124-621: Sankosh (also Puna Thsang Chu, and Svarnakosha) is a river that rises in northern Bhutan and empties into the Brahmaputra in the state of Assam in India . In Bhutan, it is known as the Puna Tsang Chu below the confluences of several tributaries near the town of Wangdue Phodrang . The two largest tributaries are the Mo Chhu and Pho Chhu , which flow together at Punakha . The Punakha dzong , which
248-518: A Buddhist preceptor. Madanapala's queen Chitramatika, gifted land to a brahmana named Vateshvara-svami Sharma as his remuneration for reciting the Mahabharata . The Palas patronised several Sanskrit scholars, some of whom were their officials. The Gauda riti style of composition was developed during the Pala rule. Many Buddhist Tantric works were authored and translated during the Pala rule. Besides
372-573: A Buddhist, but it is not known if this is true. The subsequent Pala kings were definitely Buddhists. Dharmapala made the Buddhist philosopher Haribhadra his spiritual preceptor. He established the Vikramashila monastery and the Somapura Mahavihara . Taranatha also credits him with establishing 50 religious institutions and patronising the Buddhist author Haribhadra. Devapala restored and enlarged
496-556: A brief rule, and became an ascetic. Vigrahapala's son and successor Narayanapala proved to be a weak ruler. During his 54-year long reign, Mihira Bhoja defeated the Palas. Encouraged by the Pala decline, the King Harjara of Assam assumed imperial titles. Naryanapala's son Rajyapala ruled for at least 32 years, and constructed several public utilities and lofty temples. Earlier it was thought that his son Gopala III lost Bengal after
620-556: A census in southern Bhutan to guard against illegal immigration, a constant issue in the south where borders with India are porous. Each family was required to present census workers with a tax receipt from the year 1958—no earlier, no later—or with a certificate of origin, which had to be obtained from one's place of birth, to prove that they were indeed Bhutanese citizens. Previously issued citizenship cards were no longer accepted as proof of citizenship. Alarmed by these measures, many began to protest for civil and cultural rights and demanded
744-452: A code of traditional Drukpa dress and etiquette called Driglam Namzhag . The dress element of this code required all citizens to wear the gho (a knee-length robe for men) and the kira (an ankle-length dress for women). A central plank of the Bhutanese government's policy since the late 1960s has been to modernise the use of Dzongkha language. This began with abandoning the use of Hindi ,
868-840: A devotee of Shiva. The Palas supported the Saiva ascetics, typically the ones associated with the Golagi-Math. Besides the images of the Buddhist deities, the images of Vishnu , Siva and Sarasvati were also constructed during the Pala dynasty rule. Devapala built a temple dedicated to Shiva's consort, and Mahipala patronised a Shaivite monastery. A 1026 CE inscription recording renovations of Buddhist structures at Sarnath by Pala princes states that Mahipala I had them built "hundreds" of temples of Shiva, Chitraghanta, and other deities in Varanasi. Narayanapala's Bhagalpur inscription suggests that he built several Shiva temples, and records his grant of
992-738: A few years of rule, and then ruled only Bihar. However, it has been debunked by his Bhagalpur inscription, in which he granted a Brahmin two villages in Pundrabardhanabhukti in Northern Bengal, signalling his control over it. His son and the next king, Vigrahapala II , had to bear the invasions from the Chandelas and the Kalachuris . During his reign, the Pala empire disintegrated into smaller kingdoms like Gauda, Radha, Anga and Vanga. Kantideva of Harikela (eastern and southern Bengal) also assumed
1116-451: A forest cover of 64% as of October 2005. Bhutan's climate varies with elevation, from subtropical in the south to temperate in the highlands and polar-type climate with year-round snow in the north. Bhutan experiences five distinct seasons: summer, monsoon , autumn, winter and spring. Western Bhutan has the heavier monsoon rains; southern Bhutan has hot humid summers and cool winters; central and eastern Bhutan are temperate and drier than
1240-492: A global biodiversity hotspot and counted among the 234 globally outstanding ecoregions of the world in a comprehensive analysis of global biodiversity undertaken by WWF between 1995 and 1997. According to the Swiss-based International Union for Conservation of Nature , Bhutan is viewed as a model for proactive conservation initiatives. The Kingdom has received international acclaim for its commitment to
1364-483: A government in Bumthang at Chakhar Gutho Palace. Much of early Bhutanese history is unclear because most of the records were destroyed when fire ravaged the ancient capital, Punakha , in 1827. By the 10th century, Bhutan's religious history had a significant impact on its political development. Various subsects of Buddhism emerged that were patronized by the various Mongol warlords. Bhutan may have been influenced by
SECTION 10
#17328518931901488-448: A language that was adopted to help start formal secular education in the country, in 1964. As a result, at the beginning of the school year in March 1990, the teaching of Nepali language (which share similarities with Hindi) spoken by ethnic Lhotshampas in southern Bhutan was discontinued and all Nepali curricular materials were discontinued from Bhutanese schools. In 1988, Bhutan conducted
1612-509: A major part of the Pala kingdom along with its capital. Mahipala I recovered northern and eastern Bengal within three years of ascending the throne in 978 CE. He also recovered his capital, Gauda, which had been lost to he Kambojas. He also recovered the northern part of the present-day Burdwan division . During his reign, Rajendra Chola I of the Chola Empire frequently invaded Bengal from 1021 to 1023 CE to get Ganges water and in
1736-615: A matrimonial alliance, by marrying off his cousin Kumaradevi to the king. In the region of Magadha , Vallabharāja, an adventurer from Ratanpur led a campaign against the Ramapala with his base of operations in Bodh Gaya . It has been speculated that he was aided in his campaign by Govindachandra of the Gahadavala dynasty . After gaining control of Bodh Gaya he converted to Buddhism and took on
1860-505: A more democratic form of governance. In 1965, he set up a Royal Advisory Council, and in 1968 he formed a Cabinet. In 1971, Bhutan was admitted to the United Nations , having held observer status for three years. In July 1972, Jigme Singye Wangchuck ascended to the throne at the age of sixteen after the death of his father, Dorji Wangchuck. Bhutan's sixth Five-Year Plan (1987–92) included a policy of 'one nation, one people' and introduced
