountered fierce resistance. They were pushed back by the Bahri Negash and highland forces. In 1578 they tried to expand into
3348-685: The Kingdom of Hejaz . The United Kingdom invaded and took control in 1882. In 1914, the Ottoman Empire connection was ended and Britain established a protectorate called the Sultanate of Egypt . Upon the conquest of the Mamluk Sultanate by the Ottoman Empire in 1517, the country was governed as an Ottoman province . The Ottoman Porte (government) was content to permit local rule to remain in
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3456-468: The Land of Punt , first mentioned in the twenty-fifth century BC. It was known for producing and exporting gold , aromatic resins , blackwood , ebony , ivory , and wild animals. The region is known from ancient Egyptian records of trade expeditions to it, especially a well-documented expedition to Punt in approximately 1,469 BC during the reestablishment of disrupted trade routes by Hatshepsut shortly after
3564-666: The Muhammad Ali Dynasty following the defeat and expulsion of Napoleon Bonaparte 's forces which brought an end to the short-lived French occupation of Lower Egypt . The Khedivate of Egypt had also expanded to control present-day Sudan , South Sudan , Eritrea , Djibouti , northwestern Somalia , northeastern Ethiopia , Lebanon , Jordan , Palestine , Syria , Greece , Cyprus , southern and central Turkey , in addition to parts from Libya , Chad , Central African Republic , Democratic Republic of Congo , and Uganda , as well as northwestern Saudi Arabia , parts of Yemen and
3672-520: The Nile was much felt. The conclusion in 1838 of a commercial treaty with Turkey, negotiated by Henry Bulwer , struck a death blow to the system of monopolies, though the application of the treaty to Egypt was delayed for some years. Another notable fact in the economic progress of the country was the development of the cultivation of cotton in the Delta in 1822 and onwards. The cotton grown had been brought from
3780-604: The Red Sea , and secure the rich gold mines which he believed to exist in Sennar . He also saw in the campaign a means of getting rid of his disaffected troops, and of obtaining a sufficient number of captives to form the nucleus of the new army. The forces destined for this service were led by Ismail, the youngest son of Muhammad Ali. They consisted of between 4000 and 5000 men, being Albanians, Turks and Egyptians. They left Cairo in July 1820. The Funj Sultanate of Nubia submitted without
3888-698: The Scramble for Africa . On 15 November 1869, the ruling local chief sold lands surrounding the Bay of Assab to the Italian missionary Giuseppe Sapeto on behalf of the Rubattino Shipping Company . The area served as a coaling station along the shipping lanes introduced by the recently completed Suez Canal . In 1882, the Italian government formally took possession of the Assab colony from its commercial owners and expanded their control to include Massawa and most of
3996-483: The Turco-Egyptian Sudan by Maho Bey and the organization of the new industry from which in a few years Muhammad Ali was enabled to extract considerable revenues. Efforts were made to promote education and the study of medicine. To European merchants, on whom he was dependent for the sale of his exports, Muhammad Ali showed much favor and under his influence, the port of Alexandria again rose into importance. It
4104-421: The temperate zone , subtropical climate zone , and tropical climate zone . Khedivate of Egypt The Khedivate of Egypt ( Arabic : الْخُدَيْوِيَّةُ الْمِصْرِيَّةُ or خُدَيْوِيَّةُ مِصْرَ , Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [xedeˈwejjet mɑsˤɾ] ; Ottoman Turkish : خدیویت مصر Hıdiviyet-i Mısır ) was an autonomous tributary state of the Ottoman Empire , established and ruled by
4212-647: The 1941 Battle of Keren , the British expelled the Italians and took over the administration of the country. Economically, the decade of British administration saw a significant restructuring of the Eritrean economy. Until 1945, the British and Americans relied on Italian equipment and skilled labor for wartime needs and to support the Allies in the Middle East. This economic boom, fueled by substantial Italian involvement, lasted until
