163-685: The sarus crane ( Antigone antigone ) is a large nonmigratory crane found in parts of the Indian subcontinent , Southeast Asia , and northern Australia . The tallest of the flying birds, standing at a height of up to 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in), they are a conspicuous species of open wetlands in South Asia, seasonally flooded Dipterocarpus forests in Southeast Asia, and Eucalyptus -dominated woodlands and grasslands in Australia. The sarus crane
326-444: A clutch of two eggs at a time. Both parents help to rear the young, which remain with them until the next breeding season. Most species of cranes have been affected by human activities and are at the least classified as threatened, if not critically endangered. The plight of the whooping cranes of North America inspired some of the first US legislation to protect endangered species . Cranes are very large birds, often considered
489-725: A molecular phylogenetic study by Carey Krajewski and collaborators that was published in 2010. Grey crowned crane ( Balearica regorum ) Black crowned crane ( Balearica pavonina ) Siberian crane ( Leucogeranus leucogeranus ) Sandhill crane ( Antigone canadensis ) White-naped crane ( Antigone vipio ) Brolga ( Antigone rubicunda ) Sarus crane ( Antigone antigone ) Wattled crane ( Grus carunculata ) Blue crane ( Grus paradisea ) Demoiselle crane ( Grus virgo ) Red-crowned crane ( Grus japonensis ) Whooping crane ( Grus americana ) Common crane ( Grus grus ) Hooded crane ( Grus monacha ) Black-necked crane ( Grus nigricollis ) The fossil record of cranes
652-516: A monograph on the cranes in 1881, in which he considered the "sarus crane" of India to be made up of two species, Grus collaris and Grus antigone . Most modern authors recognize one species with three disjunct populations that are sometimes treated as subspecies, although the status of one extinct population from the Philippines is uncertain. The sarus cranes in India (referred to as A. a. antigone ) are
815-473: A brief description, coined the binomial name Ardea antigone and cited Edwards' work. The specific epithet is based on Greek mythology. Antigone was the daughter of the Trojan king Laomedon . She was turned into a stork for comparing her own beauty with the goddess Hera . Linnaeus appears to have confused this myth with that of Gerana , queen of the pigmies , who considered herself more beautiful than Hera and
978-442: A clear trilling courtship call. A curve-tipped secondary on each wing is dragged against an adjacent ridged secondary at high speeds (as many as 110 times per second—slightly faster than a hummingbird's wingbeat) to create a stridulation much like that produced by some insects. Both Wilson's and common snipe have modified outer tail feathers which make noise when they are spread during the birds' roller coaster display flights; as
1141-625: A crane digging for them remains in place for some time digging and then expanding a hole to prise them out of the soil. In contrast both to this and the stationary wait and watch hunting methods employed by many herons, they forage for insects and animal prey by slowly moving forwards with their heads lowered and probing with their bills. Where more than one species of cranes exists in a locality, each species adopts separate niches to minimise competition. At one important lake in Jiangxi Province in China,
1304-483: A diversity of habitats that are currently found in the region. Emerging evidence from south Asia (Nepal and India), Myanmar and Australia suggests that the species is likely not as threatened as assumed before, and that human activities in these countries (floodplain, small-holder farming and cattle raising) supports a substantial and healthy breeding population of Sarus Cranes. The species has been extirpated in Malaysia and
1467-531: A helpful measure, but needs to be implemented judiciously so as not to corrupt and remove existing local traditions of tolerance. Farmers in Sarus crane wintering areas in Australia are beginning to use efficient methods to harvest crops, which may lead to lowered food availability. Farmers are also transitioning from field crops to perennial and tree crops that have higher returns. This may reduce available foraging habitat for cranes, and may increase conflict with farmers in
1630-511: A large extent in size and shape (except in the case of mutation or damage), though not necessarily in the pattern. They are given different names depending on their position along the wing. Primaries are connected to the manus (the bird's "hand", composed of carpometacarpus and phalanges ); these are the longest and narrowest of the remiges (particularly those attached to the phalanges), and they can be individually rotated. These feathers are especially important for flapping flight, as they are
1793-455: A large proportion of cranes that are not territorial, breeding pairs. The cranes are diurnal birds that vary in their sociality by season and location. During the breeding season , they are territorial and usually remain on their territory all the time. In contrast in the non-breeding season, they tend to be gregarious, forming large flocks to roost, socialize, and in some species feed. Sarus Crane breeding pairs maintain territories throughout
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#17328523923651956-523: A maximum height around 180 cm (5.9 ft), making them the world's tallest extant flying bird. The weight of nominate race individuals is 6.8–7.8 kg (15–17 lb), while five adults of A. a. sharpii averaged 8.4 kg (19 lb). Across the distribution range, their weight can vary from 5 to 12 kg (11 to 26 lb), height typically from 115 to 167 cm (45 to 66 in), and wingspan from 220 to 250 cm (87 to 98 in). While individuals from northern populations are among
2119-528: A more protracted moult. In many species, there is more than one focus along the wing. Here, moult begins at all foci simultaneously, but generally proceeds only in one direction. Most grouse, for example, have two wing foci: one at the wingtip, the other between feathers P1 and S1. In this case, moult proceeds descendantly from both foci. Many large, long-winged birds have multiple wing foci. Birds that are heavily "wing-loaded"—that is, heavy-bodied birds with relatively short wings—have great difficulty flying with
2282-553: A much wider range of trophic levels. Some crane species such as the Common/ Eurasian crane use a kleptoparasitic strategy to recover from temporary reductions in feeding rate, particularly when the rate is below the threshold of intake necessary for survival. Accumulated intake of during daytime shows a typical anti-sigmoid shape, with greatest increases of intake after dawn and before dusk. Cranes are perennially monogamous breeders, establishing long-term pair bonds that may last
2445-490: A newlywed couple to see a pair of sarus cranes is customary. Although venerated and protected by Indians, these birds were hunted during the colonial period. Killing a bird would lead to its surviving partner trumpeting for many days, and the other was traditionally believed to starve to death. Even sport-hunting guides discouraged shooting these birds. According to 19th-century British zoologist Thomas C. Jerdon , young birds were good to eat, while older ones were "worthless for
2608-574: A payment-for-conservation program was 87% in Cambodia. Nest success of nests monitored with the active participation of farmers in Myanmar was very high (323 out of 356 nests observed between 2016 and 2018 were successful), though chick survival has not yet been measured in Myanmar. More pairs are able to raise chicks in years with higher total rainfall, and when territory quality was undisturbed due to increased farming or development. Permanent removal of pairs from
2771-750: A range for both sexes of 5.0 to 6.9 kg (11.0 to 15.2 lb). Thus, Australian sarus cranes average about 25% lighter than the northern counterparts and are marginally lighter on average than brolgas. The species has historically been widely distributed on the lowlands of India along the Gangetic plains, extending south to the Godavari River , west to coastal Gujarat , the Tharparkar District of Pakistan, and east to West Bengal and Assam . The species no longer breeds in Punjab , though it winters regularly in
2934-468: A recent immigrant. Native Australians, however, differentiated between the sarus and the brolga, calling the sarus "the crane that dips its head in blood.” Sarus cranes of the Australian population are similar to those in Southeast Asia in having no white on the neck and tertiary remiges, but are distinguished by a larger grey patch of ear coverts. The Australian population shows the most recent divergence from
3097-611: A sixth. Australia, Europe, and North America have two regularly occurring species each. Of the four crane genera, Balearica (two species) is restricted to Africa, and Leucogeranus (one species) is restricted to Asia; the other two genera, Grus (including Anthropoides and Bugeranus ) and Antigone , are both widespread. Many species of cranes are dependent on wetlands and grasslands, and most species nest in shallow wetlands. Some species nest in wetlands, but move their chicks up onto grasslands or uplands to feed (while returning to wetlands at night), whereas others remain in wetlands for
3260-496: A sound during territorial or courtship displays. Over time, a small number of bird species have lost their ability to fly. Some of these, such as the steamer ducks , show no appreciable changes in their flight feathers. Some, such as the Titicaca grebe and a number of the flightless rails, have a reduced number of primaries. The remiges of ratites are soft and downy; they lack the interlocking hooks and barbules that help to stiffen