1984-528: A naval war in southern Bengal for his liege. but after Kumarapala's death, Vaidyadeva practically created a separate kingdom. Kumarapala's son, Gopala IV ascended the throne as a child, and according to the Rajibpur copperplate inscription, his uncle Madanpala acted as his regent. Gopala IV either died in battle or was murdered by Madanapala. During Madanapala's rule, the Varmans in east Bengal declared independence, and
2108-688: A network of swift rivers that form deep valleys before draining into the Indian plains. In fact, 98.8% of Bhutan is covered by mountains, which makes it the most mountainous country in the world. Elevation rises from 200 m (660 ft) in the southern foothills to more than 7,000 m (23,000 ft). This great geographical diversity combined with equally diverse climate conditions contributes to Bhutan's outstanding range of biodiversity and ecosystems. Bhutan's northern region consists of an arc of Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows reaching up to glaciated mountain peaks with an extremely cold climate at
2232-581: A number of progressive environmental policies that have caused the head of the UNFCCC to call it an "inspiration and role model for the world on how economies and different countries can address climate change while at the same time improving the life of the citizen." For example, electric cars have been pushed in the country and as of 2014 make up a tenth of all cars. Because the country gets most of its energy from hydroelectric power , it does not emit significant greenhouse gases for energy production. In practice,
2356-564: A pitched battle. Dharmapala was forced to surrender and to seek alliance with the Rashtrakuta emperor Govinda III , who then intervened by invading northern India and defeating Nagabhata II. The Rashtrakuta records show that both Chakrayudha and Dharmapala recognised the Rashtrakuta suzerainty. In practice, Dharmapala gained control over North India after Govinda III left for the Deccan. He adopted
2480-419: A population of over 727,145 and a territory of 38,394 square kilometres (14,824 sq mi), Bhutan ranks 133rd in land area and 160th in population. Bhutan is a constitutional monarchy with a Druk Gyalpo (king) as the head of state and a prime minister as the head of government . The Je Khenpo is the head of the state religion , Vajrayana Buddhism. The subalpine Himalayan mountains in
2604-758: A river in Bhutan is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article related to a river in India is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Bhutan Bhutan , officially the Kingdom of Bhutan , is a landlocked country in South Asia situated in the Eastern Himalayas between China in the north and India in the south, with the Indian state of Sikkim separating it from neighbouring Nepal . With
SECTION 20
#17328518931902728-493: A short reign. He was succeeded by his brother Ramapala, who launched a major offensive against Divya's nephew Bhima. He was supported by his maternal uncle Mathana and cousin Sivarajadeva of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, as well as several feudatory chiefs of south Bihar and south-west Bengal. Ramapala conclusively defeated Bhima, killing him and his family in a cruel manner. After gaining control of Varendra, Ramapala tried to revive
2852-722: A single state. Namgyal defeated three Tibetan invasions, subjugated rival religious schools, codified the Tsa Yig legal system, and established a government of theocratic and civil administrators. Namgyal became the first Zhabdrung Rinpoche and his successors acted as the spiritual leaders of Bhutan, like the Dalai Lama in Tibet. During the 17th century, Bhutan controlled large parts of northeast India , Sikkim and Nepal ; it also wielded significant influence in Cooch Behar State . Bhutan ceded
2976-686: A sparse population of migratory shepherds. The Black Mountains in Bhutan's central region form a watershed between two major river systems: the Mo Chhu and the Drangme Chhu. Peaks in the Black Mountains range between 1,500 and 4,925 m (4,921 and 16,158 ft) above sea level, and fast-flowing rivers have carved out deep gorges in the lower mountain areas. The forests of the central Bhutan mountains consist of Eastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests in higher elevations and Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests in lower elevations. The Woodlands of
3100-410: A stronghold and their copper plates emphasised Buddhist affiliation. André Wink mentions that the founder, Gopala was elected, and "definitely not of royal blood but probably of a line of brahmans which transformed itself into kshatriyas". Similarly, the 11th century Persian scholar Al-Biruni mentions the rulers of Pala dynasty to be of brahman origin. After the fall of Shashanka 's kingdom,
3224-570: A telescope, and offered him their services in the war against Tibet, but the Zhabdrung declined the offer. After a stay of nearly eight months Cacella wrote a long letter from the Chagri Monastery reporting on his travels. This is a rare extant report of the Zhabdrung. When Ngawang Namgyal died in 1651, his passing was kept secret for 54 years. After a period of consolidation, Bhutan lapsed into internal conflict. In 1711, Bhutan went to war against
3348-404: A total change to be brought to the political system that existed since 1907. As protests and related violence swept across southern Bhutan, the government in turn increased its resistance. People present at protests were labeled "anti-national terrorists". After the demonstrations, the Bhutanese army and police began the task of identifying participants and supporters engaged in the violence against
3472-617: A two-dose shot of AstraZeneca vaccines. On 13 December 2023, Bhutan was officially delisted as a least developed country . Bhutan is on the southern slopes of the eastern Himalayas , landlocked between the Tibet Autonomous Region of China to the north and the Indian states of Sikkim , West Bengal , Assam to the west and south, and the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh to the east. It lies between latitudes 26°N and 29°N , and longitudes 88°E and 93°E . The land consists mostly of steep and high mountains crisscrossed by
3596-537: A village to Pashupatas . Narayanapala also attended a sacrifice by his Brahmin minister. Nayapala's Siyan inscription suggests that he built several temples dedicated to Shiva and his various aspects (such as Bhairava ), plus temples dedicated to the Nine Durgas , the Mother Goddess , Vishnu , and Lakshmi . Despite this, it is unlikely that Nayapala had rejected Buddhist teachings, since Taranatha states that he had
3720-589: Is Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck . The current Prime Minister of Bhutan is Tshering Tobgay , leader of the People's Democratic Party . Bhutan's democratic transition in 2008 is seen as an evolution of its social contract with the monarchy since 1907. In 2019, Bhutan was classified in the Democracy Index as a hybrid regime alongside regional neighbours Nepal and Bangladesh . Minorities have been increasingly represented in Bhutan's government since 2008, including in