4320-493: The British colony of Sudan and partly to Ethiopia. After the peace treaty with Italy was signed in 1947, the United Nations sent a Commission of Enquiry to decide the fate of the colony. In the 1950s, the Ethiopian feudal administration under Emperor Haile Selassie sought to annex Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. He laid claim to both territories in a letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt at the Paris Peace Conference and
4428-641: The Eritrean and Ethiopian highlands during the mid-first millennium BC. Dʿmt was a kingdom that existed from the tenth to fifth centuries BC in what is now Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. Given the presence of a massive temple complex at Yeha , this area was most likely the kingdom's capital. Qohaito , often identified as the town of Koloe in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea , as well as Matara were important ancient Dʿmt kingdom cities in southern Eritrea. The realm developed irrigation schemes, used plows , grew millet , and made iron tools and weapons. After
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4536-586: The Eritrean coastal lowlands after the Egyptians withdrew from Eritrea in February 1885. In the vacuum that followed the 1889 death of Emperor Yohannes IV , Gen. Oreste Baratieri occupied the highlands along the Eritrean coast and Italy proclaimed the establishment of Italian Eritrea , a colony of the Kingdom of Italy . In the Treaty of Wuchale (It. Uccialli ) signed the same year, Menelik OI of Shewa ,
4644-634: The First Session of the United Nations. In the United Nations, the debate over the fate of the former Italian colonies continued. The British and Americans preferred to cede all of Eritrea except the Western province to the Ethiopians as a reward for their support during World War II . The Independence Bloc of Eritrean parties consistently requested from the United Nations General Assembly that
4752-675: The Greek irregular bands, having largely soundly beaten the Porte's troops, had finally met a worthy foe in Ibrahim's disciplined troops. The history of the events that led up to the battle of Navarino and the liberation of Greece is told elsewhere; the withdrawal of the Egyptians from the Morea was ultimately due to the action of Admiral Sir Edward Codrington , who early in August 1828 appeared before Alexandria and induced
4860-472: The Italian administration launched its first development projects in the new colony. The Eritrean Railway was completed to Saati in 1888, and reached Asmara in the highlands in 1911. The Asmara–Massawa Cableway was the longest line in the world during its time but was later dismantled by the British in World War II. Besides major infrastructural projects, the colonial authorities invested significantly in
4968-436: The Middle East. The British placed Eritrea under British military administration until Allied forces could determine its fate. In the absence of agreement amongst the Allies concerning the status of Eritrea, the British administration continued for the remainder of World War II and until 1950. During the immediate postwar years, the British proposed that Eritrea be divided along religious community lines and annexed partly to
5076-684: The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers against Britain and France. Britain now removed the nominal role of Constantinople, proclaimed a Sultanate of Egypt and abolished the Khedivate on 5 November 1914. Abbas II , who supported the Central Powers and was in Vienna for a state visit, was deposed from the Khedivate throne in his absence by the enforcement of the British military authorities in Cairo and
5184-491: The Portuguese. Massawa was also the stage for the 1541 landing of troops by Cristóvão da Gama in the military campaign that would eventually defeat the Adal Sultanate in the final battle of Wayna Daga in 1543. By 1557, the Ottomans had occupied all of northeastern present-day Eritrea for the next two decades, an area which stretched from Massawa to Swakin in Sudan. The territory became an Ottoman governorate, known as
5292-493: The Sudan, was sent to the Sudanese capital, Khartoum , with orders to evacuate its minority of European and Egyptian inhabitants. Instead of evacuating the city, Gordon prepared for a siege and held out from 1884 to 1885. However, Khartoum eventually fell, and he was killed. The British Gordon Relief Expedition was delayed by several battles and was thus unable to reach Khartoum and save Gordon. The fall of Khartoum resulted in
