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62-712: Massawa or Mitsiwa ( / m ə ˈ s ɑː w ə / mə-SAH-wə ) is a port city in the Northern Red Sea region of Eritrea , located on the Red Sea at the northern end of the Gulf of Zula beside the Dahlak Archipelago . It has been a historically important port for many centuries. Massawa has been ruled or occupied by a succession of polities during its history, including the Kingdom of Punt, Kingdom of Aksum , Medri Bahri kingdom,

124-596: A base for the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, which caused the town to be flooded with Italian soldiers. An American journalist reported at the height of the invasion, "The streets had obviously sprung up over night. Men slept in completely open barracks - just a skeleton frame-work of wood with galvanized iron roof." During World War II Massawa was the homeport for the Red Sea Flotilla of the Italian Royal Navy . When

186-563: A canal some time after 1532 between the Nile and the Red Sea so that spices could go directly to Constantinople. According to Dom Andre de Oviedo , the Ottomans were interested in the area because of the prospect of capturing slaves from other African regions via the ports. Then to use that for galleys, provisions, iron , and other goods. According to Selman Reis , an ambitious Ottoman Red Sea admiral,

248-436: A religious duty to conquer Habesh. After the 1517 conquests, the Ottomans also were interested in the region because of the hajj . Having conquered the former Muslim defenders of the hajj , the Ottomans, being the successor of those states, was charged with protecting and providing safe passage to all undertaking the hajj . Portuguese hegemony in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, however, gave them some control over hajjis . In

310-712: A series of subsequent Egyptian governorates. In 1871, after the removal from office of wali Hurşid Pasha , the position of the Jeddah wali was briefly abolished and the mutasarrıflık of Jeddah was installed in its place. This reorganization lasted only one year, and the walilik was brought back the following year. The Eyalet of Jeddah was then transformed into the Hejaz Vilayet , with a governor in Mecca . Specific Ottoman interest in Habeshistan arose from its pivotal geographic position in

372-432: Is December to February when it reaches freezing temperature. The region received around 508 mm (20.0 in) of rainfall and the soil is salty and not conducive for agriculture. As of 2005, the region had a population of 653,300 compared to a population of 576,200 in 2001. The net growth rate was 11.80 per cent. The total area of the province was 27800.00 km and the density was 23.50 persons per km . As of 2002,

434-442: Is one of the highest found in the world. Massawa is noted for its very high summer humidity despite being a desert city. This combination of the desert heat and high humidity makes the apparent temperatures seem even more extreme. The sky is usually clear and bright throughout the year. Northern Red Sea Region As of 2005, the region had a population of 653,300 compared to a population of 576,200 in 2001. The net growth rate

496-521: The Asmara-Massawa Cableway . At 75 kilometres (47 mi) long, it was the longest ropeway conveyor in the world at the time. In 1928, Massawa had 15,000 inhabitants, of which 2,500 were Italians : the city was improved with an architectural plan similar to the one in Asmara, with a commercial and industrial area. With the rise of Fascism a segregation policy was implemented and with the passing of

558-627: The Ethiopian Empire , the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Italy . Massawa was the capital of the Italian Colony of Eritrea until the seat of the colonial government was moved to Asmara in 1897. Massawa has an average temperature of nearly 30 °C (86.0 °F), which is one of the highest experienced in the world, and is "one of the hottest marine coastal areas in the world." Massawa

620-775: The oldest mosque in Africa , the Mosque of the Companions . It was reportedly built by the companions of the Prophet who escaped persecution by Meccans . After the fall of Aksum in the 8th century , the area around Massawa and the town itself fell under the occupation of the Umayyad Caliphate from 702 to 750. The Beja people would also come to rule within Massawa during the Beja Kingdoms from

682-405: The "racial laws" soon became a real system of apartheid. Natives were segregated from residential areas, bars and restaurants reserved for the white population. However these laws did not stop relationships between Italian men and Eritrean women in the colonial territories. The result was a growing number of meticci (mulattos). Though the chief port of Italian Eritrea , Emilio De Bono who inspected