3423-433: A state known as diastataxis (those that do have the fifth secondary are said to be eutaxic). In these birds, the fifth set of secondary covert feathers does not cover any remiges, possibly due to a twisting of the feather papillae during embryonic development. Loons , grebes, pelicans , hawks and eagles , cranes , sandpipers , gulls , parrots, and owls are among the families missing this feather. Tertials arise in
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#17328523923653586-623: A strong focus on the Ayeyarwadi delta. Surveys across multiple townships discovered over 150 pairs of breeding Sarus Cranes (with a maximum of 185 nests monitored in 2018), suggesting that the population in this region is far higher than was previously known. The vast majority of nests were located in rice paddies, with few in flooded grass patches. Until recently, little was known of sarus crane ecology from Australia. Breeding records (confirmed sightings of nests with eggs, or of adult birds with flightless young) were known from only three locations, all in
3749-469: A substitute, to more permanent interventions that include habitat preservation. The little-known Philippine population became extinct in the late-1960s. The sarus crane is classified as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List . Threats listed include habitat destruction and/or degradation, hunting and collecting, and environmental pollution, and possibly diseases or competing species. The effects of inbreeding in
3912-458: A type of large bird with long legs and necks in the biological family Gruidae of the order Gruiformes . The family has 15 species placed in four genera which are Antigone , Balearica , Leucogeranus , and Grus . They are large birds with long necks and legs, a tapering form, and long secondary feathers on the wing that project over the tail. Most species have muted gray or white plumages, marked with black, and red bare patches on
4075-505: A vegetation of Lysiphyllum cunninghamii , Eucalyptus microtheca , Corymbia confertiflora , Melaleuca spp., Excoecaria parvifolia , Atalaya hemiglauca , Grevillea striata , Eucalyptus leptophleba , C. polycarpa , C. confertiflora , and C. bella . While many other cranes make long migrations, sarus cranes are largely nonmigratory, although some populations do migrate short distances. In South Asia, four distinct population-level behaviours have been noted: The first
4238-480: A yellowish base to the bill and the brown-grey head is fully feathered. The bare red skin of the adult's head and neck is brighter during the breeding season. This skin is rough and covered by feather follicles , and a narrow area around and behind the head is covered by black, bristly feathers. The sexes do not differ in plumage, although males are on average larger than females; males of the Indian population can attain
4401-403: Is Γερανος ( geranos ), which gives us the cranesbill , or hardy geranium. The crane was a bird of omen. In the tale of Ibycus and the cranes, a thief attacked Ibycus (a poet of the sixth century BCE) and left him for dead. Ibycus called to a flock of passing cranes, which followed the attacker to a theater and hovered over him until, stricken with guilt, he confessed to the crime. Pliny
4564-553: Is also closely tied to rainfall patterns, with most nests being initiated immediately after the first major rains. The nests can be more than 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in diameter and nearly 1 m (3 ft 3 in) high. Pairs show high fidelity to the nest site, often refurbishing and reusing a nest for as many as five breeding seasons. The clutch is one or two eggs (rarely three or four) which are incubated by both sexes for about 31 days (range 26–35 days). Eggs are chalky white and weigh about 240 grams. When disturbed from
4727-457: Is also found, though to a lesser extent, in some other species that feed along tree trunks, including treecreepers and woodcreepers . Scientists have not yet determined the function of all flight feather modifications. Male swallows in the genera Psalidoprocne and Stelgidopteryx have tiny recurved hooks on the leading edges of their outer primaries, but the function of these hooks is not yet known; some authorities suggest they may produce
4890-436: Is attributed to above-normal rainfall that year. The chicks are fed by the parents for the first few days, but are able to feed independently after that, and follow their parents for food. When alarmed, the parent cranes use a low korr-rr call that signals chicks to freeze and lie still. Young birds stay with their parents until the subsequent breeding season. In captivity, birds breed only after their fifth year. The sarus crane
5053-531: Is called saltatory or transilient wing moults. In simple forms, this involves the moulting and replacement of odd-numbered primaries and then the even-numbered primaries. There are however complex variations with differences based on life history. Arboreal woodpeckers , which depend on their tails—particularly the strong central pair of rectrices—for support while they feed, have a unique tail moult. Rather than moulting their central tail feathers first, as most birds do, they retain these feathers until last. Instead,
Sarus crane - Misplaced Pages Continue
5216-493: Is diminished when the outer primaries are worn, and absent when those feathers have been moulted. During the northern lapwing 's zigzagging display flight, the bird's outer primaries produce a humming sound. The outer primaries of the male American woodcock are shorter and slightly narrower than those of the female, and are likely the source of the whistling and twittering sounds made during his courtship display flights. Male club-winged manakins use modified secondaries to make
5379-537: Is easily distinguished from other cranes in the region by its overall grey colour and the contrasting red head and upper neck. They forage on marshes and shallow wetlands for roots, tubers, insects, crustaceans, and small vertebrate prey. Like other cranes, they form long-lasting pair bonds and maintain territories within which they perform territorial and courtship displays that include loud trumpeting, leaps, and dance-like movements. In India, they are considered symbols of marital fidelity, believed to mate for life and pine
5542-405: Is either acoustic with both birds performing the unison call, or more rarely, physical with attacks usually by the male. Because of this, females are much less likely to retain the territory than males in the event of the death of a partner. Rarely, breeding territorial crane pairs allow a third crane into the territory to form polygynous or polyandrous trios that improves the chances of survival of
5705-462: Is incomplete. Apparently, the subfamilies were well distinct by the Late Eocene (around 35 mya ). The present genera are apparently some 20 mya old. Biogeography of known fossil and the living taxa of cranes suggests that the group is probably of ( Laurasian ?) Old World origin. The extant diversity at the genus level is centered on (eastern) Africa , although no fossil record exists from there. On
5868-539: Is known about the diseases and parasites of the sarus crane, and their effects on wild bird populations. A study conducted at the Rome zoo noted that these birds were resistant to anthrax . Endoparasites that have been described include a trematode , Opisthorhis dendriticus from the liver of a captive crane at the London zoo and a Cyclocoelid ( Allopyge antigones ) from an Australian bird. Like most birds, they have bird lice and
6031-466: Is known as moult (molt in the United States). The loss of wing and tail feathers can affect a bird's ability to fly (sometimes dramatically) and in certain families can impair the ability to feed or perform courtship displays . The timing and progression of flight feather moult therefore varies among families. For most birds, moult begins at a certain specific point, called a focus (plural foci), on
6194-660: Is moulted at a different time. The flight feathers of adults and juveniles can differ considerably in length, particularly among the raptors. Juveniles tend to have slightly longer rectrices and shorter, broader wings (with shorter outer primaries, and longer inner primaries and secondaries) than do adults of the same species. However, there are many exceptions. In longer-tailed species, such as swallow-tailed kite , secretary bird and European honey buzzard , for example, juveniles have shorter rectrices than adults do. Juveniles of some Buteo buzzards have narrower wings than adults do, while those of large juvenile falcons are longer. It
6357-458: Is not known if there is a functional significance for this difference. A single polyandrous trio observed had a young male as the third bird (recognized by coloration of the primaries) which suggests that breeding pairs may allow younger birds into their territories to help raise chicks as trios. The advantage of being in a trio for breeding pairs is clearly improved breeding success and perhaps also additional assistance to defend territories. However,
6520-622: Is not known if this variation represents annual differences in conditions in the breeding areas or if it included biases such as different proportions of breeding pairs traveling to the Atherton Tablelands to over-winter. It is also not known how these proportions equate to more standard metrics of breeding success such as proportions of breeding pairs succeeding in raising young birds. One multi-floodplain survey in Australia found 60% of all breeding pairs to have raised at least one chick, with 34% of successful pairs fledging two chicks each. Little