5400-600: The Union of South Africa called for Eritrea to be incorporated into Ethiopia. Following the adoption of U.N. Resolution 390A(V) in December 1950, Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia under the prompting of the United States. The resolution called for Eritrea and Ethiopia to be linked through a loose federal structure under the sovereignty of the emperor. Eritrea was to have its own administrative and judicial structure, its own new flag, and control over its domestic affairs, including police, local administration, and taxation. The federal government, which for all practical purposes
5508-427: The administration of the coastal highlands into the Christian province of Midri-Bahri ("Sea land" in Tigrinya, although it included some areas such as Shire in Ethiopia on the other side of the Mereb, today in Ethiopia) ruled by a Bahri Negus (or Bahri Negash, meaning "sea king"). With its capital at Debarwa , the state's main provinces were Hamasien , Serae , and Akele Guzai . The first Westerner to document
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#17328583599945616-641: The agricultural sector. They also oversaw the provision of urban amenities in Asmara and Massawa, and employed many Eritreans in public service, particularly in the police and public works departments. Thousands of Eritreans were concurrently enlisted in the army, serving during the Italo-Turkish War in Libya as well as the First and Second Italo-Abyssinian Wars. Additionally, the Italian Eritrea administration opened many new factories that produced buttons, cooking oil, pasta, construction materials, packing meat, tobacco, hide, and other household commodities. In 1939, there were approximately 2,198 factories and most of
5724-404: The area may contain significant records related to the evolution of humans. The Kingdom of Aksum , covering much of modern-day Eritrea and northern Ethiopia , was established during the first or second century AD. It adopted Christianity around the middle of the fourth century. Beginning in the 12th century, the Ethiopian Zagwe and Solomonid dynasties held sway to a fluctuating extent over
5832-405: The beginning of her rule as the king of ancient Egypt. Excavations at Sembel found evidence of an ancient pre- Aksumite civilization in greater Asmara. This Ona urban culture is believed to have been among the oldest pastoral and agricultural communities in East Africa . Artifacts at the site have been dated to between 800 BC and 400 BC, contemporaneous with other pre-Aksumite settlements in
5940-438: The centralizing policies of the imperial Ethiopian state. On 1 September 1961, the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), under the leadership of Hamid Idris Awate , waged an armed struggle for independence. In 1962, Emperor Haile Selassie unilaterally dissolved the Eritrean parliament and annexed the territory. The ensuing Eritrean War of Independence went on for 30 years against successive Ethiopian governments until 1991, when
6048-420: The colonial government in Italian Eritrea. After il Duce declared the birth of the Italian Empire in May 1936, Italian Eritrea (enlarged with northern Ethiopia's regions) and Italian Somaliland were merged with the just-conquered Ethiopia into the new Italian East Africa ( Africa Orientale Italiana ). This Fascist period was characterized by imperial expansion in the name of a "new Roman Empire". Eritrea
6156-416: The confiscation, begun in 1808, of almost all the lands belonging to private individuals, who were forced to accept instead inadequate pensions. By this revolutionary method of land nationalization Muhammad Ali became proprietor of nearly all the soil of Egypt, an iniquitous measure against which the Egyptians had no remedy. The pasha also attempted to reorganize his troops on European lines, but this led to
6264-408: The country adhere to Christianity or Islam , with a small minority adhering to traditional faiths . Eritrea is one of the least developed countries . It is a unitary one-party presidential republic in which national legislative and presidential elections have never been held. Isaias Afwerki has served as president since its official independence in 1993. According to Human Rights Watch ,
6372-427: The country. A British naval bombardment of Alexandria had little effect on the opposition which led to the landing of a British expeditionary force at both ends of the Suez Canal in August 1882. The British succeeded in defeating the Egyptian Army at Tel El Kebir in September and took control of the country putting Tewfiq back in control. The purpose of the invasion had been to restore political stability to Egypt under
