140-625: The Second Anglo-Dutch War , or Second Dutch War , began on 4 March 1665, and concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Breda on 31 July 1667. One in a series of naval conflicts between England and the Dutch Republic , its causes were a combination of political differences and commercial disputes. Despite several major battles, neither the English Royal Navy nor the Dutch States Navy
280-579: A Dutch agreement to bear the costs of the war. In December 1665, Louis withdrew his ambassadors from London, signalling his intention to declare war. Downing now contacted the Orangist party in Overijssel, which had suffered severely from von Galen's invasion, asking that they demand the States General make peace with England. De Witt's position was too strong for this to succeed, and on 11 December he declared
420-751: A French squadron under Joseph-Antoine de La Barre in January 1667 allowed the French to occupy the English half of St Kitts and Montserrat , leaving only Nevis of the Leeward Islands in English hands, together with Jamaica and Barbados to the west. A Dutch force under Admiral Abraham Crijnssen , organised by the province of Zeeland, not the States General, arrived at Cayenne in February 1667 and captured Suriname from
560-612: A decade between Irish immigrants and Black people for work. Rioters burned the Colored Orphan Asylum to the ground. At least 120 people were killed. Eleven Black men were lynched over five days, and the riots forced hundreds of Blacks to flee. The Black population in Manhattan fell below 10,000 by 1865. The White working class had established dominance. It was one of the worst incidents of civil unrest in American history . In 1886,
700-513: A diplomatic triumph; the period immediately following is often considered the high point of the Dutch Golden Age . New York City New York , often called New York City or NYC , is the most populous city in the United States , located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors . The city comprises five boroughs , each coextensive with
840-561: A free hand in the Spanish Netherlands. This put De Witt under pressure to reach agreement, which increased after France and Portugal agreed an anti-Spanish alliance in March. The role of mediator in peace talks provided prestige and the opportunity to build relationships; since Louis and Leopold both wanted the position, they compromised by using Swedish diplomats. Key players in the vital Baltic trade in grain, iron and shipping supplies,
980-598: A generation. A Dutch attack on the English anchorage at Harwich had to be abandoned however after the battle of Landguard Fort ended in Dutch failure. The Dutch success made a major psychological impact throughout England, with London feeling especially vulnerable just a year after the Great Fire of London . However, for a second time, the Dutch had been unable to land substantial land forces in Britain, or even do substantial damage to
1120-493: A major part of the United States, and instead retain a tropical colony, would seem strange by present-day standards. However, in the 17th century tropical colonies producing agricultural products which could not be grown in Europe were deemed more valuable than ones with a climate similar to that of Europe where Europeans could settle in comfort. The peace was generally seen as a personal triumph for Johan de Witt and an embarrassment to
1260-455: A matter of urgency. Backed by assurances from Louis that he would force the Dutch to agree concessions, the English increased their demands and Van Beverningh told De Witt a major military victory was needed to improve their bargaining position. An opportunity was provided by Charles, who decommissioned most of the Royal Navy in late 1666 as a cost-saving measure. The Dutch took full advantage in
1400-518: A respective county . The city is the geographical and demographic center of both the Northeast megalopolis and the New York metropolitan area , the largest metropolitan area in the U.S. by both population and urban area . New York is a global center of finance and commerce , culture , technology , entertainment and media , academics and scientific output , the arts and fashion , and, as home to
1540-524: A result of Sandy, and the economic losses in New York City were estimated to be roughly $ 19 billion. The disaster spawned long-term efforts towards infrastructural projects to counter climate change and rising seas, with $ 15 billion in federal funding received through 2022 towards those resiliency efforts. In March 2020, the first case of COVID-19 in the city was confirmed. With its population density and its extensive exposure to global travelers,
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#17328475912721680-541: A signalling system allowing commanders to control their fleets, something the Dutch then lacked. Over the course of the war, the formation was employed by both, although it better suited the heavier ships used by the Royal Navy, and its emphasis on gunnery to sink opponents. The Dutch preferred the use of boarding , with individual ships fighting one another. Difficulties in communicating orders meant during combat many captains focused on avoiding collisions rather than engaging
1820-516: A significant numerical advantage. However, most of the French ships were based in the Mediterranean Sea , and despite leaving Toulon in April, delays meant they failed to arrive in time. One contemporary diplomat suggested the relatively new and inexperienced French navy did so deliberately, being "dismayed by the difficulties of the enterprise" Nevertheless, the threat of French intervention forced
1960-476: A speech denying the request, which was paraphrased on the front page of the New York Daily News as "FORD TO CITY: DROP DEAD." The Municipal Assistance Corporation was formed and granted oversight authority over the city's finances. While a resurgence in the financial industry greatly improved the city's economic health in the 1980s, New York's crime rate continued to increase through that decade and into
2100-412: A strong Dutch army for lack of money and for fear that it would strengthen the position of the young William III . That same year de Witt was assassinated, and William became stadtholder. Treaty of Breda (1667) The Peace of Breda , or Treaty of Breda was signed in the Dutch city of Breda , on 31 July 1667. It consisted of three separate treaties between England and each of its opponents in
2240-571: A strong link between the RAC and government policy. Huge profits from Asian spices led to conflict even in times of peace, as the Dutch East India Company , or VOC, first created, then enforced, their monopoly over production and trade. By 1663, indigenous and European competitors like the Portuguese had been eliminated, leaving only nutmeg plantations on Run . These had been established by
2380-550: A third option not considered by Clarendon: a secret alliance with France. In April, Charles concluded his first secret treaty with Louis, stipulating that England would not enter into alliances that might oppose a French conquest of the Spanish Netherlands . In May, the French invaded, starting the War of Devolution . Charles hoped, by means of stalling the talks at Breda, to gain enough time to ready his fleet to obtain concessions from
2520-405: Is often credited with forcing France to return most of their gains at Aix-la-Chapelle , whereas the terms had already been agreed by Louis and Leopold in January 1668. In the longer term, Breda was the point when the English and Dutch came to view France as a greater threat than each other; whilst Charles' preference for a French alliance led to the 1670 Secret Treaty of Dover , the long-term trend