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744-597: The 1560s. In 1571, the governor of Habesh moved to break a siege of Suakin by forces of the Funj kingdom . The expansion was halted in 1578, and the Ottomans retired from most of the highlands. During the following centuries, the Ottoman administration largely refrained from further interventions, relying on a system of indirect rule. Only on the island of Massawa itself was there an Ottoman governor, who controlled trade and taxes; in Sawakin

806-720: The Arkiko was the Portuguese Gonçalo Ferreira, second port on the coast that guaranteed the presence and maintenance of the Portuguese fleets, whenever the port of Massawa was threatened by the Turkish presence. In 1541 the Adalites ambushed the Portuguese at the Battle of Massawa . Massawa rose to prominence when it was captured by the Ottoman Empire in 1557. The Ottomans tried to make it

868-737: The Ethiopian show of force, however Alula soon returned to the highlands and the Egyptian control of the coastline remained unbroken. The British, feeling that the Egyptians were in no position to hold the port, and being unwilling to occupy it themselves or see it fall into the hands of the French, concurred in its seizure by the Italians in February 1885. In 1885–1897, Massawa (in the Italian spelling: 'Massaua') served as

930-632: The Imperial Palace, built in 1872 to 1874 for Werner Munzinger ; St. Mary's Cathedral; and the 1920s Banca d'Italia. The Eritrean War of Independence is commemorated in a memorial of three tanks in the middle of Massawa. Massawa has a hot desert climate ( Köppen climate classification BWh ). The city receives a very low average annual rainfall amount totalling around 185 millimetres (7.28 in) and consistently experiences soaringly high temperatures during both day and night. The annual mean average temperature approaches 30 °C (86 °F), which

992-520: The Northeast African coast of the Red Sea , came under the rule of the Khedive of Egypt with Ottoman consent. The Egyptians originally had a poor opinion of Massawa. Many of the buildings were in a poor state of repair and the Egyptian troops were forced to stay in tents. Sanitary conditions were likewise poor and cholera was endemic. Such considerations caused the Egyptians to contemplate abandonment of

1054-641: The Ottoman Empire from Portuguese invasions. The Ottoman Empire then began extending its borders throughout the rest of the Red Sea coast. Muslim rulers from Sudan and the Arabian Peninsula were dominant in the African Red Sea coast until the Ottoman Turks arrived in the 16th century. The ports of Suakin and Massawa were occupied by Özdemir Pasha , who had been appointed beylerbey in 1555, and

1116-429: The Ottoman authorities appointed a customs officer. There is very little in the way of source material for Ottoman rule in the eyalet of Habesh after the 16th century. Most of Cengiz Orhonlu 's Ottoman sources on Habesh come from the late 16th century, with some from the 17th century. Despite the seminal nature of his Habesh Eyaleti , he could not "find precise data regarding the administrative and financial structure of

1178-485: The Ottoman governor at Suakin . The Ottomans nevertheless built parts of the old town of Massawa on Massawa Island into a prominent port on the Red Sea. These buildings and the old town of Massawa remain to this day, having withstood both earthquakes and wars. In June 1855, Emperor Tewodros II informed the British Consul, Walter Plowden , of his intention to occupy Tigray and make himself master of "the tribes along

1240-628: The Ottomans had no "effective, long term control" outside of the ports where there was a direct Ottoman presence. In 1517, the Ottoman Turks conquered the Turkic Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt and Syria, during the reign of Selim I . As such, territories of the Sultanate including Jeddah and Mecca were controlled by the Ottomans. Jeddah was then expanded for the purpose of protecting the borders of

1302-538: The Pasha styled himself wali (or governor) of not only Jeddah, but also Sawakin and Habesh, and he kept custom-house officers at Sawakin and Massawa. When Muhammad Ali successfully fought the Ottoman–Saudi War , he received the administration of Habesh in 1813. His son Ahmad Tushun Pasha was appointed wali by a firman , thus also gaining control over the ports of Sawakin and Massawa. Muhammad Ali's control of Habesh