3844-504: Is Thimphu , with close to 15% of the population. Bhutan and neighbouring Tibet experienced the spread of Buddhism , which originated in the Indian subcontinent during the lifetime of the Buddha . In the first millennium, the Vajrayana school of Buddhism spread to Bhutan from the southern Pala Empire of Bengal. During the 16th century, Ngawang Namgyal unified the valleys of Bhutan into
Sankosh River - Misplaced Pages Continue
3968-452: Is a World Heritage Site . It is a monastery with a 21-acre (8.5 ha) complex with 177 cells, numerous stupas, temples and a number of other ancillary buildings. The gigantic structures of other Viharas, including Vikramashila, Odantapuri, and Jagaddala are the other masterpieces of the Palas. These mammoth structures were mistaken by the forces of Bakhtiyar Khalji as fortified castles and were demolished. The art of Bihar and Bengal during
4092-479: Is a slab with a main figure, rather over half life-size, in very high relief, surrounded by smaller attendant figures, who might have freer tribhanga poses. Critics have found the style tending towards over-elaboration. The quality of the carving is generally very high, with crisp, precise detail. In east India, facial features tend to become sharp. Much larger numbers of smaller bronze groups of similar composition have survived than from previous periods. Probably
4216-546: Is an important source of Pala history. A form of the proto- Bengali language can be seen in the Charyapada s composed during the Pala rule. The Pala school of sculptural art is recognised as a distinct phase of the Indian art, and is noted for the artistic genius of the Bengal sculptors. It is influenced by the Gupta art . The Pala style was inherited and continued to develop under
4340-440: Is around 71% of the total land area, equivalent to 2,725,080 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, up from 2,506,720 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 2,704,260 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 20,820 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 15% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 41% of
4464-410: Is connected to one another through a vast network of biological corridors, allowing animals to migrate freely throughout the country. Environmental conservation has been placed at the core of the nation's development strategy, the middle path. It is not treated as a sector but rather as a set of concerns that must be mainstreamed in Bhutan's overall approach to development planning and to be buttressed by
4588-567: Is situated immediately above the confluence of the two rivers, is one of the most beautiful dzongs in Bhutan and the winter residence of the Dratshang Lhentshog . The upper reaches of the Pho Chhu are susceptible to ice blockages, and the dzong has been damaged on several occasions by glacial lake outburst floods . After it enters in India, it flows on the border of Assam and West Bengal. At Wangdue Phodrang, elevation 1,364 metres (4,475 ft),
4712-619: Is well-documented by Sandhyakar Nandi in Ramacharitam . Mahipala II imprisoned his brothers Ramapala and Surapala II, on the suspicion that they were conspiring against him. Soon afterwards, he faced a rebellion of vassal chiefs from the Kaibarta (fishermen). A chief named Divya (or Divvoka) killed him and occupied the Varendra region. The region remained under the control of his successors Rudak and Bhima. Surapala II escaped to Magadha and died after
4836-481: The Ophiocordyceps sinensis fungus crop collected from the wild has also resulted in unsustainable exploitation which is proving very difficult to regulate. Bhutan has enforced a plastic ban rule from 1 April 2019, where plastic bags were replaced by alternative bags made of jute and other biodegradable material. Bhutan is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary form of government. The reigning monarch
4960-567: The Bengal Duars to British India during the Duar War in the 19th century. The Wangchuck dynasty emerged as the monarchy and pursued closer ties with Britain in the subcontinent. In 1910, a treaty guaranteed British advice in foreign policy in exchange for internal autonomy in Bhutan. The arrangement continued under a new treaty with India in 1949 (signed at Darjeeling) in which both countries recognised each other's sovereignty. Bhutan joined
5084-619: The Eastern Gangas renewed the conflict in Orissa. Madanapala captured Munger from the Gahadavalas, but was defeated by Vijayasena, who gained control of southern and eastern Bengal. Two rulers, named Govindapala and Palapala ruled over the Gaya district from around 1162 CE to 1200 CE, but there is no concrete evidence about their relationship to the imperial Palas. The Pala dynasty was replaced by
Sankosh River - Misplaced Pages Continue
5208-696: The Geography section below). His oldest son, Rajyapala predeceased him, and as so Mahendrapala , his next older son succeeded him. He possibly maintained his father's vast territories and carried out further campaigns against the Utkalas and the Hunas. He passed his empire intact to his younger brother Shurapala I , who held sway over a considerably large territory encompassing Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, proven by his Mirzapur copperplate. What happened in Gopala II's rule,
5332-715: The Himalayan black bear , red panda , squirrel , sambar , wild pig and barking deer . The alpine habitats of the great Himalayan range in the north are home to the snow leopard , blue sheep , Himalayan marmot , Tibetan wolf , antelope , Himalayan musk deer and the Bhutan takin , Bhutan's national animal . The endangered wild water buffalo occurs in southern Bhutan, although in small numbers. More than 770 species of bird have been recorded in Bhutan. The globally endangered white-winged duck has been added recently in 2006 to Bhutan's bird list. The 2010 BBC documentary Lost Land of
5456-1097: The Maldives in the Human Development Index , and 21st on the Global Peace Index as the most peaceful country in South Asia as of 2024, as well as the only South Asian country in the list's first quartile. Bhutan is also a member of the Climate Vulnerable Forum , the Non-Aligned Movement , BIMSTEC , the IMF , the World Bank , UNESCO and the World Health Organization (WHO). Bhutan ranked first in SAARC in economic freedom , ease of doing business , peace and lack of corruption in 2016. Bhutan has one of
5580-623: The Raja of the kingdom of Koch Bihar in the south. During the chaos that followed, the Tibetans unsuccessfully attacked Bhutan in 1714. In the 18th century, the Bhutanese invaded and occupied the kingdom of Koch Bihar. In 1772, the Maharaja of Koch Bihar appealed to the British East India Company which assisted by ousting the Bhutanese and later attacking Bhutan itself in 1774. A peace treaty
5704-525: The Rashtrakutas for the control of Kannauj and were defeated. After a short-lived decline, Emperor Mahipala I defended imperial bastions in Bengal and Bihar against South Indian Chola invasions. Emperor Ramapala was the last strong Pala ruler, who gained control of Kamarupa and Kalinga . The empire was considerably weakened with many areas engulfed and their heavy dependence on Samantas being exposed through 11th century rebellion . It finally led to