2660-405: Is one of the world's most populous megacities . The city and its metropolitan area are the premier gateway for legal immigration to the United States . As many as 800 languages are spoken in New York City, making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world. In 2021, the city was home to nearly 3.1 million residents born outside the U.S., the largest foreign-born population of any city in
2800-591: The American South . During construction in Foley Square in the 1990s, the African Burying Ground was discovered; the cemetery included 10,000 to 20,000 graves of colonial-era Africans, some enslaved and some free. The 1735 trial and acquittal in Manhattan of John Peter Zenger , who had been accused of seditious libel after criticizing colonial governor William Cosby , helped to establish freedom of
2940-837: The Atlantic port to the agricultural markets and commodities of the North American interior via the Hudson River and the Great Lakes . Local politics became dominated by Tammany Hall , a political machine supported by Irish and German immigrants . In 1831, New York University was founded. Several prominent American literary figures lived in New York during the 1830s and 1840s, including William Cullen Bryant , Washington Irving , Herman Melville , Rufus Wilmot Griswold , John Keese , Nathaniel Parker Willis , and Edgar Allan Poe . Members of
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#17328475912723080-664: The Bill of Rights there. The Supreme Court held its first organizational sessions in New York in 1790. In 1790, for the first time, New York City surpassed Philadelphia as the nation's largest city. At the end of 1790, the national capital was moved to Philadelphia . During the 19th century, New York City's population grew from 60,000 to 3.43 million. Under New York State's gradual emancipation act of 1799, children of slave mothers were to be eventually liberated but to be held in indentured servitude until their mid-to-late twenties. Together with slaves freed by their masters after
3220-645: The Caribbean . The attempt at a peaceful solution to the war took place at the Conference House on Staten Island between American delegates, including Benjamin Franklin , and British general Lord Howe on September 11, 1776. Shortly after the British occupation began, the Great Fire of New York destroyed nearly 500 buildings, about a quarter of the structures in the city, including Trinity Church . In January 1785,
3360-506: The Dutch navy was re-organised around sixty-four newly built and larger Ships of the line , each with between 40 and 60 guns. However, they remained inferior to English vessels such as HMS Sovereign of the Seas , which carried over 100 guns. In 1664, it was decided to create a new core of even heavier ships, which were mostly still under construction when fighting began in 1665. Stronger finances allowed
3500-549: The Four Days' Battle , a Dutch marine contingent had been ready to land in Kent or Essex following a possible Dutch victory at sea. The Dutch fleet was, however, unable to force a safe passage into the Thames as navigational buoys had been removed and a strong English squadron was ready to dispute their passage. But now there was no English fleet able to contest a similar attack. De Witt conceived
3640-693: The Hudson River , which he named Río de San Antonio ('Saint Anthony's River'). In 1609, the English explorer Henry Hudson rediscovered New York Harbor while searching for the Northwest Passage to the Orient for the Dutch East India Company . He sailed up what the Dutch called North River (now the Hudson River), named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange . Hudson claimed
3780-637: The Lower Hudson Valley . The first documented visit into New York Harbor by a European was in 1524 by explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano . He claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême (New Angoulême ). A Spanish expedition, led by the Portuguese captain Estêvão Gomes sailing for Emperor Charles V , arrived in New York Harbor in January 1525 and charted the mouth of
3920-567: The Navigation Acts ; goods transported along the Rhine or Scheldt to Amsterdam could be carried by Dutch ships to England without being subject to tariffs. England also accepted the principle of "free ships make free goods", which prevented the Royal Navy from intercepting Dutch ships during wars in which the Dutch were neutral. These terms were preliminary, with a definitive text signed on 17 February 1668. The Danish and French treaties followed
4060-699: The New York City Fire Department and 71 law enforcement officers. The area was rebuilt with a new World Trade Center , the National September 11 Memorial and Museum , and other new buildings and infrastructure, including the World Trade Center Transportation Hub , the city's third-largest hub. The new One World Trade Center is the tallest skyscraper in the Western Hemisphere and the seventh-tallest building in
4200-585: The Orangist opposition. They were supported by Louis, who viewed the Orangists as English agents. Angered by the delay, the States of Zeeland , Gelderland , Groningen , Overijssel and Friesland threatened to stop paying for a war 'continued only by Holland's obstinacy.' The parties eventually settled on Breda, but French military preparations led the Orangists to accuse De Witt of deliberately stalling to allow Louis
4340-731: The Royal African Company , or RAC, whose purpose was to challenge Dutch dominance of the Atlantic slave trade . Investors included senior politicians such as George Carteret , Shaftesbury and Arlington , creating a strong link between the RAC and government policy. The Atlantic trade was a three way process, whereby slaves from West Africa were transported to Sugar plantations in the Caribbean , which in turn were supplied by colonies in North America . These links meant conflict in one region often led to fighting in all three. In August 1664,
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4480-580: The Second Anglo-Dutch War : the Dutch Republic , France , and Denmark–Norway . It also included a separate Anglo-Dutch commercial agreement. Negotiations had been in progress since late 1666 but were slow, as both sides tried to improve their positions. This changed after the French invasion of the Spanish Netherlands in late May, which the Dutch viewed as a more serious threat. War-weariness in England
4620-523: The Spanish Netherlands . The 1648 Peace of Münster permanently closed the Scheldt estuary and the port of Antwerp , which did not recover economically until the 19th century. The combination gave Amsterdam effective control of trade in North-West Europe. Louis considered the Spanish Netherlands his by right of marriage to Maria Theresa of Spain but hoped to acquire them peacefully. Negotiations with
4760-503: The Statue of Liberty , a gift from France , was dedicated in New York Harbor. The statue welcomed 14 million immigrants as they came to the U.S. via Ellis Island by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and is a symbol of the United States and American ideals of liberty and peace. In 1898, the City of New York was formed with the consolidation of Brooklyn (until then a separate city),
4900-683: The Stonewall riots were a series of violent protests by members of the gay community against a police raid that took place in the early morning of June 28, 1969, at the Stonewall Inn in Greenwich Village . They are widely considered to be the single most important event leading to the gay liberation movement and the modern fight for LGBT rights . Wayne R. Dynes , author of the Encyclopedia of Homosexuality , wrote that drag queens were
5040-554: The Vlie estuary were destroyed in an action known as Holmes's Bonfire . Over a period of eighteen months from 1665 to 1666, the Great Plague of London killed more than a quarter of its population. In September 1666, the Fire of London destroyed much of the city, causing huge economic damage, and public opinion now turned against the war. Charles could no longer rely on London merchants to supply