6480-496: The defeat of the French, the Porte assigned Koca Hüsrev Mehmed Pasha as the new Wāli (governor) of Egypt, tasking him to kill or imprison the surviving Egyptian Mamluk beys . Many of these were freed by or fled with the British, while others held Minya between Upper and Lower Egypt . Amid these disturbances, Koca Hüsrev Mehmed Pasha attempted to disband his Albanian bashi-bazouks (soldiers) without pay. This led to rioting that drove Koca Hüsrev Mehmed Pasha from Cairo. During
6588-400: The deposition of the last khedive Abbas II on 5 November 1914 and the establishment of a British protectorate , with the installation of sultan Hussein Kamel on 19 December 1914. By Isma'il's reign, the Egyptian government, headed by the minister Nubar Pasha , had become dependent on Britain and France for a healthy economy. Isma'il attempted to end this European dominance, while at
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#17328583599946696-487: The early 19th сentury the Egyptians tried multiple attempts to take full control of the Nile River and with that take control of the Horn of Africa which was a Key route to enter the Southern Arabian peninsula. After failing multiple times to take control of the Bogos / Hamassien however these attempted invasions were repelled by the emperor at the time Tewedros . Sa'id ruled for only nine years, and his nephew Isma'il , another grandson of Muhammad Ali, became wali. In 1866
6804-425: The empire he had so laboriously built up might at any time have to be defended by force of arms against his master Sultan Mahmud II , whose whole policy had been directed to curbing the power of too-ambitious vassals, and who was under the influence of the personal enemies of the pasha of Egypt, notably Koca Hüsrev Mehmed Pasha , the grand vizier , who had never forgiven his humiliation in Egypt in 1803. Mahmud also
6912-484: The employees were Eritrean citizens. The establishment of industries also increased the number of Italians and Eritreans residing in the cities. The number of Italians in the territory increased from 4,600 to 75,000 in five years; and with the involvement of Eritreans in the industry, trade and fruit plantations were expanded across the nation, and some of the plantations were owned by Eritreans. In 1922, Benito Mussolini 's rise to power in Italy brought profound changes to
7020-439: The end of the war. However, shortly after the conflict concluded, the Eritrean economy faced a combination of recession and depression that severely impacted the local urban population. War factories that had employed thousands were shut down, and Italians began to be repatriated. Additionally, many small manufacturing plants established between 1936 and 1945 were forced to close due to intense competition from factories in Europe and
7128-400: The ensuing turmoil, the Porte sent Muhammad Ali Pasha to Egypt. However, Muhammad Ali seized control of Egypt , declared himself ruler and quickly consolidated an independent local power base. After repeated failed attempts to remove and kill him, in 1805 the Porte officially recognised Muhammad Ali as Wāli of Egypt. Demonstrating his grander ambitions, Muhammad Ali Pasha claimed for himself
7236-469: The entire Nile including its diverse sources, and over the whole African coast of the Red Sea . This, together with rumours about rich raw material and fertile soil, led Ismail to expansive policies directed against the Ethiopian Empire under Yohannes IV . In 1865, the Ottoman Sublime Porte ceded Habesh Eyalet to Isma'il, with Massawa and Suakin at the Red Sea as the main cities of that province. This province, which neighboured Ethiopia, first consisted of
7344-432: The entire plateau and the Red Sea coast. Eritrea's central highlands, known as Mereb Melash (" Beyond the Mereb "), were the northern frontier region of the Ethiopian kingdoms and were ruled by a governor titled the Bahri Negasi ("lord of the sea"). In the 16th century, the Ottomans conquered the Eritrean coastline, then in May 1865 much of the coastal lowlands came under the rule of the Khedivate of Egypt , until it
7452-399: The fall of Dʿmt in the fifth century BC, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms. This lasted until the rise of one of these polities during the first century, the Kingdom of Aksum , which was able to reunite the area. The Kingdom of Aksum (or Axum) was a trading empire centered in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. It existed from approximately 100–940 AD, growing from