5828-524: The Sena Empire . During this time, the style of sculpture changed from "Post-Gupta" to a distinctive style that was widely influential in other areas and later centuries. Deity figures became more rigid in posture, very often standing with straight legs close together, and figures were often heavily loaded with jewellery; they very often have multiple arms, a convention allowing them to hold many attributes and display mudras . The typical form for temple images
5952-782: The Sena dynasty . The descendants of the Palas, who claimed the status of Kshatriya, "almost imperceptibly merged" with the Kayastha caste. The borders of the Pala Empire kept fluctuating throughout its existence. Though the Palas conquered a vast region in North India at one time, they could not retain it for long due to constant hostility from the Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Rashtrakutas and other less powerful kings. No records are available about
6076-452: The United Nations in 1971. It has since expanded relations with 55 countries. While dependent on the Indian military , Bhutan maintains its own military units . The 2008 Constitution established a parliamentary government with an elected National Assembly and a National Council . Bhutan is a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). In 2020, Bhutan ranked third in South Asia after Sri Lanka and
6200-410: The Yuan dynasty with which it shares various cultural and religious similarities. After the decline of the Yuan dynasty in the 14th century, these subsects vied with each other for supremacy in the political and religious landscape, eventually leading to the ascendancy of the Drukpa Lineage by the 16th century. Locally, Bhutan has been known by many names. The earliest Western record of Bhutan,
6324-460: The golden langur . A variant Assamese macaque has also been recorded, which is regarded by some authorities as a new species, Macaca munzala . The Bengal tiger , clouded leopard , hispid hare and the sloth bear live in the tropical lowland and hardwood forests in the south. In the temperate zone, grey langur , tiger, goral and serow are found in mixed conifer, broadleaf and pine forests. Fruit-bearing trees and bamboo provide habitat for
SECTION 50
#17328518931906448-408: The post-classical period in the Indian subcontinent , which originated in the region of Bengal . It is named after its ruling dynasty, whose rulers bore names ending with the suffix Pāla ("protector" in Sanskrit ). The empire was founded with the election of Gopāla as the emperor of Gauda in late eighth century CE. The Pala stronghold was located in Bengal and eastern Bihar , which included
6572-480: The war reparations , the Duars were ceded to the United Kingdom in exchange for a rent of ₹50,000 . The treaty ended all hostilities between British India and Bhutan. During the 1870s, power struggles between the rival valleys of Paro and Tongsa led to civil war in Bhutan, eventually leading to the ascendancy of Ugyen Wangchuck , the penlop (governor) of Trongsa . From his power base in central Bhutan, Ugyen Wangchuck defeated his political enemies and united
6696-441: The 1627 Relação of the Portuguese Jesuits Estêvão Cacella and João Cabral , records its name variously as Cambirasi (among the Koch Biharis ), Potente , and Mon (an endonym for southern Tibet). Until the early 17th century, Bhutan existed as a patchwork of minor warring fiefdoms , when the area was unified by the Tibetan lama and military leader Ngawang Namgyal , who had fled religious persecution in Tibet. To defend
6820-413: The Bengal region was in a state of anarchy. There was no central authority, and there was constant struggle between petty chieftains. The contemporary writings describe this situation as matsya nyaya ("fish justice" i.e. a situation where the big fish eat the small fish). Gopala ascended the throne as the first Pala king during these times. The Khalimpur copper plate suggests that the prakriti (people) of
6944-418: The Bhutanese endonym Drukpa , "Dragon people," are similarly derived. Names similar to Bhutan—including Bohtan, Buhtan, Bottanthis, Bottan and Bottanter—began to appear in Europe around the 1580s. Jean-Baptiste Tavernier 's 1676 Six Voyages is the first to record the name Boutan . However, these names seem to have referred not to modern Bhutan but to the Kingdom of Tibet . The modern distinction between
7068-475: The Buddhist scholars mentioned in the Religion section above, Jimutavahana , Sandhyakar Nandi , Madhava-kara , Suresvara and Chakrapani Datta are some of the other notable scholars from the Pala period. The notable Pala texts on philosophy include Agama Shastra by Gaudapada, Nyaya Kundali by Sridhar Bhatta and Karmanushthan Paddhati by Bhatta Bhavadeva. The texts on medicine include Sandhyakar Nandi's semi-fictional epic Ramacharitam (12th century)
7192-469: The Deccan region, Dharmapala built a mighty empire in the northern India. He defeated Indrayudha of Kannauj , and installed his own nominee Chakrayudha on the throne of Kannauj. Several other smaller states in North India also acknowledged his suzerainty, as far as Jalandhara . Soon, his expansion was checked by Vatsaraja's son Nagabhata II , who conquered Kannauj and drove away Chakrayudha. Nagabhata II then advanced up to Munger and defeated Dharmapala in
7316-425: The Gangas managed to annexe the region only after his death. Ramapala maintained friendly relations with the Chola king Kulottunga to secure support against the common enemies: the Ganas and the Chalukyas. He kept the Senas in check but lost Mithila to a Karnat chief named Nanyadeva who formed his own kingdom based out of Mithila. He also held back the aggressive design of the Gahadavala ruler Govindacharndra through
7440-409: The Himalayan foothills, have rugged, sloping terrain and dry, porous soil with dense vegetation and abundant wildlife. The southern Duars have moderately fertile soil, heavy savanna grass, dense, mixed jungle, and freshwater springs. Mountain rivers, fed by melting snow or monsoon rains, empty into the Brahmaputra River in India. Data released by the Ministry of Agriculture showed that the country had
7564-407: The Kannauj throne, Dharmapala organised an imperial court. According to the Khalimpur copper plate issued by Dharmapala, this court was attended by the rulers of Bhoja (possibly Vidarbha ), Matsya (Jaipur region), Madra (East Punjab), Kuru (Delhi region), Yadu (possibly Mathura, Dwarka or Simhapura in the Punjab), Yavana , Avanti , Gandhara and Kira ( Kangra Valley ). These kings accepted
SECTION 60
#17328518931907688-434: The North") for his suzerainty over North India. In Devapala's own inscription and in the inscription referring to his reign, he is credited with the subjugation of the Gurjaras, Dravidas, Utkalas, Pragjyotisas, Hunas and the Kambhojas: His sons and grandson probably managed to keep the core area of the empire intact. However, the empire started disintegrating shortly after. Narayanapala lost control of Assam and Orissa. It