5180-575: The headquarters of the United Nations , international diplomacy . With an estimated population in 2023 of 8,258,035 distributed over 300.46 square miles (778.2 km ), the city is the most densely populated major city in the United States. New York City has more than double the population of Los Angeles , the nation's second-most populous city. With more than 20.1 million people in its metropolitan statistical area and 23.5 million in its combined statistical area as of 2020, New York City
5320-586: The steamship General Slocum caught fire in the East River , killing 1,021 people. In 1911, the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire , the city's worst industrial disaster, killed 146 garment workers and spurred the growth of the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union and major improvements in factory safety standards. New York's non-White population was 36,620 in 1890. New York City
5460-502: The "most advanced, complex, expensive and manpower-intensive weapons systems of their day". With the fleets involved increasing to over 100 ships per side, maximising firepower required greater levels of organisation, discipline and co-ordination. One solution to these problems was the Line of battle formation. In 1664, the Royal Navy issued new "Fighting Instructions", formalising the "line of battle" as standard practice. They also established
5600-483: The 1660 Stuart Restoration as an opportunity to rebuild relationships. He hoped to negotiate overlapping defensive agreements with England and France to ensure peace, and continued Dutch economic dominance. However, the English saw little benefit in preserving this system, and wanted concessions the Dutch were not prepared to grant. When merchants in the City of London demanded increased Protectionism , Charles II renewed
5740-520: The 1662 treaty, calculating this would make it harder for the Dutch to oppose his occupation of the Spanish Netherlands. He also paid Sweden to remain neutral, while influencing Denmark–Norway to join the war. Danish assistance saved the Dutch merchant fleet at the Battle of Vågen in August, although this turned out to have been the result of miscommunication. Frederick III of Denmark had secretly agreed to help
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5880-525: The 19th century, the city was transformed by both commercial and residential development relating to its status as a national and international trading center , as well as by European immigration, respectively. The city adopted the Commissioners' Plan of 1811 , which expanded the city street grid to encompass almost all of Manhattan. The 1825 completion of the Erie Canal through central New York connected
6020-411: The Anglo-Dutch version in waiving claims for restitution of losses. In addition, England returned the French possessions of Cayenne and Acadia , captured in 1667 and 1654 respectively, but the exact boundaries were not specified, and the handover was delayed until 1670. England regained Montserrat and Antigua , and the Anglo-French division of the Caribbean island of Saint Kitts was restored. After
6160-411: The Baltic grain trade . In October 1666, Charles opened discussions with the States-General of the Netherlands , under the pretext of arrangements to return the body of Vice-Admiral William Berkeley , killed in the Four Days' Battle . He invited the Dutch to negotiations in London and withdrew previous demands for the appointment of his nephew William of Orange as stadtholder , payment of damages,
6300-544: The British East India Company in 1616, before being evicted by the VOC in 1620; when the English re-occupied Run in late 1664, the Dutch expelled them again, this time destroying the plantations. There was a similar struggle over the Atlantic trade between the Dutch West-Indische Compagnie , or WIC, and competitors from Spain, Denmark, Sweden, Portugal and England. Sugar plantations in the Americas were cultivated by slaves from Africa, fed by colonies in North America, leading to conflict in all three regions. In August 1664,
6440-423: The Caribbean and allowed the early recapture of Antigua and Montserrat and an unsuccessful attack on St Kitts soon after. In April, a new English squadron of nine warships and two fireships under the command of Rear-Admiral Sir John Harman sailed for the West Indies, reaching them in early June. Harman encountered the French with seven larger and 14 smaller warships and three fireships under la Barre anchored under
6580-452: The Caribbean. In late 1665 an English force, mainly consisting of buccaneers under the command of Lieutenant-colonel Edward Morgan , the Deputy Governor of Jamaica , assisted by his nephew Thomas Morgan, quickly captured the Dutch islands of Sint Eustatius and Saba . After his uncle's death in December 1665, Thomas Morgan was appointed as governor of these two islands. Also in late 1665, an English force from Jamaica and Barbados captured
6720-410: The Chatham dockyard. The raid did, together with the English financial crisis, speed up negotiations. All this, together with the cost of the war, of the Great Plague and the extravagant spending of Charles's court, produced a rebellious atmosphere in London. Clarendon ordered the English envoys at Breda to sign a peace quickly, as Charles feared an open revolt. In early 1665 Michiel de Ruyter raided
6860-410: The Continental Army at the Battle of Fort Washington in November 1776 eliminated the last American stronghold in Manhattan, causing George Washington and his forces to retreat across the Hudson River to New Jersey , pursued by British forces. After the battle, in which the Americans were defeated, the British made the city their military and political base of operations in North America. The city
7000-399: The County of New York (which then included parts of the Bronx), the County of Richmond, and the western portion of the County of Queens. The opening of the New York City Subway in 1904, first built as separate private systems, helped bind the new city together. Throughout the first half of the 20th century, the city became a world center for industry, commerce, and communication. In 1904,
7140-409: The Duke of York (the future King James II and VII). The duke gave part of the colony to proprietors George Carteret and John Berkeley . On August 24, 1673, during the Third Anglo-Dutch War , Anthony Colve of the Dutch navy seized New York at the behest of Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest and rechristened it "New Orange" after William III , the Prince of Orange . The Dutch soon returned
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#17328475912727280-419: The Dutch 'Free Ship, Free Goods' principle. On the same date and also at Breda, a public treaty was concluded between England and France that stipulated the return to England of the former English part of St Christopher and the islands of Antigua and Montserrat , all of which the French had occupied in the war, and that England should surrender its claim to Acadia to France, although the extent of Acadia
7420-438: The Dutch West India Company had operated as a monopoly in New Netherland, on authority granted by the Dutch States General . In 1639–1640, in an effort to bolster economic growth, the Dutch West India Company relinquished its monopoly over the fur trade, leading to growth in the production and trade of food, timber, tobacco, and slaves (particularly with the Dutch West Indies ). In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant began his tenure as
7560-407: The Dutch complied with English demands, in exchange for a free hand in the Spanish Netherlands; by April 1667, diplomats in The Hague were predicting a deal was imminent. When talks eventually began, the English delegation felt their position was extremely strong. Grand Pensionary Johan de Witt and the States of Holland rejected English proposals to negotiate in The Hague , a town dominated by