7560-527: The hands of the Mamluks , the Egyptian military led by Circassian - Turkic leaders who had held power in Egypt since the 13th century. Save for military expeditions to crush Mamluk uprisings seeking to reestablish the independent Egyptian sultanate, the Ottomans largely ignored Egyptian affairs until the French campaign in Egypt and Syria in 1798. Between 1799 and 1801, the Porte, working at times with France's main enemy, Great Britain, undertook various campaigns to restore Ottoman rule in Egypt. By August 1801,
7668-428: The higher title of Khedive (Viceroy), ruling the self-proclaimed (but not recognised) Khedivate of Egypt. He murdered the remaining Mamluk beys in 1811, solidifying his control of Egypt. He is regarded as the founder of modern Egypt because of the dramatic reforms he instituted in the military, agricultural, economic and cultural spheres. During Muhammad Ali's absence in Arabia his representative at Cairo had completed
7776-701: The highlands is more gradual, descending to interior lowlands. Southwestern Eritrea is drained by the Atbara River , which flows northwestwards to join the Nile . The northwestern slope of the highlands is drained by the Barka River , which flows northwards into Sudan to empty into the Red Sea. Western Eritrea is part of the Sahelian Acacia savanna , which extends across Africa south of the Sahara from Eritrea to Senegal. The Afar Triangle or Danakil Depression of Eritrea
7884-454: The highlands with the help of Bahri Negash Yisehaq, who had switched alliances due to a power struggle. Ethiopian Emperor Sarsa Dengel made a punitive expedition against the Turks in 1588 in response to their raids in the northern provinces, and apparently by 1589, they were once again compelled to withdraw their forces to the coast. The Ottomans were eventually driven out in the last quarter of
7992-519: The most dangerous opposition coming from the army. A large military demonstration in September 1881 forced the Khedive Tewfiq to dismiss his Prime Minister. In April 1882 France and Great Britain sent warships to Alexandria to bolster the Khedive amidst a turbulent climate, spreading fear of invasion throughout the country. By June Egypt was in the hands of nationalists opposed to European domination of
8100-527: The new "Province of Eastern Sudan and the Red Sea Coast", Werner Munzinger Pasha. In October 1875 Ismail's army tried to occupy the adjacent highlands of Hamasien , which were then tributary to the Ethiopian Emperor, and suffered defeat at the Battle of Gundet . In March 1876, Ismail's army tried again and suffered a second dramatic defeat by Yohannes' army in the Battle of Gura . Ismail's son Hassan
8208-539: The new force was demonstrated in the suppression of an 1823 revolt of the Albanians in Cairo by six disciplined Sudanese regiments; after which Mehemet Ali was no more troubled with military mutinies. His foresight was rewarded by the invitation of the sultan to help him in the task of subduing the Greek insurgents, offering as reward the pashaliks of the Morea and of Syria. Muhammad Ali had already, in 1821, been appointed by him governor of Crete , which he had occupied with
8316-637: The nomadic Tigre and Beni Amer clans of the west (closely related to the Funj Kingdom in Sudan) and the Arabic Muslims of Massawa and the pastoralist Sultanate of Assua found in the two coastal regions. These fractured groups hindered the political and economic development of present-day Eritrea from the limited exchanges that hinders development and innovation, thus creating an inequality in state strength. The boundaries of present-day Eritrea were established during
8424-412: The oldest hominid fossils found to date that reveal significant stages in the evolution of humans and to represent a possible link between the earlier Homo erectus and an archaic Homo sapiens . Her remains have been dated to 1 million years old. She is the oldest skeletal find of her kind and provides a link between earlier hominids and the earliest anatomically modern humans . It is believed that