7812-399: The Pala and Sena dynasties influenced the art of Nepal, Burma, Sri Lanka and Java. Most of the Pala inscriptions mention only the regnal year as the date of issue, without any well-known calendar era . Because of this, the chronology of the Pala kings is hard to determine. Based on their different interpretations of the various epigraphs and historical records, different historians estimate
7936-409: The Pala chronology as follows: Note: The highest military officer in the Pala empire was the Mahasenapati (commander-in-chief). The Palas recruited mercenary soldiers from a number of kingdoms, including Malava , Khasa , Huna , Kulika , Mithila , Kanrata , Lata , Odra and Manahali . According to the contemporary accounts, the Rashtrakutas had the best infantry, the Gurjara-Pratiharas had
8060-400: The Pala empire with some success. He ruled from a new capital at Ramavati, which remained the Pala capital until the dynasty's end. He reduced taxation, promoted cultivation and constructed public utilities. He brought Kamarupa and Rar under his control, and forced the Varman king of east Bengal to accept his suzerainty. He also struggled with the Ganga king for control of present-day Orissa;
8184-441: The Palas. Historians rely on indirect evidence to understand their reign, leading to controversies about their ancestry. According to the Khalimpur copper plate inscription, the first Pala king Gopala was the son of a warrior named Vapyata. The Ramacharitam attests that Varendra ( North Bengal ) was the fatherland ( Janakabhu ) of the Palas. The ethnic origins of the dynasty are unknown, although later records claim that Gopala
8308-551: The Tiger follows an expedition to Bhutan. The expedition is notable for claiming to obtain the first footage of tigers living at 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) in the high Himalayas. The BBC footage shows a female tiger lactating and scent-marking, followed a few days later by a male tiger responding, suggesting that the cats could be breeding at this elevation. Camera traps also recorded footage of other rarely seen forest creatures, including dhole (or Indian wild dog), Asian elephants, leopards and leopard cats. In Bhutan forest cover
8432-442: The Vikramashila and the Nalanda universities. Nalanda, considered one of the first great universities in recorded history, reached its height under the patronage of the Palas. Noted Buddhist scholars from the Pala period include Atisha , Santaraksita , Saraha , Tilopa , Bimalamitra, Dansheel, Dansree, Jinamitra, Jnanasrimitra, Manjughosh, Muktimitra, Padmanava, Sambhogabajra, Shantarakshit, Silabhadra, Sugatasree and Virachan. As
8556-418: The achievements of previous Bengali civilisations and created outstanding works of arts and architecture. The Charyapada in Proto-Bengali language was written by Buddhist Mahasiddhas of tantric tradition, which laid the basis of several eastern Indian languages in their rule. Palas built grand Buddhist temples and monasteries ( Viharas ), including the Somapura Mahavihara and Odantapuri , and patronised
8680-413: The cabinet, parliament, and local government. The Druk Gyalpo ( Dragon King ) is the head of state . The political system grants universal suffrage . It consists of the National Council , an upper house with 25 elected members; and the National Assembly with 47 elected lawmakers from political parties . Pala Empire The Pāla Empire (r. 750–1161 CE) was an imperial power during
8804-452: The central region provide most of Bhutan's forest production. The Torsa , Raidāk , Sankosh , and Manas are Bhutan's main rivers, flowing through this region. Most of the population lives in the central highlands. In the south, the Sivalik Hills are covered with dense Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests , alluvial lowland river valleys, and mountains up to around 1,500 m (4,900 ft) above sea level. The foothills descend into
8928-517: The ceremony. The British government promptly recognized the new monarchy. In 1910, Bhutan signed the Treaty of Punakha , a subsidiary alliance that gave the British control of Bhutan's foreign affairs and meant that Bhutan was treated as an Indian princely state . This had little real effect, given Bhutan's historical reticence, and also did not appear to affect Bhutan's traditional relations with Tibet. After
9052-584: The country against intermittent Tibetan forays, Namgyal built a network of impregnable dzongs or fortresses, and promulgated the Tsa Yig , a code of law that helped to bring local lords under centralised control. Many such dzong still exist and are active centres of religion and district administration. Portuguese Jesuits Estêvão Cacella and João Cabral were the first recorded Europeans to visit Bhutan in 1627, on their way to Tibet. They met Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal, presented him with firearms, gunpowder and
9176-484: The country following several civil wars and rebellions during 1882–85. In 1907, an epochal year for the country, Ugyen Wangchuck was unanimously chosen as the hereditary king of the country by the Lhengye Tshog of leading Buddhist monks, government officials, and heads of important families, with the firm petition made by Gongzim Ugyen Dorji . John Claude White , British Political Agent in Bhutan, took photographs of
9300-619: The distinction between it and Greater Tibet . The first time a separate Kingdom of Bhutan appeared on a western map, it did so under its local name "Broukpa". Others include Lho Mon ("Dark Southland"), Lho Tsendenjong ("Southland of the Cypress "), Lhomen Khazhi ("Southland of the Four Approaches") and Lho Menjong ("Southland of the Herbs "). Stone tools, weapons, elephants, and remnants of large stone structures provide evidence that Bhutan
9424-448: The exact boundaries of original kingdom established by Gopala, but it might have included almost all of the Bengal region. The Pala empire extended substantially under Dharmapala's rule. Apart from Bengal, he directly ruled the present-day Bihar. The kingdom of Kannauj (present-day Uttar Pradesh) was a Pala dependency at times, ruled by his nominee Chakrayudha. While installing his nominee on
9548-679: The finest cavalry and the Palas had the largest elephant force. The Arab merchant Sulaiman states that the Palas had an army bigger than those of the Balhara (possibly the Rashtrakutas) and the king of Jurz (possibly the Gurjara-Pratiharas). He also states that the Pala army employed 10,000–15,000 men for fuelling and washing clothes. He further claims that during the battles, the Pala king would lead 50,000 war elephants . Sulaiman's accounts seem to be based on exaggerated reports; Ibn Khaldun mentions