7700-420: The Dutch continually broke down over his desire to re-open Antwerp as an export route for French goods. By 1663, he concluded they would never make concessions voluntarily and began planning a military intervention. In early 1665, England signed an alliance with Sweden against the Dutch, who suffered a serious defeat at Lowestoft in June, followed by an invasion from Münster . Louis responded by activating
7840-436: The Dutch into declaring war would give Louis XIV the chance to remain neutral. Following English attacks on convoys off Cadiz and in the English Channel , the Dutch declared war on 4 March 1665. Some historians argue that just as the tactics used by 17th century armies were transformed by the Military Revolution , the Anglo-Dutch Wars marked a similar change in naval practice. The ships on either side have been described as
7980-537: The Dutch kept control over Pulau Run, Fort Cormantin and the valuable sugar plantations of Suriname , while also regaining Tobago, St Eustatius, and its West African trading posts. This uti possidetis solution was later confirmed in the Treaty of Westminster . The Act of Navigation was modified in favour of the Dutch by England agreeing to treat Germany as part of the Netherlands' commercial hinterland, so that Dutch ships would now be allowed to carry German goods to English ports. The English were also forced to accept
8120-419: The Dutch possession of Tobago . The French declaration of war on the side of the Dutch altered the balance of power in the Caribbean and facilitated a Dutch counterattack. The first successes of the new allies were the French recapture of Tobago in August 1666, a joint Franco-Dutch recapture of Sint Eustatius in November 1666 and a French capture of the English island of Antigua in the same month. The arrival of
8260-637: The Dutch to complete these plus another twenty during the war, compared to only a dozen built by England. Although the Royal Navy was superior in ships and leadership at the beginning of the war, these advantages were gradually eroded by Parliament's reluctance to fund it. Downing, and other observers who argued the Dutch could not afford a war, overlooked recent reforms that improved their credit, and made it relatively easy to raise money. In contrast, English expectations that profits from Dutch ships captured by privateers would cover costs proved unfounded. In December 1664, Parliament approved £2.5 million in taxes for
8400-439: The Dutch undertook not to interfere with French actions in the Spanish Netherlands , but by 1664, many were concerned by the prospect of having an expansionist France as a neighbour, rather than a weakened Spain . Although it provided another reason to agree terms with England, negotiations made little progress. This was partially due to the complexity of the Dutch political system, which made it difficult to reach consensus between
8540-418: The Dutch, using the French advance as leverage. De Witt was aware of Charles's general intentions – though not of the secret treaty. He decided to attempt to end the war with a single stroke. Ever since its actions in Denmark in 1659, involving many landings to liberate the Danish Isles, the Dutch navy had made a special study of amphibious operations; the Dutch Marine Corps was established in 1665. After
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#17328475912728680-434: The English capture the fleet in return for a share of the profits, but his instructions arrived too late. By late 1666, Charles was short of money, largely due to his refusal to recall Parliament, while English trade had been badly affected by the war and domestic disasters. In contrast, the Dutch economy had largely recovered from its post-1665 contraction, while public debt was lower in 1667 than 1652; however, naval warfare
8820-521: The English first occupied New Netherland , renamed New York City , then took WIC slaving posts in modern Guinea . When these were recaptured by a Dutch fleet under Michiel de Ruyter in early 1665, the RAC was forced into bankruptcy , and its influential investors saw war as the best way to recoup their losses. In taking these actions, the Dutch were reassured by their 1662 defensive treaty with France, under which Louis XIV agreed to provide military support if they were attacked by England. In return,
8960-508: The English fleet put to sea again and confronted the Dutch in the St. James's Day Battle of 4 and 5 August. Generally considered an English victory, it ultimately had little strategic value. Although the Dutch suffered heavy casualties and many ships were badly damaged, their fleet remained intact, while lack of money meant the English could scarcely afford to pay their sailors or purchase supplies. A more significant economic loss occurred on 19 August, when up to 150 Dutch merchantmen sheltering in
9100-559: The English fleet to battle, although his ships were inferior in organisation, training, discipline and firepower. At the Battle of Lowestoft on 13 June 1665, the Dutch navy suffered the worst defeat in its history, losing some sixteen ships. Most of the fleet escaped, but over 30% of its personnel were killed or captured, with van Wassenaer himself among the dead. Defeat led to an extensive overhaul of Dutch tactics and command structures, with several captains either executed for alleged cowardice, or dismissed. In July, Michiel de Ruyter became
9240-439: The English in the same month. Crijnssen delayed in Suriname until April, then sailed to Tobago, which had been vacated by the French after expelling the English garrison, where he rebuilt the fort and left a small garrison. Although Crijnssen was instructed not to delay, it was not until early May that he and de La Barre combined forces, agreeing to a Franco-Dutch invasion of Nevis , which sailed on 17 May 1667. However, their attack
9380-478: The English kept New Netherland , which was subsequently divided into the colonies of New York , New Jersey , Pennsylvania , Massachusetts , Connecticut and Delaware . Articles 4 to 8 applied the same principle to losses of goods or ships, including those that occurred before the war. No indemnities could be levied or punishments imposed, but all existing Letters of Marque were declared void. To allow time to communicate these instructions, Article 7 varied
9520-431: The English occupied New Netherland , later renamed New York; when another attack captured WIC slave trade posts in modern Ghana , the Dutch sent a fleet to recapture them. The result was to bankrupt the RAC, whose investors saw war as the best way to recoup their losses. Despite the Franco-Dutch treaty of April 1662, Louis XIV initially remained neutral, as French and Dutch economic interests increasingly diverged over
9660-485: The English to send a detachment to block the Strait of Dover , leaving 60 ships facing a Dutch fleet of around 84. In the initial stages of the Four Days' Battle , fought from 11 to 15 June, the Dutch inflicted heavy damage on their opponents, before the return of the detached squadron forced them to withdraw. The English lost ten ships compared to only four Dutch, but any hope the Royal Navy was too damaged to renew hostilities soon proved incorrect. After extensive repairs,
9800-426: The French king had also concluded the Dutch would never voluntarily make the concessions he required in the Spanish Netherlands, and began planning the 1667 War of Devolution . On the other hand, Dutch morale rose with the completion of thirty new warships, most carrying up to 72 guns, heavier than any available in early 1665. They were supposed to link up with a French naval force in the English Channel , giving them
