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73-506: The origin of the rebellion was the Royal Decree of 3 January 1631, in which Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares raised the price of salt by 44%, while also ordering the requisition of all of the salt stored in Biscay, which could, from that point on, only be sold by the royal treasury. The motive of this measure, which contravened the chartered privileges of the domain and its tax exemption,

146-603: A bed of excrement . The King's favourite Piers Gaveston is a "night-grown mushrump" (mushroom) to his enemies in Christopher Marlowe 's Edward II . Their falls could be even more sudden, but after about 1650, executions tended to give way to quiet retirement. Favourites who came from the higher nobility, such as Leicester , Lerma , Olivares , and Oxenstierna , were often less resented and lasted longer. Successful minister-favourites also usually needed networks of their own favourites and relatives to help them carry out

219-598: A certain amount of danger for the participants. There were many English plays on the subject; amongst the best known are Marlowe's Edward II , in which Piers Gaveston is a leading character, and Sejanus His Fall (1603), for which Ben Jonson was called before the Privy Council , accused of "Popery and treason", as the play was claimed by his enemies to contain allusions to the contemporary court of James I of England . Sejanus , whose career in Ancient Rome under Tiberius

292-519: A copy of Prince Baltasar Carlos in the Riding School , his figure was painted over — though a few minor portraits made in the conde-duque's last years of power remain. The royal favourite, who also was Sumiller de Corps and Caballerizo mayor to the King, came to power with a desire to commit the monarchy to a 'crusade of reform', with his early recommendations being extremely radical. The heart of

365-493: A coup against the younger Cecil . Cardinal Wolsey was one figure who rose through the administrative hierarchy, lived extremely ostentatiously, then fell suddenly from power. In the Middle Ages in particular, many royal favourites were promoted in the church, English examples including Saints Dunstan and Thomas Becket ; Bishops William Waynflete , Robert Burnell and Walter Reynolds . Cardinal Granvelle , like his father,

438-449: A favourite in the usual sense, although his relationship with Charles became very close. He was also from a well-established family, with powerful relations. After several years in power, Strafford was impeached by a Parliament now very hostile to him. When that process failed, it passed a bill of attainder for his execution without trial, and it put enough pressure on Charles that, to his subsequent regret, Charles signed it, and Strafford

511-460: A gift for endless self-dramatisation', others, more positively, have outlined a 'determined, perceptive and ambitious' personality. Olivares' enemies saw in him a desire to acquire excessive wealth and power. He disliked sports and light-hearted entertainment, but was a good horseman, albeit hampered by his weight in later life. Olivares did not share the King's taste for personally acquiring art and literature, although he may have helped assemble

584-581: A key foreign policy advisor to Phillip III, who himself had already established a significant influence over the young prince. Olivares in turn rapidly became the young prince's most trusted advisor. When Philip IV ascended the throne in 1621, at the age of sixteen, he showed his confidence in Olivares by ordering that all papers requiring the royal signature should first be sent to the count-duke; despite this, Olivares, then aged 34, had no real experience of administration. Olivares told his uncle de Zúñiga, who

657-557: A means of improving Spain's negotiating position with the Dutch. Olivares' new influence was central to the decision to finally abandon the armistice in favour of renewed military action using the Army of Flanders and economic warfare – ending the Twelve Years Truce and attacking Dutch fleets and applying trading embargoes. This policy would ultimately fail over the next thirty years; to some

730-547: A mission to reclaim the Portuguese colony. The result was a minor Portuguese uprising. The final years of Olivares' rule were marked by major uprisings in Catalonia and Portugal . Catalan histories have tended to represent Olivares as deliberately provoking the rebellion of 1640, in order that he could crush it and thereby unify Spain, although this is considered doubtful by most historians. Instead, it appears most likely that in

803-605: A rising politician under Elizabeth I: It is a strange thing to observe, how high a rate great kings and monarchs do set upon this fruit of friendship, whereof we speak: So great, as they purchase it, many times, at the hazard of their own safety and greatness. For princes, in regard of the distance of their fortune from that of their subjects and servants, cannot gather this fruit, except (to make themselves capable thereof) they raise some persons to be, as it were, companions and almost equals to themselves, which many times sorteth to inconvenience. The modern languages give unto such persons