6683-481: Is referred to as the primary extension or primary projection. As with wing formulae, this measurement is useful for distinguishing between similarly plumaged birds; however, unlike wing formulae, it is not necessary to have the bird in-hand to make the measurement. Rather, this is a useful relative measurement—some species have long primary extensions, while others have shorter ones. Among the Empidonax flycatchers of
Sarus crane - Misplaced Pages Continue
6846-498: Is responsible for killing about 1% of the local population each year. An estimated 15,000–20,000 mature sarus cranes were left in the wild in 2009. The most robust of the three subspecies, the Indian population numbers fewer than 10,000. Sarus cranes are considered sacred, and the birds are traditionally unharmed. In many areas, they are unafraid of humans. They used to be found on occasion in Pakistan , but have not been seen there since
7009-514: Is the "seasonally migratory" population, also primarily in the arid zone of Gujarat and Rajasthan. Cranes from this population aggregate in remaining wetlands and reservoirs during the dry summer, and breeding pairs set up territories during the rainy season (July – October) remaining on territories throughout the winter (November – March). The fourth population is "perennially resident" and found in areas such as southwestern Uttar Pradesh, where artificial and natural water sources enable cranes to stay in
7172-539: Is the "wintering population" of a small number of sarus cranes that use wetlands in the state of Punjab during winters. The source of this population is unclear, but is very likely to be from the growing population in Himachal Pradesh. The second is the "expanding population" consisting of cranes appearing in new areas following new irrigation structures in semiarid and arid areas primarily in Gujarat and Rajasthan. The third
7335-443: Is the position and length of the trachea . In the two crowned cranes, the trachea is shorter and only slightly impressed upon the bone of the sternum , whereas the trachea of the other species are longer and penetrate the sternum. In some species, the entire sternum is fused to the bony plates of the trachea, and this helps amplify the crane's calls , allowing them to carry for several kilometres. The family name Gruidae comes from
7498-410: Is theorized that the differences help young birds compensate for their inexperience, weaker flight muscles and poorer flying ability. A wing formula describes the shape of distal end of a bird's wing in a mathematical way. It can be used to help distinguish between species with similar plumages, and thus is particularly useful for those who ring (band) birds. To determine a bird's wing formula,
7661-522: Is usually timed to coincide with the wet or monsoon seasons. Artificial sources of water such as irrigation canals and irregular rainfall can sometimes provide adequate moisture to maintain wetland habitat outside the normal wet season, and allows for occasional aseasonal nesting throughout the year in few tropical species. Territory sizes also vary depending on location. Tropical species can maintain very small territories, for example sarus cranes in India can breed on territories as small as one hectare where
7824-416: Is very large, with grey wings and body, a bare red head, collar and nape , a greyish crown , and a long, greenish-grey, pointed bill. In flight, the long neck is held straight, unlike that of a heron (which folds it back), and the black wing tips can be seen; the crane's long, pink legs trail behind them. This bird has a grey ear covert patch, orange-red irises , and a greenish-grey bill. Juveniles have
7987-851: Is widely believed to pair for life, but cases of "divorce" and mate replacement have been recorded. Healthy adult sarus cranes have no predators. However, eggs are often destroyed at the nest by jungle crows ( Corvus macrorhynchos ) and house crows ( C. splendens ) in India and Myanmar. In Australia, suspected predators of young birds include the dingo ( Canis dingo ) and fox ( Vulpes vulpes ), while brahminy kites ( Haliastur indus ) have been known to take eggs. Removal of eggs by farmers (to reduce crop damage) or children (in play), or by migrant labourers for food, or opportunistic egg collection during trips to collect forest resources are prominent causes of egg mortality. Between 31 and 100% of nests with eggs can fail to hatch eggs for these reasons. Chicks are also prone to predation (estimated at 8%) and collection at
8150-859: The Atherton Tablelands in northeastern Queensland. In India, sarus cranes preferentially use wetlands for nesting, but also nest in uncultivated patches amid flooded rice paddies (called khet-taavadi in Gujarat), and in the rice paddies especially when wetlands are not available to breeding pairs. Breeding pairs are territorial and prefer to forage in natural wetlands, though wetland crops such as rice and wheat are also frequented. In south-western Uttar Pradesh, sarus cranes were found in wetlands of all sizes with larger numbers in larger wetlands. In Australia, wintering, nonbreeding sarus cranes forage in areas with intensive agriculture (primarily maize, sugarcane, groundnuts) and smaller patches of cattle-grazing areas in
8313-560: The Gulf Plains in Queensland. Two records are from near Normanton ; one of adults with flightless chicks seen about 30 km west of the town and another of adults incubating eggs seen 7-km south of the town. The third record is a one-month study that provides details of 32 nests located within 10-km around Morr Morr cattle station in the Gilbert River floodplains. A 3,000-km survey along
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#17328523923658476-596: The Gulf of Carpentaria located 141 territorial, breeding pairs spread out across the floodplains of the Mitchell , Gilbert, and Flinders Rivers. Carefully mapping of breeding areas of sarus cranes in Australia is needed to understand their distribution range. They are uncommon in Kakadu National Park , where the species is often hard to find among the more numerous brolgas. Flocks in the non-breeding season are commonly seen in
8639-459: The Siberian crane was moved to the resurrected monotypic genus Leucogeranus , while the sandhill crane, the white-naped crane, the sarus crane, and the brolga were moved to the resurrected genus Antigone . Some authorities recognize the additional genera Anthropoides (for the demoiselle crane and blue crane ) and Bugeranus (for the wattled crane ). The following cladogram is based on
8802-406: The Siberian cranes feed on the mudflats and in shallow water, the white-naped cranes on the wetland borders, the hooded cranes on sedge meadows, and the last two species also feed on the agricultural fields along with the common cranes. In Australia, where Sarus Cranes live alongside Brolgas, they have different diets: Sarus Cranes' diet consisted of diverse vegetation, while Brolga diet spanned
8965-433: The olecranon and performing the same function as true tertials) in an effort to distinguish them from other secondaries. The term humeral is sometimes used for birds such as the albatrosses and pelicans that have a long humerus. The calami of the flight feathers are protected by a layer of non-flight feathers called covert feathers or tectrices (singular tectrix ), at least one layer of them both above and beneath
9128-408: The wings or tail of a bird; those on the wings are called remiges ( / ˈ r ɛ m ɪ dʒ iː z / ), singular remex ( / ˈ r iː m ɛ k s / ), while those on the tail are called rectrices ( / ˈ r ɛ k t r ɪ s iː z / or / r ɛ k ˈ t r aɪ s iː z / ), singular rectrix ( / ˈ r ɛ k t r ɪ k s / ). The primary function of the flight feathers is to aid in
9291-465: The 20th-century reductions in range, and that Australia was colonized only in the Late Pleistocene , some 35,000 years ago. This has been corroborated by DNA microsatellite analyses on a large and widely distributed set of individuals in the sample. This study suggests further that the Australian population shows low genetic variability. As there exists the possibility of (limited) hybridization with
9454-713: The 22 pairs studied remained together for an 11-year period. Of the pairs that separated, 53% was due to the death of one of the pair, 18% was due to divorce, and the fate of 29% of pairs was unknown. Similar results had been found by acoustic monitoring (sonography/frequency analysis of duet and guard calls) in three breeding areas of common cranes in Germany over 10 years. Cranes are territorial and generally seasonal breeders. Seasonality varies both between and within species, depending on local conditions. Migratory species begin breeding upon reaching their summer breeding grounds, between April and June. The breeding season of tropical species
9617-551: The Atherton Tablelands. They were observed to feed on grain, nuts, and insects from a range of crop fields, including stubble of maize and peanut crops, hay crops, fields with potato, legumes, and seed crops, and after harvest in fields of sugarcane, grass, and fodder crops. Territorial, breeding sarus crane pairs in northern Queensland along the Gulf of Carpentaria use a range of habitats, but preferentially use low, open woodland on quaternary alluvial plains in outer river deltas and levees with
9780-421: The Australian population, once thought to be a significant threat due to hybridization with brolgas producing hybrid birds called "sarolgas,” is now confirmed to be minimal, suggesting that it is not a major threat. New plans for developing the floodplain areas of northern Queensland may have detrimental impacts on breeding sarus crane population, and require consideration of the needs of cranes, such conservation of