9940-505: The June 1667 Medway Raid ; although the action itself had limited strategic impact, it was a humiliation Charles never forgot. Holles and Coventry initially assumed this would extend negotiations, but the need to create an alliance against France meant Spain threatened to withhold implementation of the Madrid treaty, supported by Leopold. Combined with economic losses caused by the war and the Great Fire of London , Clarendon instructed Holles to agree terms "to calm people's minds" and "free
10080-527: The Medway and, on the 13th, attacked the laid up English fleet. The daring raid remains one of the largest disasters in the history of the Royal Navy and its predecessors. Fifteen of the Royal Navy's remaining ships were destroyed, either by the Dutch or by being scuttled by the English to block the river. Three of the eight remaining "big ships" were burnt: Royal Oak , the new Loyal London and Royal James . The largest English flagship, HMS Royal Charles ,
10220-712: The Navigation Acts in August 1660, then strengthened them further in 1663. Parliament claimed they were simply responding to measures taken by the Dutch East India Company , or VOC, to enforce its monopolies in Asia, and by the West-Indische Compagnie , or WIC, in West Africa . For Charles, expanding the economy was another way to reduce his financial dependence on Parliament, preferably using royal monopolies or charters to do so. In 1660, he and his brother James founded
10360-405: The New York metropolitan area is the largest metropolitan economy in the world , with a gross metropolitan product of over US$ 2.16 trillion. If the New York metropolitan area were its own country , it would have the tenth-largest economy in the world . Despite having a 24/7 rapid transit system , New York also leads the world in urban automobile traffic congestion . The city is home to
10500-549: The Orangists, who seemed reluctant to support the war and eager to accept a disadvantageous early peace. The Republic was jubilant about the Dutch victory. De Witt used the occasion to induce four provinces to adopt the Perpetual Edict of 1667 abolishing the stadtholderate forever. He used the weak position of Charles II to force him into the Triple Alliance of 1668 which again forced Louis to temporarily abandon his plans for
10640-498: The Republic at Cleves in April. Anglo-Dutch negotiations had progressed far enough that de Witt invited Charles II to start formal negotiations. Talks made little progress, as both sides felt they were negotiating from a position of strength. Despite the French declaration of war, Charles knew Louis wanted to avoid being dragged into the conflict, and through informal correspondence was aware he considered Dutch demands excessive. By now,
10780-699: The Revolutionary War and escaped slaves, a significant free-Black population gradually developed in Manhattan. The New York Manumission Society worked for abolition and established the African Free School to educate Black children. It was not until 1827 that slavery was completely abolished in the state . Free Blacks struggled with discrimination and interracial abolitionist activism continued. New York City's population jumped from 123,706 in 1820 (10,886 of whom were Black and of which 518 were enslaved) to 312,710 by 1840 (16,358 of whom were Black). Also in
10920-540: The Royal Navy was taken out of service and anchored at the naval base of Chatham . This left only a small Flying Fleet operational, leaving English merchant shipping vulnerable to Dutch attack. Clarendon informed Charles he could either grant Parliament the concessions demanded, or initiate peace talks with the Dutch, which began in March at Breda . As England was by now also at war with France, Charles sent envoys to Paris for unofficial preliminary talks. The deterioration of Franco-Dutch relations meant these talks produced
11060-521: The Spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comté . To focus on this, Spain needed to end the long-running Portuguese Restoration War . On 27 May, the Anglo-Spanish Treaty of Madrid formally concluded the 1654 to 1660 war and in return for commercial concessions, England agreed to mediate with Portugal. The threat to the Dutch economy presented by French expansion made ending the Anglo-Dutch War
11200-464: The States of Holland responded on 5 August with the Perpetual Edict . This abolished the position of Stadholder of Holland, while a second resolution agreed to oppose that any confederate Captain-General or Admiral-General would become stadtholder of another province. Since the army was viewed as an Orangist power base, spending on it was deliberately minimised; this had catastrophic effects in 1672. Breda
11340-600: The Swedes hoped to remove commercial concessions imposed by the Republic in the 1656 Treaty of Elbing and end its alliance with Denmark. Göran Fleming was based at Breda, with Peter Coyet in The Hague; after Coyet died on 8 June, he was replaced by Count Dohna , who was instructed to negotiate a Swedish-English-French alliance if talks at Breda failed. The States General appointed eight delegates but only those from Holland , Zeeland and Friesland were actually present. Two of
11480-523: The Treaty of Breda had been signed, and possessions captured after 31 July had to be returned. Crijnssen sailed back to the Caribbean only to find the French fleet destroyed and the English back in possession of Suriname. On 31 July 1667, what is generally known as the Treaty of Breda concluded peace between England and the Netherlands. The treaty allowed the English to keep possession of New Netherland , while
11620-636: The assembly of the Congress of the Confederation made New York City the national capital. New York was the last capital of the U.S. under the Articles of Confederation and the first capital under the Constitution of the United States . As the U.S. capital, New York City hosted the inauguration of the first President, George Washington , and the first Congress , at Federal Hall on Wall Street . Congress drafted
11760-568: The batteries of Fort St Pierre , Martinique. He attacked on 6 July and sunk, burnt or captured all but two the French ships. With the French fleet neutralised, Harman then attacked the French at Cayenne on 15 September forcing its garrison to surrender. The English fleet then went on to recapture Fort Zeelandia in Suriname in October. News of these English victories only reached England in September, after
11900-543: The beginning of the 1990s. By the mid-1990s, crime rates started to drop dramatically due to revised police strategies, improving economic opportunities, gentrification , and new residents, both American transplants and new immigrants from Asia and Latin America. New York City's population exceeded 8 million for the first time in the 2000 United States census ; further records were set in 2010 , and 2020 U.S. censuses. Important new sectors, such as Silicon Alley , emerged in
12040-583: The business elite lobbied for the establishment of Central Park , which in 1857 became the first landscaped park in an American city. The Great Irish Famine brought a large influx of Irish immigrants, of whom more than 200,000 were living in New York by 1860, representing over a quarter of the city's population. Extensive immigration from the German provinces meant that Germans comprised another 25% of New York's population by 1860. Democratic Party candidates were consistently elected to local office, increasing
12180-605: The city from New Jersey. The East River—a tidal strait —flows from Long Island Sound and separates the Bronx and Manhattan from Long Island. The Harlem River , another tidal strait between the East and Hudson rivers, separates most of Manhattan from the Bronx. The Bronx River , which flows through the Bronx and Westchester County , is the only entirely freshwater river in the city. The city's land has been altered substantially by human intervention, with considerable land reclamation along