9672-616: The force of law. The country's constitution mentions environmental standards in multiple sections. Although Bhutan's natural heritage is still largely intact, the government has said that it cannot be taken for granted and that conservation of the natural environment must be considered one of the challenges that will need to be addressed in the years ahead. Nearly 56.3% of all Bhutanese are involved with agriculture, forestry or conservation. The government aims to promote conservation as part of its plan to target Gross National Happiness. It currently has net negative greenhouse gas emissions because
9796-528: The forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership . More than 5,400 species of plants are found in Bhutan, including Pedicularis cacuminidenta . Fungi form a key part of Bhutanese ecosystems, with mycorrhizal species providing forest trees with mineral nutrients necessary for growth, and with wood decay and litter decomposing species playing an important role in natural recycling. The Eastern Himalayas has been identified as
9920-669: The great universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila . The Pala empire enjoyed relations with the Srivijaya Empire , the Tibetan Empire and the Arab Abbasid Caliphate . Islam first arrived in Bengal during this period as a result of flourishing mercantile and intellectual contacts with Middle-East. The Pala legacy is still reflected in Tibetan Buddhism . There is no clear evidence for their origin or early history of
10044-490: The highest elevations. Most peaks in the north are over 7,000 m (23,000 ft) above sea level; the highest point is 7,570-metre (24,840 ft)-tall Gangkhar Puensum , which has the distinction of being the highest unclimbed mountain in the world. The lowest point, at 98 m (322 ft), is in the valley of Drangme Chhu , where the river crosses the border with India. Watered by snow-fed rivers, alpine valleys in this region provide pasture for livestock, tended by
10168-632: The installation of Chakrayudha on the Kannauj throne, while "bowing down respectfully with their diadems trembling". This indicates that his position as a sovereign was accepted by most rulers, although this was a loose arrangement unlike the empire of the Mauryas or the Guptas . The other rulers acknowledged the military and political supremacy of Dharmapala, but maintained their own territories. The poet Soddhala of Gujarat calls Dharmapala an Uttarapathasvamin ("Lord of
10292-478: The invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni , which exhausted the strength of other rulers of North India. He may have also conquered Varanasi and surrounding area, as his brothers Sthirapala and Vasantapala undertook construction and repairs of several sacred structures at Varanasi. Later, the Kalachuri king Gangeyadeva annexed Varanasi after defeating the ruler of Anga, which was probably Mahipala's son Nayapala. Nayapala,
10416-525: The largest water reserves for hydropower in the world. Melting glaciers caused by climate change are a growing concern in Bhutan. The precise etymology of "Bhutan" is unknown, although it is likely to derive from the Tibetan endonym "Böd" for Tibet . Traditionally, it is taken to be a transcription of the Sanskrit Bhoṭa-anta ( भोट-अन्त ) "end of Tibet ", a reference to Bhutan's position as
10540-469: The last countries to introduce television. In his speech, the King said that television was a critical step to the modernisation of Bhutan as well as a major contributor to the country's gross national happiness , but warned that the "misuse" of this new technology could erode traditional Bhutanese values. A new constitution was presented in early 2005. In December 2005, Wangchuck announced that he would abdicate
10664-469: The legendary Solar dynasty seems to be unreliable and appear to be an attempt to cover up the humble origins of the dynasty. The Pala dynasty has also been branded as Shudra in some sources such as Manjushri-Mulakalpa . A medieval writer Abul Fazl going by this tradition described these kings as Kayasthas . According to K. N. Sahay, "we can claim Palas also as Kayasthas". But modern scholars believe Palas were staunch Buddhists, as their court became
10788-400: The maintenance of its biodiversity. This is reflected in the decision to maintain at least sixty per cent of the land area under forest cover, to designate more than 40% of its territory as national parks, reserves and other protected areas, and most recently to identify a further nine per cent of land area as biodiversity corridors linking the protected areas. All of Bhutan's protected land
10912-474: The major cities of Gauḍa , Vikramapura , Pāṭaliputra , Monghyr , Somapura , Ramavati ( Varendra ), Tāmralipta and Jagaddala . The Pālas were astute diplomats and military conquerors. Their army was noted for its vast war elephant corps. Their navy performed both mercantile and defensive roles in the Bay of Bengal . At its zenith under emperors Dharmapala and Devapala in the early ninth century, Pala empire
11036-608: The majority of the Lhotshampa refugees. Bhutan's political system has recently changed from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy . King Jigme Singye Wangchuck transferred most of his administrative powers to the Council of Cabinet Ministers and allowed for impeachment of the King by a two-thirds majority of the National Assembly. In 1999, the government lifted a ban on television and internet, making Bhutan one of
11160-509: The new Union of India gained independence from the United Kingdom on 15 August 1947, Bhutan became one of the first countries to recognise India's independence. On 8 August 1949, a treaty similar to that of 1910, in which Britain had gained power over Bhutan's foreign relations, was signed with the newly independent India. In 1953, King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck established the country's legislature—a 130-member National Assembly —to promote
11284-567: The new name, Devaraksita. At this point, he made peace with the Palas by marrying the daughter of Mahana Pala (uncle of Ramapala). His dynasty became known as the Pithipatis . Ramapala was the final strong Pala Emperor, although his son Kumarapala managed to keep most of his territories. After his death, a rebellion broke out in Kamarupa during his son Kumarapala's reign. The rebellion was crushed by Vaidyadeva, minister of Kumarapala. Vaidyadeva also won
11408-489: The night following their election. Gopal, however managed to kill the queen and remained on the throne. The historical evidence indicates that Gopala was not elected directly by his citizens, but by a group of feudal chieftains. Such elections were quite common in contemporary societies of the region. Gopala's ascension in 750 CE was a significant political event as several independent chiefs recognised his political authority without any struggle, consolidating his power over
11532-530: The north rise from the country's lush subtropical plains in the south. In the Bhutanese Himalayas , there are peaks higher than 7,000 metres (23,000 ft) above sea level . Gangkhar Puensum is Bhutan's highest peak and is the highest unclimbed mountain in the world. The wildlife of Bhutan is notable for its diversity, including the Himalayan takin and golden langur . The capital and largest city