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1364-416: The Portuguese had built fortresses and taken control of the Red Sea ports first (especially Dahlak ), they would have controlled the whole region, both directly and through their allies. Despite the possible economic gain from taxing Habesh proper, the Ottomans were more concerned with overcoming and outmaneuvering the Portuguese in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean. Part of the reasoning behind Ottoman expansion

1426-525: The Total Fertility Rate (TFR), defined as the children per woman was 4.5. The General Fertility Rate (GFR), defined as the births per 1,000 women between the ages of 15 and 45 remained at 156.0. The Crude Birth Rate (CBR), the number of births per 1,000 population, was 33.0. The percentage of women pregnant as of 2002 out of the total population was 8.9 per cent. The mean number of children ever born stood at 5.8. The Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), defined as

1488-528: The allied territory of Ethiopia in the fight against the Ottomans . King Manuel I first gave orders for the construction of a fortress that was never built. However, during Portuguese presence, it was lifted as well as the existing cisterns and wells for the Portuguese Navy watery. It was drawn by D. João de Castro in 1541 in his "Roteiro do Mar Roxo" in their route to attack El Tor and Suez . The captain of

1550-511: The capital of Habesh Eyalet . Under Özdemir Pasha , Ottoman troops then attempted to conquer the rest of Eritrea. Due to resistance as well as sudden and unexpected demands for more, the Ottomans did not conquer the rest of Eritrea. The Ottoman authorities then tried to place the city and its immediate hinterlands under the control of one of the aristocrats of the Bellou people, whom they wanted to appoint " Naib of Massawa" and almost made answerable to

1612-529: The capital of the region, before Governor Ferdinando Martini moved his administration to Asmara. Ras Alula 's attack on nearby Dogali helped precipitate the First Italo-Ethiopian War ; the Italians' disastrous defeat at Adwa ended their hopes of expanding further into the Ethiopian highlands for a decade and brought Menelik II 's newly formed Ethiopian Empire international recognition. The Italian colony suffered repeated earthquakes. Most of

1674-628: The city fell during the East African Campaign , a large number of Italian and German ships were sunk in an attempt to block use of Massawa's harbour . From 15 April 1942, later master diver and salvage specialist RNR Lieutenant Peter Keeble (then a complete rookie in both disciplines) was assigned to the clearing of the harbour. He succeeded only in the simple task of salvaging an ex-Italian tugboat. The same month, United States Navy Commander Edward Ellsberg and his handful of crew arrived to take over. The wrecks were salvaged in short order and

1736-535: The city was completely destroyed by the 1921 earthquake ; it took until 1928 to fully restore the port, hampering initially the Italian colonial ambitions. Massawa became the largest and safest port on the east coast of Africa, and the largest deep-water port on the Red Sea. Between 1887 and 1932, they expanded the Eritrean Railway , connecting Massawa with Asmara and then Bishia near the Sudan border, and completed

1798-467: The coast (specifically the Dahlak Archipelago ) was also rich with pearls , and the amount of merchandise and trade consisting of "gold, musk, and ivory" present at Berbera, on the Somali coast, was described by Selman as "limitless". Despite the promises of Selman Reis , Habesh did not provide much revenue for the Ottomans, partly because the spice trade was not very profitable, but more importantly because

1860-600: The coast", he also informed Frederick Bruce that he was determined to seize the port because it was being used by the Turks as "a deposit for kidnapped Christian children" who were being exported as slaves . Both Bruce and Plowden were sympathetic to the Emperor, but the Foreign Office , who considered the Ottomans to be a useful British ally, refused to support the proposed Ethiopian annexation. In May 1865, Massawa, and later much of

1922-502: The defeat at the Battle of Gura . After the Egyptian-Ethiopian War , Emperor Yohannes IV reportedly demanded that the Egyptians should cede both Zula and Arkiko and pay Ethiopia two million pounds in reparations or, failing this sum, grant him the port of Massawa. The Egyptians refused these demands and Yohannes ordered Ras Alula with 30,000 men to advanced on the port. The population was said to have been "much alarmed" at