12320-439: The city rapidly replaced Wuhan , China as the global epicenter of the pandemic during the early phase, straining the city's healthcare infrastructure. Through March 2023, New York City recorded more than 80,000 deaths from COVID-19-related complications. New York City is situated in the northeastern United States , in southeastern New York State, approximately halfway between Washington, D.C. and Boston . Its location at
12460-613: The city's economy. The advent of Y2K was celebrated with fanfare in Times Square . New York City suffered the bulk of the economic damage and largest loss of human life in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001, attacks . Two of the four airliners hijacked that day were flown into the twin towers of the World Trade Center, resulting in the collapse of both buildings and the deaths of 2,753 people, including 343 first responders from
12600-776: The city's ties to the South and its dominant party. In 1861, Mayor Fernando Wood called on the aldermen to declare independence from Albany and the United States after the South seceded, but his proposal was not acted on. Anger at new military conscription laws during the American Civil War (1861–1865), which spared wealthier men who could afford to hire a substitute, led to the Draft Riots of 1863 , whose most visible participants were ethnic Irish working class. The draft riots deteriorated into attacks on New York's elite, followed by attacks on Black New Yorkers after fierce competition for
12740-526: The conquest of the southern Netherlands. But de Witt's success would eventually produce his downfall and nearly that of the Republic with it. Both humiliated monarchs intensified their secret cooperation through the Secret Treaty of Dover and would, joined by the bishop of Münster, attack the Dutch in 1672 in the Third Anglo-Dutch War . De Witt was unable to counter this attack, as he could not create
12880-616: The date on which they would be enforced: 5 September for the English Channel and the North Sea , 5 October for the other European seas, 2 November for the African coast north of the Equator and 24 April 1668 for the rest of the world. Article 10 required all prisoners to be exchanged without ransom although the Dutch later demanded reimbursement of their living expenses, which the English viewed as
13020-417: The development of large housing tracts in eastern Queens and Nassau County , with Wall Street leading America's place as the world's dominant economic power. The United Nations headquarters was completed in 1952, solidifying New York's global geopolitical influence, and the rise of abstract expressionism in the city precipitated New York's displacement of Paris as the center of the art world. In 1969,
13160-613: The different provinces and powerful trade groups like the VOC. It also reflected de Witt's belief Parliament would not approve funds for an expensive naval war, a view shared by many English politicians, including Charles' chief minister Lord Clarendon . For his part, Louis XIV feared an Anglo-Dutch conflict might draw in Spain or the Holy Roman Empire , and impede his efforts to acquire the Spanish Netherlands. He therefore tried to mediate between
13300-418: The early 18th century, New York grew in importance as a trading port while as a part of the colony of New York . It became a center of slavery , with 42% of households enslaving Africans by 1730. Most were domestic slaves ; others were hired out as labor. Slavery became integrally tied to New York's economy through the labor of slaves throughout the port, and the banking and shipping industries trading with
13440-498: The enemy, making battles chaotic and often indecisive. In addition, both navies consisted of significant numbers of purpose-built warships, bulked out by private merchantmen. Although many of the latter were well-armed, they were often less capable of standing up to sustained fire. Dutch merchant ships were particularly vulnerable to the larger English warships. Based on lessons learned from the First Anglo-Dutch War, post-1653
13580-552: The fighting, and thus provide an excuse for Emperor Leopold to intervene. Concerned by this, Louis sent French soldiers to prevent supplies reaching von Galen's troops. Reports Charles was negotiating an alliance with Spain meant he also stepped up attempts to mediate a settlement, but the English in general remained deeply suspicious of French intentions. Although the Dutch offered to renounce their territorial claims in North America , and cede three West African posts, success at Lowestoft prompted Charles to demand further concessions and
13720-558: The former territory of New Netherland , including the city of New Amsterdam , when the Kingdom of England seized it from Dutch control. In the pre-Columbian era , the area of present-day New York City was inhabited by Algonquians , including the Lenape . Their homeland, known as Lenapehoking , included the present-day areas of Staten Island , Manhattan , the Bronx , the western portion of Long Island (including Brooklyn and Queens ), and
13860-466: The ice (and its subsequent retreat) contributed to the separation of what is now Long Island and Staten Island. That action left bedrock at a relatively shallow depth, providing a solid foundation for most of Manhattan's skyscrapers. The Hudson River flows through the Hudson Valley into New York Bay . Between New York City and Troy, New York , the river is an estuary . The Hudson River separates
14000-608: The island to England under the Treaty of Westminster of November 1674. Several intertribal wars among the Native Americans and epidemics brought on by contact with the Europeans caused sizeable population losses for the Lenape between 1660 and 1670. By 1700, the Lenape population had diminished to 200. New York experienced several yellow fever epidemics in the 18th century, losing ten percent of its population in 1702 alone. In
14140-437: The king from a burden...he is finding hard to bear". Article 1 of the treaty stipulated a limited military alliance, obliging fleets or single ships sailing on the same course to defend each other against a third party. Article 3 established the principle of uti possidetis , or "what you have, you hold", with an effective date of 20 May. The Dutch kept Surinam , now part of modern Suriname , Fort Cormantin and Run while
14280-662: The last Director-General of New Netherland. During his tenure, the population of New Netherland grew from 2,000 to 8,000. Stuyvesant has been credited with improving law and order; however, he earned a reputation as a despotic leader. He instituted regulations on liquor sales, attempted to assert control over the Dutch Reformed Church , and blocked other religious groups from establishing houses of worship. In 1664, unable to summon any significant resistance, Stuyvesant surrendered New Amsterdam to English troops, led by Colonel Richard Nicolls , without bloodshed. The terms of
14420-476: The loans needed to fund it, and the Navy Board was forced to discharge many sailors unpaid. Parliament was recalled for the first time in a year, and approved new taxes of £1.8 million. However, their payment was subject to various conditions, and disputes over these meant delays in its collection. Lack of money made it almost impossible to plan naval operations for 1667. By early 1667, lack of funds meant much of
14560-545: The local population as a representative of the Dutch colonists. A permanent European presence near New York Harbor was established in 1624, making New York the 12th-oldest continuously occupied European-established settlement in the continental United States , with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island . In 1625, construction was started on a citadel and Fort Amsterdam , later called Nieuw Amsterdam (New Amsterdam), on present-day Manhattan Island. The colony of New Amsterdam extended from