11656-415: The numbers produced were increasing. These were mostly made for domestic shrines of the well-off, and from monasteries. Gradually, Hindu figures come to outnumber Buddhist ones, reflecting the terminal decline of Indian Buddhism, even in east India, its last stronghold. As noted earlier, the Palas built a number of monasteries and other sacred structures. The Somapura Mahavihara in present-day Bangladesh
11780-467: The overlap of these extensive protected lands with populated areas has led to mutual habitat encroachment. Protected wildlife has entered agricultural areas, trampling crops and killing livestock. In response, Bhutan has implemented an insurance scheme, begun constructing solar powered alarm fences, watch towers, and search lights, and has provided fodder and salt licks outside human settlement areas to encourage animals to stay away. The huge market value of
11904-498: The process, succeeded to humble the rulers, acquiring considerable booty. The rulers of Bengal who were defeated by Rajendra Chola were Dharmapal, Ranasur and Govindachandra, who might have been feudatories under Mahipala I of the Pala Dynasty. Rajendra Chola I also defeated Mahipala, and obtained from the Pala king "elephants of rare strength, women and treasure". Mahipala also gained control of north and south Bihar, probably aided by
12028-447: The region made him the king. Taranatha, writing nearly 800 years later, also writes that he was democratically elected by the people of Bengal. However, his account is in form of a legend, and is considered historically unreliable. The legend mentions that after a period of anarchy, the people elected several kings in succession, all of whom were consumed by the Naga queen of an earlier king on
12152-414: The rise of resurgent Hindu Senas as sovereign power in the 12th century and final expulsion of the Palas from Bengal by their hands marking the end of last major Buddhist imperial power in the subcontinent. The Pala period is considered one of the golden eras of Bengali history. The Palas brought stability and prosperity to Bengal after centuries of civil war between warring divisions. They advanced
12276-504: The river is joined by the west flowing Tang Chuu and it enters a precipitous gorge. The highway running south from Wangdue Phodrang to Dagana follows the river for much of its course. Near the town of Takshay is the confluence with the west flowing Hara Chhu . The last major Bhutanese tributary is the Daga Chhu . 26°23′N 89°48′E / 26.383°N 89.800°E / 26.383; 89.800 This article related to
12400-626: The rulers of Gautama Buddha 's land, the Palas acquired great reputation in the Buddhist world. Balaputradeva, the Sailendra king of Java, sent an ambassador to him, asking for a grant of five villages for the construction of a monastery at Nalanda. The request was granted by Devapala. He appointed the Brahmin Viradeva (of Nagarahara , present-day Jalalabad) as the head of the Nalanda monastery. The Buddhist poet Vajradatta (the author of Lokesvarashataka),
12524-517: The small amount of pollution it creates is absorbed by the forests that cover most of the country. While the entire country collectively produces 2,200,000 metric tons (2,200,000 long tons; 2,400,000 short tons) of carbon dioxide a year, the immense forest covering 72% of the country acts as a carbon sink , absorbing more than four million tons of carbon dioxide every year. Bhutan had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.85/10, ranking it 16th globally out of 172 countries. Bhutan has
12648-402: The son of Mahipala I, defeated the Kalachuri king Karna (son of Ganggeyadeva) after a long struggle. The two later signed a peace treaty at the mediation of the Buddhist scholar Atiśa . During the reign of Nayapala's son Vigrahapala III, Karna once again invaded Bengal but was defeated. The conflict ended with a peace treaty, and Vigrahapala III married Karna's daughter Yauvanasri. Vigrahapala III
12772-400: The son of Surapala I, is still unknown. After Gopala II, Dharmapala's line came to an end for reasons which are not known yet. Dharmapala's descendants, if any, were passed over as Dharmapala's younger brother, Vakapala's lineage assumed the throne. Shortly afterwards, the empire gradually started disintegrating. Vakapala's grandson and Jayapala's son, Vigrahapala I abdicated the throne after
12896-722: The southern extremity of the Tibetan plateau and culture. Since the 17th century, Bhutan's official name has been Druk yul (literally, "country of the Drukpa Lineage " or "the Land of the Thunder Dragon," a reference to the country's dominant Buddhist sect); "Bhutan" appears only in English-language official correspondence. The terms for the Kings of Bhutan, Druk Gyalpo ("Dragon King"), and
13020-407: The state and people. They were arrested and held for months without trial. Soon the Bhutanese government arbitrarily reported that its census operations had detected the presence in southern Bhutan of over 100,000 "illegal immigrants" although this number is often debated. The census operations, thus, were used as a tool for the identification, eviction and banishment of dissidents who were involved in
13144-424: The structures at Somapura Mahavihara, which also features several themes from the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata . Mahipala I also ordered construction and repairs of several sacred structures at Saranath, Nalanda and Bodh Gaya. The Mahipala geet ("songs of Mahipala"), a set of folk songs about him, are still popular in the rural areas of Bengal. The Palas developed the Buddhist centres of learnings, such as
13268-533: The subtropical Duars Plain, which is the eponymous gateway to strategic mountain passes (also known as dwars or dooars; literally, "doors" in Assamese , Bengali , Maithili , Bhojpuri , and Magahi languages). Most of the Duars is in India, but a 10 to 15 km (6.2 to 9.3 mi)-wide strip extends into Bhutan. The Bhutan Duars is divided into two parts, the northern and southern Duars. The northern Duars, which abut
13392-551: The throne in his son's favour in 2008. On 9 December 2006, he announced that he would abdicate immediately. This was followed by the first national parliamentary elections in December 2007 and March 2008 . On 6 November 2008, 28-year-old Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck was crowned king. In July 2021 during the COVID-19 pandemic , Bhutan became the first world-leading nation in its role of vaccinating 470,000 out of 770,000 people with
13516-480: The time of Madanapala's death, the Pala kingdom was confined to parts of central and east Bihar along with northern Bengal. The Pala rule was monarchial. The king was the centre of all power. Pala kings would adopt imperial titles like Parameshwara , Paramvattaraka , Maharajadhiraja . Pala kings appointed Prime Ministers. The Line of Garga served as the Prime Ministers of the Palas for 100 years. Pala Empire