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1984-412: The elections are presided by representatives from PDFJ. Policy decisions should be centered around the party mandate and opposition and dissenters have been imprisoned. 16°00′N 39°00′E  /  16.000°N 39.000°E  / 16.000; 39.000 Habesh Eyalet Habesh Eyalet ( Arabic : إيالة الحبشة ; Ottoman Turkish : ایالت حبش , romanized :  Eyālet-i Ḥabeş )

2046-654: The federation and forcibly incorporated Eritrea. This led to the Eritrean War of Independence (1961–1991). Massawa was fought over by both sides during the struggle for Eritrean independence. In February 1990, Massawa was captured by the Eritrean People's Liberation Front in a surprise attack from both land and sea during the Second Battle of Massawa . The battle, also known as Operation Fenkil, utilized both infiltrated commandos and speed boats. The success of this attack cut

2108-468: The harbor in 1932 reported that the port had to be reconditioned as it was "absolutely lacking in wharves and facilities for the rapid landing and discharge of cargoes." As a result, the quays were widened, the breakwater lengthened to enable the simultaneous discharge of five steamers and the harbour was equipped with two large cranes. During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War , Massawa served as

2170-519: The major supply line to the Second Ethiopian Army in Asmara , which then had to be supplied by air. In response, the then leader of Ethiopia Mengistu Haile Mariam ordered Massawa bombed from the air, resulting in considerable damage. With Eritrea's de facto independence (complete military liberation) in 1991, Ethiopia reverted to being landlocked and its Navy was dismantled (partially taken over by

2232-476: The mid-15th century Emperor Zara Yaqob consolidated his rule in the region and incorporated Massawa into the Christian province of Mereb Melash . During this time the port was frequented by Armenian and Venetian merchants. In the struggle for domination of the Red Sea the Portuguese succeeded in establishing a foothold in Massawa (Maçua) and Arkiko in 1513 by Diogo Lopes de Albergaria, a port by which they entered

2294-590: The nascent national navy of Eritrea). During the Eritrean–Ethiopian War the port was inactive, primarily due to the closing of the Eritrean-Ethiopian border which cut off Massawa from its traditional hinterlands. A large grain vessel donated by the United States, containing 15,000 tonnes of relief food, which docked at the port late in 2001, was the first significant shipment handled by the port since

2356-472: The number of deaths of children for every 1,000 born was 77.0 while the Child Mortality Rate (CMR), defined as the number of child deaths for every 1,000 children 5 years of age was 83.0. The under-5 mortality rate stood at 154.0. The number of children with the prevalence of Acute Respiratory Infection (ARI) was 778, fever was 778, and Diarrhea was 778. The number of women with the knowledge of AIDS

2418-486: The pashalik of Jeddah as having been "reduced to perfect insignificance" by the power of the Sharif of Mecca , and the title was bestowed upon individuals who had never attempted to take possession of their governorship. Even before the takeover by Wahhabi rebels of most of Hejaz in 1803, the appointment to the governorship of Jeddah was said to be little esteemed, and considered tantamount to exile. Burckhardt also noted that

2480-452: The port in favour of nearby Zula . However, the Egyptian governor, Werner Munzinger , was determined to improve the conditions of the port and began a programme of reconstruction. Work began in March 1872 when a new government building and customs house was constructed, and by June a school and a hospital was also established by the Egyptians. Egyptian control of Massawa was threatened following

2542-524: The port of Massawa suffered damage as the occupying British either dismantled or destroyed much of the facilities. These actions were protested by Sylvia Pankhurst in her book Eritrea on the Eve . From 1952 to 1990, when Eritrea had entered into a federation with Ethiopia, previously landlocked Ethiopia briefly enjoyed the use of Massawa as the headquarters of the Ethiopian Navy . Ultimately, Ethiopia terminated