9943-470: The Elder wrote that cranes would appoint one of their number to stand guard while they slept. The sentry would hold a stone in its claw, so that if it fell asleep, it would drop the stone and waken. A crane holding a stone in its claw is a well-known symbol in heraldry , and is known as a crane in its vigilance. Notably, however, the crest of Clan Cranstoun depicts a sleeping crane still in vigilance and holding
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#173285239236510106-620: The English name "The Greater Indian Crane". Edwards based his hand-coloured etching on a live specimen that he had drawn at the London home of the Admiral Charles Wager . When in 1758 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae for the tenth edition , he placed the sarus crane or Grus major Indica in Latin with the herons and cranes in the genus Ardea . Linnaeus included
10269-664: The Latin word for "helmsman", help the bird to brake and steer in flight. These feathers lie in a single horizontal row on the rear margin of the anatomic tail. Only the central pair are attached (via ligaments ) to the tail bones; the remaining rectrices are embedded into the rectricial bulbs , complex structures of fat and muscle that surround those bones. Rectrices are always paired, with a vast majority of species having six pairs. They are absent in grebes and some ratites , and greatly reduced in size in penguins. Many grouse species have more than 12 rectrices. In some species (including ruffed grouse , hazel grouse and common snipe ),
10432-466: The Philippines. Reintroduction programs in Thailand have made use of birds from Cambodia. As of 2019, attempts to reintroduce the birds to eastern Thailand have shown some promise. The species is venerated in India, and legend has it that the poet Valmiki cursed a hunter for killing a sarus crane and was then inspired to write the epic Ramayana . The species was a close contender to the Indian peafowl as
10595-511: The United States in the early 1930s. The young birds are easily reared by hand, and become very tame and attached to the person who feeds them, following him like a dog. They are very amusing birds, going through the most grotesque dances and antics, and are well worth keeping in captivity. One which I kept, when bread and milk was given to him, would take the bread out of the milk, and wash it in his pan of water before eating it. This bird, which
10758-632: The advantage to third birds is not yet known and is suspected to provide younger cranes with practice in raising chicks and defending territories. Social units of cranes are very poorly studied and it is thought unlikely that trios are only found in Sarus cranes. They roost in shallow water, where they may be safe from some ground predators. Adult birds do not moult their feathers annually, but feathers are replaced about once every two to three years. Sarus cranes forage in shallow water (usually with less than 30 cm (0.98 ft) depth of water) or in fields, frequently probing in mud with their long bills. In
10921-418: The airfoil shape of the bird's wing. Secondaries tend to be shorter and broader than primaries, with blunter ends (see illustration). They vary in number from 6 in hummingbirds to as many as 40 in some species of albatross . In general, larger and longer-winged species have a larger number of secondaries. Birds in more than 40 non-passerine families seem to be missing the fifth secondary feather on each wing,
11084-418: The ancestral form with an estimated 3000 generations of breeding within Australia. An additional subspecies, A. a. luzonica, was suggested for the population — now extinct — in the Philippines. No distinctive characteristic is known of this disappeared population. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA from a limited number of specimens suggests that gene flow occurred within the continental Asian populations until
11247-461: The area is of sufficient quality and disturbance by humans is minimal. Even in areas with a high density of humans, in the absence of directed persecution, species like Sarus Crane maintain territories as small as 5 ha when agricultural crops and landscape conditions are suitable. In contrast, red-crowned crane territories may require 500 hectares, and pairs may defend even larger territories than that, up to several thousand hectares. Territory defence
11410-700: The artificially flooded Keoladeo-Ghana National Park, and in marshes created by irrigation canals in Kota district of Rajasthan, India. Based on these observations, unseasonal nesting (or nesting outside of the monsoon) of sarus cranes was thought to be due to either the presence of two populations, some pairs raising a second brood, and unsuccessful breeding by some pairs in the normal monsoon season, prompting them to nest again when conditions such as flooded marshes remain. A comprehensive assessment of unseasonal nesting based on collation of over 5,000 breeding records, however, showed that unseasonal nesting by sarus cranes in South Asia
11573-678: The bird dives, wind flows through the modified feathers and creates a series of rising and falling notes, which is known as "winnowing". Differences between the sounds produced by these two former conspecific subspecies—and the fact that the outer two pairs of rectrices in Wilson's snipe are modified, while only the single outermost pair are modified in common snipe—were among the characteristics used to justify their splitting into two distinct and separate species. Flight feathers are also used by some species in visual displays. Male standard-winged and pennant-winged nightjars have modified P2 primaries (using
11736-405: The bird is in flight, especially in the case of raptors. The trailing edge of the wing of a juvenile bird can appear almost serrated, due to the feathers' sharp tips, while that of an older bird will be straighter-edged. The flight feathers of a juvenile bird will also be uniform in length, since they all grew at the same time. Those of adults will be of various lengths and levels of wear, since each
11899-444: The bird's "thumb" and normally lie flush against the anterior edge of the wing—function in the same way as the slats on an airplane wing, allowing the wing to achieve a higher than normal angle of attack – and thus lift – without resulting in a stall . By manipulating its thumb to create a gap between the alula and the rest of the wing, a bird can avoid stalling when flying at low speeds or landing. The development of
12062-404: The bird's newly strengthened tail is best able to cope with the loss of the crucial central rectrices. Ground-feeding woodpeckers, such as the wrynecks , do not have this modified moult strategy; in fact, wrynecks moult their outer tail feathers first, with moult proceeding proximally from there. There are often substantial differences between the remiges and rectrices of adults and juveniles of
12225-454: The bird's wing closed, so as to maintain the relative positions of the feathers. While there can be considerable variation across members of a species—and while the results are obviously impacted by the effects of moult and feather regeneration—even very closely related species show clear differences in their wing formulas. The distance that a bird's longest primaries extend beyond its longest secondaries (or tertials) when its wings are folded
12388-714: The border of their territories towards neighbouring crane pairs, or on the nest when adults change incubation duties, or in response to intrusions of other Sarus cranes into or over their territories. Rarely, Sarus crane pairs allow a third crane into their territories forming trios that render synchronized unison calls termed as "triets". Sarus crane trios are rare (1.6% of 11,591 observed groups) but ubiquitous, are both polyandrous and polygynous, improve breeding success, are seen more in areas that have more non-breeding flocks, and are largely formed in areas with poor quality habitat and territories. Triets are structurally distinct from duets having much lower frequencies and being longer, but it
12551-451: The brachial region and are not considered true remiges as they are not supported by attachment to the corresponding bone, in this case the humerus. These elongated "true" tertials act as a protective cover for all or part of the folded primaries and secondaries, and do not qualify as flight feathers as such. However, many authorities use the term tertials to refer to the shorter, more symmetrical innermost secondaries of passerines (arising from
12714-474: The breeding season, occurring in pairs, but during the non-breeding season, most species are gregarious, forming large flocks where their numbers are sufficient. They are opportunistic feeders that change their diets according to the season and their own nutrient requirements. They eat a range of items from small rodents , eggs of birds, fish , amphibians , and insects to grain and berries . Cranes construct platform nests in shallow water, and typically lay
12877-609: The carpal joint) was formerly thought to be absent in some species, but the modern view of this diastataxy is that there is a gap between the fourth and fifth secondaries. Tertiary feathers growing upon the adjoining portion of the brachium are not considered true remiges. The moult of their flight feathers can cause serious problems for birds, as it can impair their ability to fly. Different species have evolved different strategies for coping with this, ranging from dropping all their flight feathers at once (and thus becoming flightless for some relatively short period of time) to extending
13040-463: The centermost pair outwards in both directions. The flight feathers of some species provide additional functionality. In some species, for example, either remiges or rectrices make a sound during flight. These sounds are most often associated with courtship or territorial displays. The outer primaries of male broad-tailed hummingbirds produce a distinctive high-pitched trill, both in direct flight and in power-dives during courtship displays; this trill