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876-661: A small scale. In 1635, Spain responded by intervening against the Elector of Trier , a significant move that effectively forced a French declaration of war. By this stage in the war, Olivares' advice to the King was that this conflict with France would be for all or nothing – Spain would win or fall by the result. Nonetheless, French victory was far from certain in the 1630s; Olivares' invasion plan in 1635 involved four different armies and two navies, being described as 'the most ambitious military conception of early modern Europe.' Although Spanish forces were within 16 miles of Paris at

949-466: A state bankruptcy. With the Genoese debt now removed, Olivares hoped to turn to indigenous bankers for renewed funds. In practice, the plan was a disaster. The Spanish treasure fleet of 1628 was captured by the Dutch, and Spain's ability to borrow and transfer money across Europe declined sharply. Faced by the Dutch capture of Brazil, Olivares turned to Portugal in 1637, attempting to raise taxes to pay for

1022-498: A strict parental regime. While in Rome , Olivares appointed Tomás Fernández de Medrano to serve in his service from 1582 to 1590. He returned to Spain in 1599, and became student rector at Salamanca University . By background, he was both a man of letters and well trained in arms. During the reign of King Philip III , he was appointed to a post in the household of the heir apparent, Philip , by his maternal uncle Don Baltasar de Zúñiga ,

1095-461: A tool in support of foreign policy – a common view amongst contemporary arbitristas , such as Sancho de Moncada and Jeronimo Zeballos . Like many other contemporaries, he had a keen interest in astrology , and its potential impact on the world around him. Naturally, he incorporated that interest into political expression: he promoted Philip as "The Planet King" — the Sun, traditionally the fourth planet,

1168-448: Is generally argued, a completely unified kingdom. Olivares' 'Union of Arms' plan failed in the face of opposition from the provinces, in particular Catalonia, leading him to offer his resignation to the King in 1626 – it was not accepted. The subsequent years were challenging financially for Spain. In 1627, Olivares attempted to deal with the problem of Philip's Genoese bankers – who had proved uncooperative in recent years – by declaring

1241-823: The Cartas de Sor María de Ágreda y del rey Felipe IV. (Madrid, 1885–1886). Favorite A favourite was the intimate companion of a ruler or other important person. In post-classical and early-modern Europe , among other times and places, the term was used of individuals delegated significant political power by a ruler. It was especially a phenomenon of the 16th and 17th centuries , when government had become too complex for many hereditary rulers with no great interest in or talent for it, and political institutions were still evolving. From 1600 to 1660 there were particular successions of all-powerful minister-favourites in much of Europe, particularly in Spain, England, France and Sweden. By

1314-721: The Dutch Republic , known for its relatively open show of wealth. Olivares' first key decision came in 1621. Under Philip III, Spain had successfully intervened in the Electoral Palatinate in combination with the forces of Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor , a fellow Habsburg , during 1618–20, surrounding the Dutch provinces that had rebelled against Spanish rule some forty years before. An armistice had successfully held since April 1609, but in his role as foreign policy advisor, Olivares' uncle Baltasar de Zúñiga had brought Spain closer and closer to recommencing hostilities as

1387-714: The Dutch occupation of Brazil and the Portuguese opposition to any peace involving relinquishing their colony made this impossible. The destruction of the Spanish Atlantic fleet at the Battle of the Downs was another major blow, leaving a cash-strapped Spain unable to build a replacement force. An attempt to bring Poland into the war failed. By 1640, Olivares' foreign policy was creaking badly under pressure from an increasingly powerful France, with money increasingly tight. Olivares approached

1460-505: The House of Braganza . Olivares' fall from power occurred for several reasons. The revolts in Catalonia and Portugal proved the immediate factor, placing the stability of Spain itself in doubt, but other factors played a part. Olivares increasingly suffered from mental illness in his later years, and was no longer as effective an administrator as he had once been. He had also increasingly alienated

1533-536: The Scottish nobles revolted against him and hanged him and other low-born favourites of James III of Scotland . Melchior Klesl , minister-favourite of Emperor Matthias (1609-1618) and cardinal, was the son of a Protestant baker in Vienna. Olivier le Daim , the barber of Louis XI , acquired a title and important military commands before he was executed on vague charges brought by nobles shortly after his master died, without