8532-588: The pasha, by no means sorry to have a reasonable excuse, by a threat of bombardment, to sign a convention undertaking to recall Ibrahim and his army. But for the action of European powers, it is suspected by many that the Ottoman Empire might have defeated the Greeks. Although Muhammad Ali had only been granted the title of wali , he proclaimed himself khedive , or hereditary viceroy, early on during his rule. The Ottoman government, although irritated, did nothing until Muhammad Ali invaded Ottoman-ruled Syria in 1831 . The governorship of Syria had been promised to him by
8640-558: The polity occupied the Emirate of Harar . In 1867, the Ottoman sultan acknowledged Isma'il's use of the title khedive . In 1874, Ismail Pasha ordered the deputation of warships to patrol Tadjoura whereafter for ten years, the Khedivate was established from Zeila to Berbera , until their withdrawal in April 1884 and failed attempts to establish themselves beyond Berbera and the eastern littoral of Somalia. Ismail dreamt of expanding his realm across
8748-574: The port town of Asseb in the southeast, as well as the towns of Massawa to the east, the northern town of Keren , and the central town Mendefera . Local variability in rainfall patterns and reduced precipitation are known to occur, which may precipitate soil erosion, floods, droughts, land degradation , and desertification. Eritrea is part of a 14-nation constituency within the Global Environment Facility , which partners with international institutions, civil society organizations, and
8856-541: The private sector to address global environmental issues while supporting national sustainable development initiatives. In 2006, Eritrea announced that it would become the first country in the world to turn its entire coast into an environmentally protected zone. The 1,347 km (837 mi) coastline, along with another 1,946 km (1,209 mi) of coast around its more than 350 islands, will come under governmental protection. Based on temperature variations, Eritrea can be broadly divided into three major climate zones:
8964-494: The proclamation of an Islamic state , ruled over first by the Mahdi and then by his successor Khalifa Abdullahi . In 1896, during the reign of Tewfik's son, Abbas II , a massive Anglo-Egyptian force, under the command of General Herbert Kitchener , began the conquest of the Sudan not long after the death of the Mahdi , Muhammad Ahmad , to typhus . The Mahdists were defeated in the battles of Abu Hamed and Atbara . The campaign
9072-439: The proto-Aksumite Iron Age period around the fourth century BC to achieve prominence by the first century AD. According to the medieval Liber Axumae ( Book of Aksum ), Aksum's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush. The capital was later moved to Axum in northern Ethiopia. The kingdom used the name "Ethiopia" as early as the fourth century. The Aksumites erected a number of large stelae , which served
9180-673: The remaining French forces of General Jacques-François Menou withdrew from Egypt. The period between 1801 and 1805 was, effectively, a three-way civil war in Egypt between the Egyptian Mamluks, the Ottoman Turks, and Albanian troops the Ottoman Porte dispatched from Rumelia (the Empire's European province), under the command of Muhammad Ali Pasha , to restore the Empire's authority. Following
9288-464: The same time pursuing an aggressive domestic policy. Under Isma'il, 112 canals and 400 bridges were built in Egypt. Because of his efforts to gain economic independence from the European powers, Isma'il became unpopular with many British and French diplomats, including Evelyn Baring and Alfred Milner , who claimed that he was "ruining Egypt." In 1869, the completion of the Suez Canal gave Britain
9396-466: The section of the Danakil Depression in Eritrea was a major site in terms of human evolution and may contain other traces of evolution from Homo erectus hominids to anatomically modern humans. During the last interglacial period, the Red Sea coast of Eritrea was occupied by early anatomically modern humans. It is believed that the area was on the route out of Africa that some scholars suggest
9504-599: The sixteenth century. However, they retained control over the seaboard until the late 1800s. The central Eritrean highlands then became a vassal fiefdom of the lords of Tigray, who were seldom on good terms with the dominant Amhara branch of the Ethiopian family. In 1734, the Afar leader Kedafu, established the Mudaito Dynasty in Ethiopia, which later also came to include the southern Denkel lowlands of Eritrea, thus incorporating