13203-447: The construction of canals and reservoirs. The stronghold of the species is in India, where it is traditionally revered and lives in agricultural lands in close proximity to humans. Elsewhere, the species has been extirpated in many parts of its former range. In 1743 the English naturalist George Edwards included an illustration and a description of the sarus crane in the first volume of his A Natural History of Uncommon Birds . He used
13366-422: The crane carries a touchstone inside it that can be used to test for gold when vomited up. Greek and Roman myths often portrayed the dance of cranes as a love of joy and a celebration of life, and the crane was often associated with both Apollo and Hephaestus . Remiges Flight feathers ( Pennae volatus ) are the long, stiff, asymmetrically shaped, but symmetrically paired pennaceous feathers on
13529-453: The descendant numbering scheme explained above) which are displayed during their courtship rituals. In the standard-winged nightjar, this modified primary consists of an extremely long shaft with a small "pennant" (actually a large web of barbules) at the tip. In the pennant-winged nightjar, the P2 primary is an extremely long (but otherwise normal) feather, while P3, P4 and P5 are successively shorter;
13692-413: The diet varies by location, season, and availability. Within the wide range of items consumed, some patterns are suggested but require specific investigation to confirm; the shorter-billed species usually feed in drier uplands, while the longer-billed species feed in wetlands. Cranes employ different foraging techniques for different food types and in different habitats. Tubers and rhizomes are dug for and
13855-453: The distance between the tip of the most distal primary and the tip of its greater covert (the longest of the feathers that cover and protect the shaft of that primary) is measured in millimeters. In some cases, this results in a positive number (e.g., the primary extends beyond its greater covert), while in other cases it is a negative number (e.g. the primary is completely covered by the greater covert, as happens in some passerine species). Next,
14018-622: The distribution and numbers of sarus cranes due to an increase in reliable moisture levels in various locations in India. Although now found mainly at low elevations on the plains, some historical records exist from highland marshes further north in Harkit Sar and Kahag in Kashmir . The sarus crane breeds in some high elevation regions such as near the Pong Dam in Himachal Pradesh, where populations may be growing in response to increasing rice cultivation along
14181-504: The dramatically coiled twin plumes of the magnificent bird-of-paradise . Owls have remiges which are serrated rather than smooth on the leading edge. This adaptation disrupts the flow of air over the wings, eliminating the noise that airflow over a smooth surface normally creates, and allowing the birds to fly and hunt silently. The rectrices of woodpeckers are proportionately short and very stiff, allowing them to better brace themselves against tree trunks while feeding. This adaptation
14344-503: The dry season (after breeding), sarus cranes in Anlung Pring Sarus Crane Conservation Area, Cambodia, used wetlands with 8–10 cm of water. They are omnivorous , eating insects (especially grasshoppers), aquatic plants, fish (perhaps only in captivity), frogs, crustaceans, and seeds. Occasionally tackling larger vertebrate prey such as water snakes ( Fowlea piscator ), sarus cranes may in rare cases feed on
14507-803: The dry season and join non-breeding flocks. In areas with perennial water supply, as in the western plains of Uttar Pradesh, breeding pairs maintain perennial territories. The largest known flocks are from the 29 km (11 sq mi) Keoladeo National Park – with as many as 430 birds, and from unprotected, community-owned wetlands in Etawah and Mainpuri districts in Uttar Pradesh, ranging from 245 to 412 birds. Flocks of over 100 birds are also reported from Gujarat in India and Australia. Sarus crane populations in Keoladeo National Park have been noted to drop from over 400 birds in summer to just 20 birds during
14670-560: The dry season, cranes flocking in Southeast Asian wetlands are in areas with an abundance of Eleocharis dulcis and E. spiralis , both of which produce tubers on which the cranes are known to feed. In their breeding grounds in north-eastern Australia, isotopic analyses on molted feathers revealed sarus crane diets to comprise a great diversity of vegetation, and restricted to a narrow range of trophic levels. Sarus cranes have loud, trumpeting calls, which, as in other cranes, are produced by
14833-661: The eggs of birds and turtles. Very few instances of sarus crane adults hunting and feeding chicks of other waterbirds are known, with two published observations of adult birds hunting chicks of the Grey-headed Swamphen Porphyrio poliocephalus . In north India, this behaviour appears restricted to around Delhi, and may be a novel habit of one pair that is learnt by chicks who have dispersed to nearby wetlands. Plant matter eaten includes tubers, corms of aquatic plants, grass shoots as well as seeds and grains from cultivated crops such as peanuts and cereal crops such as rice. In
14996-404: The elongated windpipe that forms coils within the sternal region. Pairs may indulge in spectacular displays of calling in unison and posturing. These include "dancing" movements that are performed both during and outside the breeding season and involve a short series of jumping and bowing movements made as one of the pair circles around the other. Dancing may also be a displacement activity , when
15159-412: The ends. These plumes are raised up over the bird's head (along with a fine spray of modified uppertail coverts) during his extraordinary display. Rectrix modification reaches its pinnacle among the birds of paradise , which display an assortment of often bizarrely modified feathers, ranging from the extremely long plumes of the ribbon-tailed astrapia (nearly three times the length of the bird itself) to
15322-400: The entirety of the breeding season. Even the demoiselle crane and blue crane, which may nest and feed in grasslands (or even arid grasslands or deserts), require wetlands for roosting at night. The Sarus Crane in south Asia is unique in having a significant breeding population using agricultural fields to breed in areas alongside very high density of humans and intensive farming , largely due to
15485-443: The event that a species is missing the small distal 10th primary, as some passerines are, its lack does not impact the numbering of the remaining primaries. Ascendant numbering, on the other hand, allows for uniformity in the numbering of non-passerine primaries, as they almost invariably have four attached to the manus regardless of how many primaries they have overall. This method is particularly useful for indicating wing formulae, as
15648-452: The face, but the crowned cranes of the genus Balearica have vibrantly-coloured wings and golden "crowns" of feathers. Cranes fly with their necks extended outwards instead of bent into an S-shape and their long legs outstretched. Cranes live on most continents, with the exception of Antarctica and South America . Some species and populations of cranes migrate over long distances; others do not migrate at all. Cranes are solitary during
15811-413: The feather edges. These narrowings are called either notches or emarginations depending on the degree of their slope. An emargination is a gradual change, and can be found on either side of the feather. A notch is an abrupt change, and is only found on the wider trailing edge of the remex. (Both are visible on the primary in the photo showing the feathers; they can be found about halfway along both sides of
15974-415: The flight feathers of other birds. In addition, the emu 's remiges are proportionately much reduced in size, while those of the cassowaries are reduced both in number and structure, consisting merely of 5–6 bare quills. Most ratites have completely lost their rectrices; only the ostrich still has them. Penguins have lost their differentiated flight feathers. As adults, their wings and tail are covered with
16137-407: The flight feathers of the wings as well as above and below the rectrices of the tail. These feathers may vary widely in size – in fact, the upper tail tectrices of the male peafowl , rather than its rectrices, are what constitute its elaborate and colorful "train". The outermost primaries of large soaring birds, particularly raptors, often show a pronounced narrowing at some variable distance along
16300-506: The forest species is thought to help them maintain a less conspicuous profile while nesting; two of these species (the common and sandhill cranes ) also daub their feathers with mud which some observers suspect helps them to hide while nesting. Most crane species have bare patches of skin on their heads and can expand the patches in order to communicate aggression. Species lacking these bare patches use specialized feather tufts to signal similar information. Also important to communication
16463-418: The fully formed feather. These growth bars and their widths have been used to determine the daily nutritional status of birds. Each light and dark bar correspond to around 24 hours and the use of this technique has been called ptilochronology (analogous to dendrochronology ). In general, juveniles have feathers which are narrower and more sharply pointed at the tip. This can be particularly visible when