13640-529: The title Maharajadhiraja , and established a separate kingdom, later ruled by the Chandra dynasty . The Gauda state (West and North Bengal) was ruled by the Kamboja Pala dynasty . The rulers of this dynasty also bore names ending in the suffix -pala (e.g. Rajyapala , Narayanapala and Nayapala ). However, their origin is uncertain, and the most plausible view is that they originated from a Pala official who usurped
13764-550: The title Paramesvara Paramabhattaraka Maharajadhiraja . Dharmapala was succeeded by his son Devapala, who is regarded as the most powerful Pala Emperor. His expeditions resulted in the invasion of Pragjyotisha (present-day Assam) where the king submitted without giving a fight and the Utkala (present-day Northern Odisha) whose king fled from his capital city. The inscriptions of his successors also claim several other territorial conquests by him, but these are possibly exaggerated (see
13888-691: The two did not begin until well into the Scottish explorer George Bogle 's 1774 expedition. Realising the differences between the two regions, cultures, and states, his final report to the East India Company formally proposed calling the Druk Desi 's kingdom "Boutan" and the Panchen Lama 's kingdom "Tibet". The EIC's surveyor general James Rennell first anglicised the French name as "Bootan," and then popularised
14012-496: The uprising against the state. Military and other security forces were deployed for forceful deportations of between 80,000 and 100,000 Lhotshampas and were accused of using widespread violence, torture, rape and killing. The evicted Lhotshampas became refugees in camps in southern Nepal. Since 2008, many Western countries, such as Canada, Norway, the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States, have allowed resettlement of
14136-474: The west with warm summers and cool winters. Bhutan signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 11 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 25 August 1995. It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan , with two revisions, the most recent of which was received by the convention on 4 February 2010. Bhutan has a rich primate life, with rare species such as
14260-480: The whole of Bengal including Gaur, Varendra and Banga, also extending his rule over parts of Magadha . According to R. C. Majumdar , Gopala ruled till 770 CE. Gopala's empire was greatly expanded by his son Dharmapala and his grandson Devapala . Dharmapala was initially defeated by the Pratihara ruler Vatsaraja . Later, the Rashtrakuta king Dhruva defeated both Dharmapala and Vatsaraja. After Dhruva left for
14384-448: Was a Kshatriya or descended from the legendary Solar dynasty . The Ballala-Carita states that the Palas were Kshatriyas, a claim reiterated by Taranatha in his History of Buddhism in India as well as Ghanaram Chakrabarty in his Dharmamangala (both written in the 16th century CE). The Ramacharitam also attests the fifteenth Pala emperor, Ramapala , as a Kshatriya . According to Nitish Sengupta , such claims of belonging to
14508-470: Was divided into separate Bhukti s (Provinces). Bhuktis were divided into Vishaya s (Divisions) and Mandala s (Districts). Smaller units were Khandala , Bhaga , Avritti , Chaturaka , and Pattaka. Administration covered widespread area from the grass root level to the imperial court. The Pala copperplates mention following administrative posts: The Palas were patrons of Mahayana Buddhism . A few sources written much after Gopala's death mention him as
14632-578: Was first introduced to Bhutan in the 7th century AD. The Tibetan king Songtsen Gampo (reigned 627–649), a Buddhist convert, extended the Tibetan Empire into Sikkim and Bhutan. He ordered the construction of two Buddhist temples, Bumthang in central Bhutan and Kyichu (near Paro ) in the Paro Valley . Buddhism was propagated in earnest in 746 under King Sindhu Rāja ( also Künjom; Sendha Gyab; Chakhar Gyalpo), an exiled Indian king who had established
14756-684: Was in his court. The Buddhist scholars from the Pala empire travelled from Bengal to other regions to propagate Buddhism. Atisha, for example, preached in Tibet and Sumatra , and is seen as one of the major figures in the spread of 11th-century Mahayana Buddhism. The Palas continued to patronise Shaivism , and epigraphic evidence suggests that Mahipala I and Nayapala were initiated as Shaivites by their royal preceptors. Vigrahapala III's Amagachi inscription describes him as "devoted to Śiva worship", and this tradition continued under his successor Ramapala. Poet Sandhyakar Nandi describes Ramapala's son Madanapala as
14880-588: Was inhabited as early as 2000 BC, although there are no existing records from that time. Historians have theorised that the state of Lhomon ( lit. ' southern darkness ' ), or Monyul ("Dark Land", a reference to the Monpa , an ethnic group in Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh , India), may have existed between 500 BC and AD 600. The names Lhomon Tsendenjong ( Sandalwood Country) and Lhomon Khashi , or Southern Mon (country of four approaches), have been found in ancient Bhutanese and Tibetan chronicles. Buddhism
15004-456: Was later defeated by the invading Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI . Vigrahapala III also faced another invasion led by the Somavamsi king Mahasivagupta Yayati of Orissa. Subsequently, a series of invasions considerably reduced the power of the Palas. The Varmans occupied eastern Bengal during his reign. The successor and older son of Vighrahapala III by his wife Yauvanashri, Mahipala II's reign
15128-511: Was signed in which Bhutan agreed to retreat to its pre-1730 borders. However, the peace was tenuous, and border skirmishes with the British were to continue for the next hundred years. The skirmishes eventually led to the Duar War (1864–65), a confrontation to control of the Bengal Duars . After Bhutan lost the war, the Treaty of Sinchula was signed between British India and Bhutan. As part of
15252-593: Was the dominant power in the northern Indian subcontinent, with its territory stretching across the Gangetic plain to include some parts northeastern India, Nepal and Bangladesh . Dharmapala also exerted a strong cultural influence through Buddhist scholar Atis Dipankar in Tibet, as well as in Southeast Asia. Pala control of North India was ultimately ephemeral, as they struggled with the Gurjara-Pratiharas and
15376-574: Was thought he also briefly lost control over Magadha and north Bengal, although it has now been debunked. Gopala III suffered serious reverses at the hands of the Chandra king, and ruled only from a part of northern Bengal. The Pala empire disintegrated into smaller kingdoms during the reign of Vigrahapala II. Mahipala recovered parts of Bengal, Bihar and up to Varansi. His successors lost east and south Bengal again. The last strong Pala ruler, Ramapala, gained control of Bengal, Bihar, Assam and parts of Orissa. By
#189810