9612-458: The southern Denkel lowlands to the Sultanate of Aussa . The sixteenth century also marked the arrival of the Ottomans, who began making inroads in the Red Sea area. Eritrea's pre-colonial period had four distinct regions that were divided by geography, thus, having limited contact with each other. The regions were ruled as follows: the Abyssians (Tigrinya-speaking Christians) in the highlands,
9720-542: The southern end of the Red Sea, is the home of the fork in the rift. The Dahlak Archipelago and its fishing grounds are situated off the sandy arid coastline. Eritrea may be split into three ecoregions . A hot arid coastal plain extends along the coast. The coastal plain is narrow in the west and widens towards the east. These coastal lowlands are part of the Djibouti xeric shrublands ecoregion. The cooler, more fertile highlands reach up to 3,000 m (9,800 ft) and are
9828-637: The sphere of influence of the Ethiopian Empire . The area was at first known as Ma'ikele Bahri ("between the seas/rivers", i.e. the land between the Red Sea and the Mereb river ). The entire coastal domain of Ma'ikele Bahri was under the Adal Sultanate during the reign of Sultan Badlay ibn Sa'ad ad-Din . The state was later reconquered by the Ethiopian Emperor Zara Yaqob who reorganized
9936-458: The sultan, Mahmud II , for his assistance during the Greek War of Independence , but the title was not granted to him after the war. This caused the Ottomans, allied with the British, to counter-attack in 1839 . In 1840, the British bombarded Beirut and an Anglo-Ottoman force landed and seized Acre. The Egyptian army was forced to retreat back home, and Syria again became an Ottoman province. As
10044-609: The three working languages. Most residents speak languages from the Afroasiatic family, either of the Ethiopian Semitic languages or Cushitic branches. Among these communities, the Tigrinyas make up about 50% of the population, with the Tigre people constituting around 30% of inhabitants. In addition, there are several Nilo-Saharan -speaking Nilotic ethnic groups. Most people in
10152-517: Was admitted into the United Nations as the 182nd member state. Eritrea is located in East Africa . It is bordered to the northeast and east by the Red Sea , Sudan to the west, Ethiopia to the south, and Djibouti to the southeast. Eritrea lies between latitudes 12° and 18°N, and longitudes 36° and 44°E. The country is virtually bisected by a branch of the East African Rift . Eritrea, at
10260-580: Was already planning reforms borrowed from the West, and Muhammad Ali, who had had plenty of opportunity of observing the superiority of European methods of warfare, was determined to anticipate the sultan in the creation of a fleet and an army on European lines, partly as a precaution, partly as an instrument for the realization of yet wider schemes of ambition. Before the outbreak of the War of Greek Independence in 1821, he had already expended much time and energy in organizing
10368-469: Was also under Muhammad Ali's encouragement that the overland transit of goods from Europe to India via Egypt was resumed. In 1820, Muhammad Ali gave orders to commence the conquest of Ottoman Tripolitania . He first sent an expedition westward in February, which conquered and annexed the Siwa Oasis . Ali's intentions for Sudan were to extend his rule southward, capture the valuable caravan trade bound for
10476-666: Was an important seat of religious power. In the seventh century AD, early Muslims from Mecca , at least companions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad , sought refuge from Qurayshi persecution by travelling to the kingdom, a journey known in Islamic history as the First Hijrah . They reportedly built the first African mosque , that is the Mosque of the Companions in Massawa. The kingdom
10584-507: Was banned from returning to Egypt. He was succeeded by his uncle Hussein Kamel , who took the title of Sultan on 19 December 1914. During the khedivate, the standard form of Egyptian currency was the Egyptian pound . Because of the gradual European domination of the Egyptian economy, the khedivate adopted the gold standard in 1885. Although the adoption of modern, Western industrial techniques
10692-401: Was burnt to death by Nimr, the makk (king) of Shendi . The defterdar, a man infamous for his cruelty, assumed the command of those provinces and exacted terrible retribution from the inhabitants. Khartoum was founded at this time, and in the following years, Egyptian rule was greatly extended and control of the Red Sea ports of Suakin and Massawa obtained. Muhammad Ali understood that