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2604-510: The port was returned to service, as part of what had now become the British protectorate of Eritrea. The port's floating drydocks were of significant importance in maintaining and repairing Royal Navy ships and British civilian transports from the Mediterranean, which would otherwise have to travel to South Africa to reach suitable shipyards and docks. In 1945, following the end of World War II ,

2666-413: The province of Habesh was formed in 1557. Massawa being of secondary economical importance, the administrative capital was soon moved across the Red Sea to Jeddah (from the end of the 16th century until the early 19th century; Medina temporarily served as the capital in the 18th century). The Ottoman Turks made multiple advances further inland conquering Eritrea . A sanjak of Ibrim was established in

2728-447: The province" or information on any agricultural taxation. When the Ottomans became dominant in the Hejaz in 1517, Jeddah had been established as a sanjak under the authority of Beylerbeylik of Egypt . As Jeddah developed into an important centre of trade, the Ottomans turned Jeddah into a beylerbeylik itself. In the 18th century, it was attached to the eyalet of Habeş, and governors of

2790-503: The rank of vizier started to be appointed here. In 1701, Suakin and the other Ottoman possessions on the African coast were put under the authority of the governor in Jeddah. After its combination with Jeddah, the eyalet gained importance. Owing to the great distance from the capital, the Ottomans had little control over the Pasha of Jeddah, and their authority over the region was mostly nominal. In 1829, John Lewis Burckhardt described

2852-405: The region has coastal plains, which are hotter than the regions around the highland plateau. There are two rainy seasons, the heavier one during summer and the lighter one during spring. The climate and geography of the region along with other regions of Eritrea is similar to the one of Ethiopia . The hottest month is May recording temperatures up to 30 °C (86 °F), while the coldest month

2914-538: The region: it had ports and coastline on both the Red Sea (and near the Bab-el-Mandeb , where Ottoman blockades could be performed if necessary) and on the Indian Ocean (specifically Zeila and the Somali coast). The Ottoman navy was still relatively weak and in its infancy, so Ottoman land forces would have to capture key areas to ensure that the weak navy would have some influence and strengthen. Selman also recognized

2976-403: The rich hinterlands were unconquered, with the Ottomans holding only the dry and hot coasts. Given that Yemen often cost more in upkeep than it sent to Constantinople as taxes, and that Habesh had much less in the way of agricultural taxes (but just as high a salary for the beylerbeyi ), the province was probably very unprofitable. Habesh, along with other 16th century conquests, was not under

3038-404: The same vein, other Muslim states in the region saw the Ottomans as their defenders as Muslim brothers: The Shah of Hormuz, Sharafaldin , wrote a letter to Sultan Süleyman to provide him with military help in order to expel the Portuguese from Hormuz. The ruler of Gujerat [Gujarat] also sought Ottoman military help. Finally, there was a pre-emptive element to the Ottoman invasion of Ethiopia. If

3100-680: The timar system as were lands conquered in Europe and Anatolia. Rather, it was a salyaneli province, in which taxes "were collected directly for the centre and were transferred to the central treasury after the local expenses were deducted". Due to the aridity of the province, little in the way of taxes on agriculture were collected; the most important source of revenue was the customs duty collected through iltizam (tax farming) on goods flowing through Massawa, Beylul , and Suakin in Sudan. Individuals would be allowed to collect duties, but in return would have to send

3162-500: The time of independence since 30 May 1991, the country has been continuing with a transitional government elected during the elections in April 1993. The scheduled elections in 2001 has been postponed indefinitely. The regional and local elections are conducted on a periodic basis on a restricted framework. All men and women of any ethnic or religious background are eligible to vote. No parties or groups other than PFDJ are allowed to contest and

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3224-697: The war began. Massawa is home to a naval base and large dhow docks . It also has a station on the railway line to Asmara. Ferries sail to the Dahlak Islands and the nearby Sheikh Saeed Island. In addition, the city's air transportation needs are served by the Massawa International Airport . Buildings in the city include the shrine of Sahaba , as well as the 15th century Sheikh Hanafi Mosque and various houses of coral . Many buildings, for example some unfinished Ottoman buildings , survive. The local bazaar as well. Later buildings include