16626-404: The generation of both thrust and lift , thereby enabling flight . The flight feathers of some birds perform additional functions, generally associated with territorial displays, courtship rituals or feeding methods. In some species, these feathers have developed into long showy plumes used in visual courtship displays, while in others they create a sound during display flights. Tiny serrations on
16789-523: The genetically distinct brolga, the Australian sarus crane can be expected to be an incipient species. The common name 'sarus' is from the Hindi name ( sāras ) for the species. The Hindi word is derived from the Sanskrit word sarasa for the "lake bird", (sometimes corrupted to sārhans ). British soldiers in colonial India who hunted the birds corrupted the name to serious or even cyrus . The adult sarus crane
16952-480: The genus Grus , this genus name is obtained from the epithet of the common crane which is Ardea grus , it is named by Carl Linnaeus from the Latin word grus meaning "crane". The 15 living species of cranes are placed in four genera . A molecular phylogenetic study published in 2010 found that the genus Grus , as then defined, was polyphyletic . In the resulting rearrangement to create monophyletic genera,
17115-456: The heaviest cranes , alongside the red-crowned and wattled cranes , and the largest in their range, birds from Australia tend to be smaller. In Australia, the sarus can easily be mistaken for the more widespread brolga . The brolga has the red colouring confined to the head and not extending onto the neck. Body mass in Australian sarus cranes was found to average 6.68 kg (14.7 lb) in males and 5.25 kg (11.6 lb) in females, with
17278-450: The largest, and in Myanmar to the east are replaced by a population that extends into Southeast Asia (referred to as A. a. sharpii ). Sarus cranes from the Indian subcontinent are differentiated from the south-eastern population by the white collar below their bare head and upper neck, and their white tertiary flight feathers . The population in Australia (initially placed in A. a. sharpii (sometimes spelt sharpei but amended to conform to
17441-691: The late 1980s. Estimates of the global population have assumed that, due to expansion of agriculture, the population in 2000 was at best about 10% and at the worst just 2.5% of the numbers that existed in 1850. This assumption has been challenged and evidence shows that the population of Sarus cranes increased greatly during and after the Green Revolution in India when a large number of irrigation canals were constructed, which in turn supports both increased breeding and spreading of Sarus cranes. Additionally, emerging evidence from both Nepal and India show agriculture to be conducive for Sarus crane breeding contrary to
17604-407: The leading edge of their remiges help owls to fly silently (and therefore hunt more successfully), while the extra-stiff rectrices of woodpeckers help them to brace against tree trunks as they hammer on them. Even flightless birds still retain flight feathers, though sometimes in radically modified forms. The remiges are divided into primary and secondary feathers based on their position along
17767-541: The left hand feather—a shallow notch on the left, and a gradual emargination on the right.) The presence of notches and emarginations creates gaps at the wingtip; air is forced through these gaps, increasing the generation of lift. Feathers on the alula or bastard wing are not generally considered to be flight feathers in the strict sense; though they are asymmetrical, they lack the length and stiffness of most true flight feathers. However, alula feathers are definitely an aid to slow flight. These feathers—which are attached to
17930-414: The letter S, those of tertials with T and those of rectrices with R. Most authorities number the primaries descendantly, starting from the innermost primary (the one closest to the secondaries) and working outwards; others number them ascendantly, from the most distal primary inwards. There are some advantages to each method. Descendant numbering follows the normal sequence of most birds' primary moult. In
18093-494: The lifetime of the birds. Pair bonds begin to form in the second or third years of life, but several years pass before the first successful breeding season. Initial breeding attempts often fail, and in many cases, newer pair bonds dissolve (divorce) after unsuccessful breeding attempts. Pairs that are repeatedly successful at breeding remain together for as long as they continue to do so. In a study of sandhill cranes in Florida, seven of
18256-404: The longest primary feather is identified, and the differences between the length of that primary and that of all remaining primaries and of the longest secondary are also measured, again in millimeters. If any primary shows a notch or emargination, this is noted, and the distance between the feather's tip and any notch is measured, as is the depth of the notch. All distance measurements are made with
18419-528: The loss of even a few flight feathers. A protracted moult like the one described above would leave them vulnerable to predators for a sizeable portion of the year. Instead, these birds lose all their flight feathers at once. This leaves them completely flightless for a period of three to four weeks, but means their overall period of vulnerability is significantly shorter than it would otherwise be. Eleven families of birds, including loons , grebes and most waterfowl , have this moult strategy. The cuckoos show what
18582-443: The loss of their mates, even to the point of starving to death. The main breeding season is during the wet season, when the pair builds an enormous nest "island," a circular platform of reeds and grasses nearly two meters in diameter and high enough to stay above the shallow water surrounding it. Increased agricultural intensity is often thought to have led to declines in sarus crane numbers, but they also benefit from wetland crops and
18745-557: The mid-20th century, had disappeared from large parts of its range, which once stretched north to southern China. Recent surveys and detailed field work in Myanmar has shown the breeding population and breeding success to be high indicating that population estimates for south-east Asia require to be revised upwards of the existing estimate of 500–1,500. Multiple institutions are now working in Myanmar alongside farmers, nature clubs, and other enthusiasts to increase awareness on Sarus Crane conservation, and to monitor critical aspects of ecology of
18908-737: The monsoon. In areas with perennial wetlands on the landscape, such as in western Uttar Pradesh, numbers of nonbreeding sarus cranes in flocks can be relatively stable throughout the year. In Etawah and Mainpuri districts, nonbreeding sarus cranes constituted up to 65% of the regional population. Breeding pairs in Australia similarly defend territories from neighbouring crane pairs, and nonbreeding birds are found in flocks frequently mixed with brolgas. The most common social units for Sarus cranes are breeding pairs that defend territories within which they raise young, and non-breeding cranes that live in flocks. Paired birds can be recognized by their behaviour of rendering unison calls, or duets, that they use either at
19071-664: The most due to their loud duet calls that can be used to distinguish individual pairs. Sarus crane trios produce synchronized unison calls called "triets" whose structure is identical to duets of normal pairs, but have a lower frequency. The cranes consume a wide range of food, both animal and plant matter. When feeding on land, they consume seeds, leaves, nuts and acorns, berries, fruit, insects, worms, snails, small reptiles, mammals, and birds. In wetlands and agriculture fields, roots, rhizomes, tubers, and other parts of emergent plants, other molluscs, small fish, eggs of birds and amphibians are also consumed, as well. The exact composition of
19234-422: The moult over a period of several years. Remiges (from the Latin for "oarsman") are located on the posterior side of the wing. Ligaments attach the long calami (quills) firmly to the wing bones, and a thick, strong band of tendinous tissue known as the postpatagium helps to hold and support the remiges in place. Corresponding remiges on individual birds are symmetrical between the two wings, matching to
19397-451: The national bird of India. Among the Gondi people , the tribes classified as "five-god worshippers" consider the sarus crane as sacred. The meat of the sarus was considered taboo in ancient Hindu scriptures. The sarus crane is widely thought to pair for life, and death of one partner is thought to lead to the other pining to death. They are a symbol of marital virtue and in parts of Gujarat, taking
19560-404: The nest or young is threatened. The cranes breed mainly during the monsoons in India (from July to October, although a second brood may occur), and breeding has been recorded in all the months. They build large nests, platforms made of reeds and vegetation in wet marshes or paddy fields. The nest is constructed within shallow water by piling up rushes, straw, grasses with their roots, and mud so that
19723-623: The nest, but more than 30% die of unknown reasons. Breeding success (percentage of eggs hatching and surviving to fledging stage) has been estimated to be about 20% in Gujarat and 51–58% in south-western Uttar Pradesh. In areas where farmers are tolerant, nests in flooded rice fields and those in wetlands have similar rates of survival. Pairs that nest later in the season have a lower chance of raising chicks successfully, but this improves when territories have more wetlands. Nest success (percentage of nests in which at least one egg hatched) for 96 sarus nests that were protected by locals during 2009–2011 via