14700-419: The most populous urbanized area in the world in the early 1920s, overtaking London . The metropolitan area surpassed 10 million in the early 1930s, becoming the first megacity . The Great Depression saw the election of reformer Fiorello La Guardia as mayor and the fall of Tammany Hall after eighty years of political dominance. Returning World War II veterans created a post-war economic boom and
14840-544: The mouth of the Hudson River , which feeds into a naturally sheltered harbor and then into the Atlantic Ocean , has helped the city grow in significance as a trading port. Most of the city is built on the three islands of Long Island, Manhattan, and Staten Island. During the Wisconsin glaciation , 75,000 to 11,000 years ago, the New York City area was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet . The erosive forward movement of
14980-525: The navy, but much of this was spent on essential repairs, or allegedly stolen by officials. To fund operations, Charles had to rely on short-term loans from the City of London, at ever increasing interest rates. By the end of 1666, lack of money led him to discharge most of the fleet, with disastrous results. Both sides planned a short war, since the English could not afford a long one, while the Dutch wanted to minimise any potential economic damage. De Witt ordered his naval commander Jacob van Wassenaer to bring
15120-479: The new commander in chief, and followed the English in formalising the line battle formation. Dutch finances also received a boost when the VOC Spice Fleet returned home safely after the battle of Vågen . This was offset when the eastern province of Overijssel was over-run by troops from Münster under Bernhard von Galen , who was backed by English subsidies. Münster's invasion threatened to involve Germany in
15260-492: The only " transgender folks around" during the June 1969 Stonewall riots. The transgender community in New York City played a significant role in fighting for LGBT equality. In the 1970s, job losses due to industrial restructuring caused New York City to suffer from economic problems and rising crime rates. Growing fiscal deficits in 1975 led the city to appeal to the federal government for financial aid; President Gerald Ford gave
15400-585: The only acceptable peace terms were a return to the status quo ante bellum , or a quick end to hostilities under a uti possidetis clause. On 16 January 1666, Louis declared war on England. In return for a large French subsidy, Denmark-Norway did the same in February, effectively closing the Baltic trade to English ships, and with it access to vital naval supplies. The payments promised to von Galen by Charles largely failed to materialise, and when Brandenburg-Prussia threatened to attack Münster, he made peace with
15540-462: The plan for a landing of marines, to be overseen by his brother Cornelius, at Chatham where the fleet lay effectively defenceless, to destroy it. In June, De Ruyter, with Cornelis de Witt supervising, launched the Dutch raid on the Medway at the mouth of the River Thames . After capturing the fort at Sheerness , the Dutch fleet went on to break through the massive chain protecting the entrance to
15680-543: The press in North America . In 1754, Columbia University was founded. The Stamp Act Congress met in New York in October 1765, as the Sons of Liberty organization emerged in the city and skirmished over the next ten years with British troops stationed there. The Battle of Long Island , the largest battle of the American Revolutionary War , was fought in August 1776 within modern-day Brooklyn. A British rout of
15820-469: The region for the Dutch East India Company. In 1614, the area between Cape Cod and Delaware Bay was claimed by the Netherlands and called Nieuw-Nederland (' New Netherland '). The first non–Native American inhabitant of what became New York City was Juan Rodriguez , a merchant from Santo Domingo who arrived in Manhattan during the winter of 1613–14, trapping for pelts and trading with
15960-581: The return of Run and a trade deal on India. The States-General refused to attend peace talks without France; on territorial claims, they offered to continue the present situation, or revert to the position before the war , an option clearly unacceptable to the English. It is questionable how sincere this offer from Charles actually was, since his envoy in Paris, the Earl of St Albans , was simultaneously holding secret talks on an Anglo-French alliance. Louis agreed to ensure
16100-470: The same thing. After their failed 1666 coup, many Orangists sought refuge in England, with English and Scots dissidents going the other way. In Articles 13 and 17, both sides undertook not to protect each other's rebels; in a secret annex, the Dutch undertook to extradite regicides who voted for the Execution of Charles I in 1649, although in practice these provisions were ignored. A separate treaty amended
16240-515: The short-term however, Charles' desire to avenge this setback led to the Third Anglo-Dutch War in 1672. Despite similar ideologies, commercial disputes and political differences between the Dutch Republic and Commonwealth of England led to the 1652 to 1654 First Anglo-Dutch War . The treaty that ended the war failed to address these issues, which included Dutch opposition to the 1651 Navigation Acts , and English objections to Dutch trading monopolies. This meant tensions continued, and even when
16380-596: The southern tip of Manhattan to modern-day Wall Street , where a 12-foot (3.7 m) wooden stockade was built in 1653 to protect against Native American and English raids. In 1626, the Dutch colonial Director-General Peter Minuit , as charged by the Dutch West India Company , purchased the island of Manhattan from the Canarsie , a small Lenape band, for "the value of 60 guilders " (about $ 900 in 2018). A frequently told but disproved legend claims that Manhattan
16520-433: The surrender permitted Dutch residents to remain in the colony and allowed for religious freedom. In 1667, during negotiations leading to the Treaty of Breda after the Second Anglo-Dutch War , the victorious Dutch decided to keep the nascent plantation colony of what is now Suriname , which they had gained from the English, and in return the English kept New Amsterdam. The settlement was promptly renamed "New York" after
16660-404: The three were Orangists, Zeelandic Pensionary Pieter de Huybert and Friesland's van Jongestall ; the delegate from Holland, Van Beverningh , was a member of De Witt's States Party . The English lead negotiators were Denzil Holles , Ambassador to France , and Henry Coventry , Ambassador to Sweden . On 24 May, Louis launched the War of Devolution , French troops quickly occupying much of
16800-451: The treaties were signed on 31 July, they were sent to each country for ratification, a process which was completed by 24 August and followed by public celebrations in Breda. By exchanging New Netherland and Run, Breda removed two major areas of dispute, reducing Anglo-Dutch tensions overall and clearing the way for the 1668 Triple Alliance between the Republic, Sweden and England. The Alliance
16940-556: The treaty marked the beginning of an alliance between the English and the Dutch that would last for a century. The Second Anglo-Dutch War was caused by commercial tensions, heightened by Charles II , who saw trade as a way to reduce his financial dependence on Parliament . In 1660, he and his brother James founded the Royal African Company (RAC), challenging the Dutch in West Africa. Investors included senior politicians such as George Carteret , Shaftesbury and Arlington , creating
17080-587: The two countries were theoretically at peace, competition for markets in the East Indies and elsewhere often resulted in conflict outside Europe . For various reasons, factions in both countries hampered efforts to reach resolution through diplomatic means. From 1650 to 1672, Dutch politics was dominated by the States Party and their leader, Grand pensionary Johan de Witt . Despite suspicions about Charles II 's links to their Orangist opponents, de Witt viewed