3286-525: The year 740 to the 14th century. At this time, the Sheikh Hanafi Mosque, one of Eritrea 's oldest mosques, was built on Massawa Island. Massawa was situated between the Kingdom of Qita'a , the Kingdom of Belgin , and the Sultanate of Dahlak . In the early 15th century, the town then fell under the control of the Ethiopian Empire , Massawa was first mentioned in the war songs of Emperor Yeshaq I . In

3348-421: Was 1,148 and the number of people with no knowledge of the disease or its prevention was 0.0 per cent. As of 2002, the number of males completing or attending highest level of schooling in the region was 1,893 while it was 2,216 females. The percentage of literate males was 48.10 and the percentage of literate females was 28.00. A fraction of 52.70 males had no education, while the corresponding number for females

3410-562: Was 11.80 per cent. The total area of the province was 27800.00 km and the density was 23.50 persons per km . The Northern Red Sea Region borders the Anseba , Maekel (Central) and Debub (Southern) regions to the west, and the Southern Red Sea Region to the east. It has an area of around 27,800 km . The lowest point in Eritrea, Lake Kulul , is in this region. The topography of

3472-404: Was 12.90 per cent, Unskilled Manual was 2.00 per cent, Domestic Service was 33.40 per cent and Agriculture was 18.40 per cent. The total number of employed men was 1,327 and the total number of employed women was 1,458. The number of men who were paid their total earnings in cash was 67.70 per cent, in kind was 6.10 and in both was 15.90. The number of women who were paid their total earnings in cash

3534-402: Was 69.20. The fraction of males completing secondary school stood at 1.40 and the fraction of males completing more than secondary was 001. The corresponding numbers for females was 1.10 and 000 respectively. As of 2002, the number of people engaged in Professional/technical/managerial activities was 7.80 per cent, Clerical was 4.80 per cent, Sales and services was 20.70 per cent, Skilled Manual

3596-484: Was 84.40 per cent, in kind was 4.50 per cent and in both was 1.30 per cent. The region also includes the following districts : Afabet District , Dahlak District , Ghelalo District , Foro District , Ghinda District , Karura District , Massawa District , Nakfa District and She'eb District . Eritrea has a one party national Assembly governed by People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ) (originally Eritrean Liberation Front ), an authoritarian government. From

3658-412: Was an Ottoman eyalet . It was also known as the Eyalet of Jeddah and Habesh , as Jeddah was its chief town, and Habesh and Hejaz . It extended on the areas of coastal Hejaz and Northeast Africa of Eritrea that border the Red Sea basin. On the Northeast Africa littoral, the eyalet comprised Suakin and their hinterlands. Like Ottoman control in North Africa, Yemen , Bahrain , and Lahsa ,

3720-405: Was only temporary; after the Wahhabi emergence came to an end, it reverted to Ottoman rule in 1827. Massawa and Sawakin were given to him again in 1846, until his death in 1849. In 1866, however, Habesh was taken away from Jeddah and formally incorporated into the Egyptian vice-kingdom as a separate entity. Thus Habesh ceased to exist in its traditional form and starting from 1869 was replaced by

3782-446: Was originally a small seaside village, lying in lands coextensive with the Kingdom of Aksum and overshadowed by the nearby port of Adulis about 50 kilometres (31 mi) to the south. Massawa was known to Arab geographers from an early period. Ya'qubi referred to the Red Sea port in his Kitab al-Buldan as Badi , a corruption of its local Tigre name Base , while al-Masudi spoke of it in 935 as Nase . The city reputedly has

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3844-403: Was to aid fellow Muslim states in the new role it had taken on, but economic issues were pertinent as well. Though weapons were usually given unilaterally, the Muslim states could provide another source of revenue through the selling of firearms, as those were greatly in demand there. More important, however, was the Red Sea trade, despite its relatively small revenue. The Ottomans even constructed

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