19886-537: The nest, parents may sometimes attempt to conceal the eggs by attempting to cover them with material from the edge of the nest. The eggshells are removed by the parents after the chicks hatch either by carrying away the fragments or by swallowing them. About 30% of all breeding pairs succeed in raising chicks in any year, and most of the successful pairs raise one or two chicks each, with brood sizes of three being rare. One survey in Australia found 60% of breeding pairs to have successfully fledged chicks. This high success rate
20049-566: The next feathers in line (P2 and S2 on the wing, and both R2s on the tail) are dropped. This pattern of drop and replacement continues until moult reaches either end of the wing or tail. The speed of the moult can vary somewhat within a species. Some passerines that breed in the Arctic , for example, drop many more flight feathers at once (sometimes becoming briefly flightless) in order to complete their entire wing moult prior to migrating south, while those same species breeding at lower latitudes undergo
20212-450: The number of primaries they possess. The number in non-passerines generally varies between 9 and 11, but grebes , storks and flamingos have 12, and ostriches have 16. While most modern passerines have ten primaries, some have only nine. Those with nine are missing the most distal primary (sometimes called the remicle) which is typically very small and sometimes rudimentary in passerines. The outermost primaries—those connected to
20375-452: The number varies among individuals. Domestic pigeons have a highly variable number as a result of changes brought about over centuries of selective breeding. In order to make the discussion of such topics as moult processes or body structure easier, ornithologists assign a number to each flight feather. By convention, the numbers assigned to primary feathers always start with the letter P (P1, P2, P3, etc.) , those of secondaries with
20538-535: The other hand, it is peculiar that numerous fossils of Ciconiiformes are documented from there; these birds presumably shared much of their habitat with cranes back then already. Cranes are sister taxa to Eogruidae , a lineage of flightless birds; as predicted by the fossil record of true cranes, eogruids were native to the Old World. A species of true crane, Antigone cubensis , has similarly become flightless and ratite-like. Fossil genera are tentatively assigned to
20701-418: The outermost primary is the one with which the measurements begin. Secondaries are always numbered ascendantly, starting with the outermost secondary (the one closest to the primaries) and working inwards. Tertials are also numbered ascendantly, but in this case, the numbers continue on consecutively from that given to the last secondary (e.g. ... S5, S6, T7, T8, ... etc.). Rectrices are always numbered from
20864-418: The overall effect is a broadly forked wingtip with a very long plume beyond the lower half of the fork. Males of many species, ranging from the widely introduced ring-necked pheasant to Africa's many whydahs , have one or more elongated pairs of rectrices, which play an often-critical role in their courtship rituals. The outermost pair of rectrices in male lyrebirds are extremely long and strongly curved at
21027-565: The pair's chicks. Trios of Sarus cranes were seen largely in marginal habitats and third birds were young suggesting that third cranes would benefit by gaining experience. The cranes' beauty and spectacular mating dances have made them highly symbolic birds in many cultures with records dating back to ancient times. Crane mythology can be found in cultures around the world, from India to the Aegean , Arabia , China , Korea , Japan , Australia , and North America. The Sanskrit epic poet Valmiki
21190-423: The phalanges—are sometimes known as pinions . Secondaries are connected to the ulna . In some species, the ligaments that bind these remiges to the bone connect to small, rounded projections, known as quill knobs , on the ulna; in other species, no such knobs exist. Secondary feathers remain close together in flight (they cannot be individually separated like the primaries can) and help to provide lift by creating
21353-432: The platform rises above the level of the water to form a little island. The nest is unconcealed and conspicuous, being visible from afar, and defended fiercely by the pair. Data collated over a century from South Asia show sarus cranes nesting throughout the year. More focused observations, however, show nesting patterns to be closely tied to rainfall patterns. An exception to this rule was the unseasonal nesting observed in
21516-436: The population due to developmental activities caused reduced population viability, and was a far more important factor impacting breeding success relative to total annual rainfall. Breeding success in Australia has been estimated by counting the proportion of young-of-the-year in wintering flocks in the crop fields of Atherton Tablelands. Young birds constituted 5.32% to 7.36% of the wintering population between 1997 and 2002. It
21679-532: The positive attitudes of farmers towards the cranes. In Australia, the Brolga occurs in the breeding areas of Sarus Cranes in Queensland state, and they achieve sympatry by using different habitats. Sarus Cranes in Queensland largely live in Eucalyptus -dominated riverine, while most Brolgas use non-wooded regional ecosystems that include vast grassland habitats. The only two species that do not always roost in wetlands are
21842-441: The present-day subfamilies: Gruinae Sometimes considered Balearicinae Sometimes considered Gruidae incertae sedis The cranes have a cosmopolitan distribution , occurring across most of the world continents. They are absent from Antarctica and, mysteriously, South America. East Asia has the highest crane diversity, with eight species, followed by Africa, which is home to five resident species and wintering populations of
22005-426: The principal source of thrust , moving the bird forward through the air. The mechanical properties of primaries are important in supporting flight. Most thrust is generated on the downstroke of flapping flight. However, on the upstroke (when the bird often draws its wing in close to its body), the primaries are separated and rotated, reducing air resistance while still helping to provide some thrust. The flexibility of
22168-644: The remaining crop fields. Literature pertaining to the abundance of Sarus cranes in Nepal suggests that past field methods were either inadequate or incomplete, and could not yield proper abundance estimates, and that the population of cranes in Nepal might be on the increase. The Australian population is greater than 5,000 birds with record breeding success estimates that suggest that their population might be increasing. The Southeast Asian population, however, has been decimated by war and habitat change (such as intensive agriculture, deforestation, and draining of wetlands), and by
22331-585: The remiges (and alulae) of nestling hoatzins is much delayed compared to the development of these feathers in other young birds, presumably because young hoatzins are equipped with claws on their first two digits . They use these small rounded hooks to grasp branches when clambering about in trees, and feathering on these digits would presumably interfere with that functionality. Most youngsters shed their claws sometime between their 70th and 100th day of life, but some retain them— though callused -over and unusable— into adulthood. Rectrices (singular rectrix) from
22494-410: The remiges on the wingtips of large soaring birds also allows for the spreading of those feathers, which helps to reduce the creation of wingtip vortices , thereby reducing drag . The barbules on these feathers, friction barbules, are specialized with large lobular barbicels that help grip and prevent slippage of overlying feathers and are present in most of the flying birds. Species vary somewhat in
22657-486: The reservoir. In rice-dominated districts of Uttar Pradesh , sarus crane abundance (estimated as occupancy) was highest in the western districts, intermediate in the central districts, and minimal in the eastern districts. Sarus crane abundance was positively associated with percentage of wetlands on the landscape, and negatively with the percentage of area under rice cultivation. Field surveys and detailed observations of sarus cranes increased greatly in Myanmar by 2022, with
22820-510: The rock in its raised claw. Aristotle describes the migration of cranes in the History of Animals , adding an account of their fights with Pygmies as they wintered near the source of the Nile . Battles between cranes and dwarf peoples, or geranomachy, is a widespread motif of antiquity and come from China and Arabia at least from the fifth century. Aristotle describes as untruthful an account that
22983-412: The rules of Latin grammar) was separated and named A. a. gilliae, sometimes spelt gillae or gillii ), prior to a genetic analysis. A 2005 genetic analysis suggests that these three populations are representatives of a formerly continuous population that varied clinally . The Australian subspecies was designated only in 1988, with the species itself was first noticed in Australia in 1966 and regarded as
23146-562: The same location throughout the year. Migratory populations are also known from Southeast Asia and Australia. Breeding pairs maintain territories that are defended from other cranes using a large repertoire of calls and displays. In Uttar Pradesh, less than a tenth of the breeding pairs maintain territories at wetlands; the rest of the pairs are scattered in smaller wetlands and agricultural fields. Non-breeding birds form flocks that vary from 1–430 birds. In semi-arid areas, breeding pairs and successfully fledged juveniles depart from territories in