17220-572: The two, or at least limit conflict to Africa and the Americas , which would not require France to become involved. Aware of his reluctance, Charles II saw no reason to make concessions, while Sir George Downing , his Ambassador in The Hague , claimed recent financial losses meant the Dutch could not afford a war. Other advisors argued the Franco-Dutch treaty only applied to defensive actions, so provoking
17360-578: The world by pinnacle height, with its spire reaching a symbolic 1,776 feet (541.3 m), a reference to the year of U.S. independence . The Occupy Wall Street protests in Zuccotti Park in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan began on September 17, 2011, receiving global attention and popularizing the Occupy movement against social and economic inequality worldwide. New York City
17500-483: The world's two largest stock exchanges by market capitalization of their listed companies: the New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq . New York City is an established safe haven for global investors. As of 2023 , New York City is the most expensive city in the world for expatriates and has by a wide margin the highest U.S. city residential rents; and Fifth Avenue is the most expensive shopping street in
17640-572: The world. New York City traces its origins to Fort Amsterdam and a trading post founded on Manhattan Island by Dutch colonists around 1624. The settlement was named New Amsterdam in 1626 and was chartered as a city in 1653. The city came under English control in 1664 and was temporarily renamed New York after King Charles II granted the lands to his brother, the Duke of York , before being permanently renamed New York in November 1674. New York City
17780-449: The world. New York City is home by a significant margin to the highest number of billionaires , individuals of ultra-high net worth (greater than US$ 30 million), and millionaires of any city in the world. In 1664, New York was named in honor of the Duke of York (later King James II of England ). James's elder brother, King Charles II , appointed the Duke as proprietor of
17920-552: Was heavily affected by Hurricane Sandy in late October 2012. Sandy's impacts included flooding that led to the days-long shutdown of the subway system and flooding of all East River subway tunnels and of all road tunnels entering Manhattan except the Lincoln Tunnel . The New York Stock Exchange closed for two days due to weather for the first time since the Great Blizzard of 1888 . At least 43 people died in New York City as
18060-525: Was a haven for Loyalist refugees and escaped slaves who joined the British lines for freedom promised by the Crown , with as many as 10,000 escaped slaves crowded into the city during the British occupation, the largest such community on the continent. When the British forces evacuated New York at the close of the war in 1783, they transported thousands of freedmen for resettlement in Nova Scotia , England, and
18200-581: Was a prime destination in the early 20th century for Blacks during the Great Migration from the American South, and by 1916, New York City had the largest urban African diaspora in North America. The Harlem Renaissance of literary and cultural life flourished during the era of Prohibition . The larger economic boom generated construction of skyscrapers competing in height. New York City became
18340-590: Was abandoned by its skeleton crew, captured without a shot being fired, and towed back to the United Provinces as a trophy. Its counter decoration depicting the royal arms is on display in the Rijksmuseum . Fortunately for the English, the Dutch marines spared the Chatham Dockyard , at the time England's largest industrial complex; a land attack on the docks themselves would have set back English naval power for
18480-514: Was able to score a decisive victory, and by the end of 1666 the war had reached a stalemate. Although peace talks began, neither side was willing to make significant concessions until the Dutch Raid on the Medway in June 1667 forced Charles II to make terms. The treaty eliminated a number of long-standing issues, and in the long-term made it possible for the two countries to unite against the expansionist policies pursued by Louis XIV of France . In
18620-522: Was against him. Support for re-asserting English naval power provided limited backing in the Third Anglo-Dutch War but ended once that had been achieved. The treaty disappointed Orangists by failing to restore the House of Orange or allow exiles home, as promised by Charles. When Zeeland and Friesland, in response to the French advance, proposed William be made Captain-General of the Dutch States Army ,
18760-613: Was also a success for Sweden, who used their position as mediators to improve the Elbing provisions, break the Dutch-Danish agreement and join the Triple Alliance. The Spanish regained Franche-Comté and most of the Spanish Netherlands; more significantly, the Dutch now viewed them as a better neighbour than an ambitious France. Overall, the Dutch considered Breda and the creation of the Alliance
18900-549: Was enormously expensive and financing it a challenge even for the Amsterdam markets. Both sides wanted peace, since the Dutch had little to gain from continuing the war and faced external challenges from competitors. Denmark resented concessions imposed at Christianopel in 1647, while the WIC's confiscation of Danish ships was an ongoing source of dispute; in early 1667, they joined Sweden and France in imposing tariffs on Dutch goods, impacting
19040-591: Was increased by the June Raid on the Medway . Both factors led to a rapid agreement of terms. Prior to 1667, the Anglo-Dutch relationship had been dominated by commercial conflict, which the treaty did not end entirely. However, tensions decreased markedly and cleared the way for the 1668 Triple Alliance between the Dutch Republic, England and Sweden. With the brief anomaly of the 1672 to 1674 Third Anglo-Dutch War ,
19180-407: Was not defined. This public treaty had been preceded by a secret treaty signed on 17 April in which, in addition to these exchanges of territory, Louis and Charles agreed not to enter into alliances opposed to the interests of the other, by which Louis secured the neutrality of England in the war he planned against Spain. The order of priorities whereby the Dutch preferred to give up what would become
19320-415: Was purchased for $ 24 worth of glass beads. Following the purchase, New Amsterdam grew slowly. To attract settlers, the Dutch instituted the patroon system in 1628, whereby wealthy Dutchmen ( patroons , or patrons) who brought 50 colonists to New Netherland would be awarded land, local political autonomy, and rights to participate in the lucrative fur trade. This program had little success. Since 1621,
19460-438: Was repelled in the Battle of Nevis on 17 May by a smaller English force. This confused naval action was the only one in this war where all three navies fought: it failed largely through de la Barre's incompetence. After this failed attack, Crijnssen left in disgust and sailed to the north to attack the Virginia colony, while the French, under de la Barre, moved to Martinique. The Battle of Nevis restored English naval control in
19600-417: Was the U.S. capital from 1785 until 1790. The modern city was formed by the 1898 consolidation of its five boroughs : Manhattan , Brooklyn , Queens , the Bronx , and Staten Island . Anchored by Wall Street in the Financial District, Manhattan , New York City has been called both the world's premier financial and fintech center and the most economically powerful city in the world. As of 2022 ,
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