10800-654: Was captured by the Ethiopians and only released after a large ransom. This was followed by a long cold war, only finishing in 1884 with the Anglo-Egyptian-Ethiopian Hewett Treaty , when Bogos was given back to Ethiopia. The Red Sea Province created by Ismail and his governor Munzinger Pasha was taken over by the Kingdom of Italy shortly thereafter and became the territorial basis for the Colony of Eritrea (proclaimed in 1890). In 1882 opposition to European control led to growing tension amongst native notables,
10908-847: Was chosen by the Italian government to be the industrial center of Italian East Africa. After 1935, art deco architecture was widely employed in Asmara. The Italians designed more than 400 buildings in a construction boom that only halted with Italy's involvement in World War II . These included the Fiat Tagliero Building and Cinema Impero . In 2017, the city was declared a World Heritage Site , described by UNESCO as featuring eclectic and rationalist built forms, well-defined open spaces, and public and private buildings, including cinemas, shops, banks, religious structures, public and private offices, industrial facilities, and residences . ) Through
11016-567: Was concluded with the Anglo-Egyptian victory in the Battle of Omdurman , the Mahdist capital. Caliph Abdallahi ibn Muhammad was hunted down and killed in 1899 in the Battle of Umm Diwaykarat , and Anglo-Egyptian rule was restored to the Sudan. Abbas II became very hostile to the British as his reign drew on, and, by 1911, was considered by Lord Kitchener to be a "wicked little Khedive" worthy of deposition. In 1914, when World War I broke out,
11124-402: Was first formally adopted in 1890, with the formation of Italian Eritrea ( Colonia Eritrea ). The name persisted throughout subsequent British and Ethiopian occupation, and was reaffirmed by the 1993 independence referendum and 1997 constitution . Madam Buya is the name of a fossil found at an archaeological site in Eritrea by Italian anthropologists. She has been identified as among
11232-478: Was succeeded by his nephew Abbas I , who undid many of Muhammad Ali's accomplishments. Abbas was assassinated by two of his slaves in 1854, and Muhammad Ali's fourth son, Sa'id , succeeded him. Sa'id brought back many of his father's policies but otherwise had an unremarkable reign. Ismail Pasha replaced Turkish with Arabic as the administrative and elite language, further reducing Turkish influence in Egypt and enhancing Egypt’s modernization and independence. In
11340-592: Was the existing imperial government, was to control foreign affairs (including commerce), defense, finance, and transportation. The resolution ignored the wishes of Eritreans for independence but guaranteed the population democratic rights and a measure of autonomy. In 1958, a group of Eritreans founded the Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM). The organization mainly consisted of Eritrean students, professionals, and intellectuals. It engaged in clandestine political activities intended to cultivate resistance to
11448-413: Was transferred to Italy in February 1885. Beginning in 1885–1890, Italian troops systematically spread out from Massawa toward the highlands, eventually resulting in the formation of the colony of Italian Eritrea in 1889, establishing the present-day boundaries of the country. Italian rule continued until 1942 when Eritrea was placed under British Military Administration during World War II; following
11556-522: Was undermined in a rebellion led by his war minister, Urabi Pasha , in 1882. Urabi took advantage of violent riots in Alexandria to seize control of the government and temporarily depose Tewfik. British naval forces shelled and captured Alexandria, and an expeditionary force under General Sir Garnet Wolseley was formed in England. The British army landed in Egypt soon afterwards and defeated Urabi's army in
11664-669: Was used by early humans to colonize the rest of the Old World. In 1999, the Eritrean Research Project Team composed of Eritrean, Canadian, American, Dutch, and French scientists discovered a Paleolithic site with stone and obsidian tools dated to more than 125,000 years old near the Gulf of Zula south of Massawa , along the Red Sea littoral. The tools are believed to have been used by early humans to harvest marine resources such as clams and oysters. Research shows tools found in
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