23309-524: The same small, stiff, slightly curved feathers as are found on the rest of their bodies. The ground-dwelling kākāpō , which is the world's only flightless parrot, has remiges which are shorter, rounder and more symmetrically vaned than those of parrots capable of flight; these flight feathers also contain fewer interlocking barbules near their tips. Once they have finished growing, feathers are essentially dead structures. Over time, they become worn and abraded, and need to be replaced. This replacement process
23472-415: The same species. Because all juvenile feathers are grown at once—a tremendous energy burden to the developing bird—they are softer and of poorer quality than the equivalent feathers of adults, which are moulted over a longer period of time (as long as several years in some cases). As a result, they wear more quickly. As feathers grow at variable rates, these variations lead to visible dark and light bands in
23635-492: The second pair of rectrices (both R2 feathers) are the first to drop. (In some species in the genera Celeus and Dendropicos , the third pair is the first dropped.) The pattern of feather drop and replacement proceeds as described for passerines (above) until all other rectrices have been replaced; only then are the central tail rectrices moulted. This provides some protection to the growing feathers, since they're always covered by at least one existing feather, and also ensures that
23798-426: The southern population in Cambodia and Vietnam. The sarus used to extend to Thailand and further east into the Philippines, but may now be extinct in both these countries. In 2011, 24 captive-bred cranes raised from five founders were reintroduced into Thailand. A reasonably sized population of over 150 breeding pairs of sarus cranes has been discovered in the Ayeyarwadi delta, Myanmar, with additional cranes confirmed in
23961-425: The species recorded include Heleonomus laveryi and Esthiopterum indicum . In captivity, sarus cranes have been known to live for as long as 42 years. Premature adult mortality is often the result of human actions. Accidental poisoning by monocrotophos , chlorpyrifos and dieldrin -treated seeds used in agricultural areas has been noted. Adults have been known to fly into power lines and die of electrocution, this
24124-406: The species such as breeding success and mapping distributions. The situation in Myanmar appears to be similar to India and Nepal where farming cycles and farmer attitudes are conducive to Sarus Cranes, with healthy populations being widespread in both locations. Payment to locals to guard nests and help increase breeding success has been attempted in northern Cambodia. Nest success of protected nests
24287-439: The species within agricultural areas. The role of rice paddies and associated irrigation structures may be particularly important for the birds' conservation, considering that natural wetlands are increasingly threatened by human activity. The conversion of wetlands to farmland, and farmland to more urban uses are major causes for habitat loss and long-term population decline. Compensating farmers for crop losses has been suggested as
24450-568: The state. Sarus cranes are rare in West Bengal and Assam, and are no longer found in the state of Bihar . In Nepal, its distribution is restricted to the western and central lowland plains, with most of the population occurring in Rupandehi , Kapilvastu , and Nawalparasi districts . Two distinct populations of sarus cranes occur in Southeast Asia: the northern population in China and Myanmar, and
24613-400: The states of Kachin, Shan, and Rakhine. In Australia they are found only in the north-east, and are partly migratory in some areas. The global range has shrunk and the largest occupied area, and the largest known population, is in India. Increasing paddy fields accompanied by an increase in the network of irrigation canals during and prior to the Green Revolution may have facilitated increases in
24776-490: The table.” Eggs of the sarus crane are, however, used in folk remedies in some parts of India. Young birds were often captured and kept in menageries, both in India and in Europe in former times. They were also successfully bred in captivity early in the 17th century by Emperor Jehangir , who noted that the eggs were laid with an interval of two days, and the incubation period lasted 34 days. They were also bred in zoos in Europe and
24939-401: The two African crowned cranes ( Balearica ), which are the only cranes to roost in trees. Some crane species are sedentary, remaining in the same area throughout the year, while others are highly migratory , traveling thousands of kilometres each year from their breeding sites. A few species like Sarus Cranes have both migratory and sedentary populations, and healthy sedentary populations have
25102-461: The unsubstantiated assumptions made while suggesting population declines. Many farmers in India believe that these cranes damage standing crops, particularly rice, although studies show that direct feeding on rice grains resulted in losses amounting to less than 1% and trampling could account for grain loss around 0.4–15 kilograms (0.88–33.07 lb). The attitude of farmers tends to be positive in spite of these damages, and this has helped in conserving
25265-466: The wing or tail and proceeds in a sequential manner in one or both directions from there. For example, most passerines have a focus between the innermost primary (P1, using the numbering scheme explained above) and outermost secondary (S1), and a focus point in the middle of the center pair of rectrices. As passerine moult begins, the two feathers closest to the focus are the first to drop. When replacement feathers reach roughly half of their eventual length,
25428-418: The wing. There are typically 11 primaries attached to the manus (six attached to the metacarpus and five to the phalanges), but the outermost primary, called the remicle, is often rudimentary or absent; certain birds, notably the flamingos, grebes, and storks, have seven primaries attached to the metacarpus and 12 in all. Secondary feathers are attached to the ulna. The fifth secondary remex (numbered inwards from
25591-813: The world's tallest flying birds. They range in size from the demoiselle crane , which measures 90 cm (35 in) in length, to the sarus crane , which can be up to 176 cm (69 in), although the heaviest is the red-crowned crane , which can weigh 12 kg (26 lb) prior to migrating. They are long-legged and long-necked birds with streamlined bodies and large, rounded wings. The males and females do not vary in external appearance, but males tend to be slightly larger than females. The plumage of cranes varies by habitat. Species inhabiting vast, open wetlands tend to have more white in their plumage than do species that inhabit smaller wetlands or forested habitats, which tend to be more grey. These white species are also generally larger. The smaller size and colour of
25754-620: The year in south Asia, and non-breeding birds live in flocks that can also be seen throughout the year. Large aggregations of cranes likely increase safety for individual cranes when resting and flying and also increase chances for young unmated birds to meet partners. Cranes are highly vocal and have several specialized calls . The vocabulary begins soon after hatching with low, purring calls for maintaining contact with their parents, as well as food-begging calls. Other calls used as chicks include alarm calls and "flight intention" calls, both of which are maintained into adulthood. Cranes are noticed
25917-477: Was inspired to write the first śloka couplet by the pathos of seeing a male sarus crane shot while dancing with its mate. In Mecca , in pre-Islamic Arabia, Allāt , Uzza , and Manāt were believed to be the three chief goddesses of Mecca, they were called the "three exalted cranes" ( gharaniq , an obscure word on which 'crane' is the usual gloss ). See The Satanic Verses for the best-known story regarding these three goddesses. The Greek for crane
26080-409: Was significantly higher than that of unprotected nests, and positive population-level impacts were apparent. However, the program also caused local jealousies leading to deliberate disturbance of nests, and did nothing to alleviate larger-scale and more permanent threats due to habitat losses leading to the conclusion that such payment-for-conservation programs are at best a short-term complement, and not
26243-498: Was taken out of the King's palace at Lucknow, was very fierce towards strangers and dogs, especially if they were afraid of him. He was very noisy—the only bad habit he possessed The Indian state of Uttar Pradesh declared the sarus crane as its official state bird in 2013. An Indian 14-seater propeller aircraft, the Saras , is named after this crane. Crane (bird) See text Cranes are
26406-461: Was turned into a crane. The sarus crane was formerly placed in the genus Grus , but a molecular phylogenetic study published in 2010 found that the genus, as then defined, was polyphyletic . In the resulting rearrangement to create monophyletic genera, four species, including the sarus crane, were placed in the resurrected genus Antigone that had originally been erected by German naturalist Ludwig Reichenbach in 1853. Edward Blyth published
26569-444: Was very rare and was only carried out by pairs that did not succeed in raising chicks in the normal nesting season. Unseasonal nests were initiated in years when rainfall extended beyond the normal June–October period, and when rainfall volume was higher than normal; or when artificial wet habitats were created by man-made structures such as reservoirs and irrigation canals to enhance crop production. Nest initiation in northern Queensland
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