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1606-627: The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648). In addition, his attempts to centralise power and increase wartime taxation led to revolts in Catalonia and in Portugal , which brought about his downfall. Olivares was born in Rome in 1587, where his father, Enrique de Guzmán, 2nd Count of Olivares , from one of Spain's oldest noble families, was the Spanish ambassador. His mother died young, and his father brought him up under

1679-625: The entry of France into the war. His handling of War of the Mantuan Succession , which started to pitch France against the Habsburgs in northern Italy and would ultimately result in the French invasion of Spain, has been much criticised. By 1634, France seeing the Spanish successes in Germany and the defeat of her Swedish allies , began raising the political stakes, taking provocative military action on

1752-430: The severe bloodletting and excessive purging he received from his doctors at key moments in his career. Olivares wrote extensively, although there are differences of opinion amongst modern scholars on his work: some find them 'forceful, incisive and persuasive', others consider them 'inflated and tortuous prose', wandering down 'interminable labyrinths'. For twenty-two years Olivares directed Spain's foreign policy. It

1825-483: The King's own collection, and it was he who brought to Philip's attention the young artist Diego Velázquez , in 1623. For himself he formed a vast collection of state papers, ancient and contemporary, which he endeavoured to protect from destruction by entailing them as an heirloom. He also formed a splendid aviary for the Buen Retiro Palace , which lent him comfort after the death of his daughter but which opened

1898-513: The Netherlands first, with the hope of dealing with the other challenges facing the Spanish across Europe once this key Spanish possession had been secured. For the first fifteen years of the war, this strategy proved largely successful. Spain made considerable early advances against the Dutch, finally retaking the key city of Breda in 1624, albeit at huge expense. In 1634, against the backdrop of Swedish successes across northern Europe, Olivares

1971-399: The Spanish people held his favourite responsible for the numerous misfortunes of the country in the 1640s. Olivares did not let go of power readily. He attempted to use art and theatre in the 1630s to shore up his waning popularity amongst the elite but without success, although he was able to overcome the attempts of Gaspar Alfonso Pérez de Guzmán, 9th Duke of Medina Sidonia , whose family

2044-525: The Spanish recommencement of the war has appeared 'surprising', whilst it can also be explained as a misreading of internal Dutch politics. Whilst the strategy itself was a failure, Olivares' tactics – his attempt to combine military and economic warfare – have since been praised as a 'shrewd policy'. For the remainder of the Eighty Years' War , Olivares would pursue a 'Netherlands first' strategy, focusing his resources and attention on delivering success in

2117-471: The army, but the overall direction was never delegated, and no subsequent French minister ever equalled the power of the two cardinals. In Spain under the Habsburgs , when Olivares was succeeded by his nephew Luis Méndez de Haro , the last real valido , the control of government into a single pair of hands had already been weakened. Favourites were the subject of much contemporary debate, some of it involving

2190-413: The bureaucratic Polysynodial System of Castilian government, during the 1620s Olivares began to create juntas , smaller governmental committees, to increase the speed of decision making. By the 1630s, these were increasingly packed with Olivares' own placemen , tasked to implement his policies. He placed tight controls on the use of special royal favours to circumvent tight spending controls. The result

2263-518: The centuries progressed; one of the last families able to jump the widening chasm between servants and nobility was that of Louis XIV's valet, Alexandre Bontemps , whose descendants, holding the office for a further three generations, married into many great families, even eventually including the extended royal family itself. Queen Victoria's John Brown came much too late; the devotion of the monarch and ability to terrorise her household led to hardly any rise in social or economic position. In England,

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2336-466: The death of Cardinal Mazarin in 1661, the 23-year-old Louis XIV determined that he would rule himself, and he did not allow the delegation of power to ministers that had happened during the previous 40 years. The absolute monarchy pioneered by Cardinal Richelieu , Mazarin's predecessor, was to be led by the monarch himself. Louis had many powerful ministers, notably Jean-Baptiste Colbert , in finances, and François-Michel le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois ,

2409-504: The door for his enemies to nickname the entire Retiro the Gallinero , or the hencoop. Velázquez painted at least three portraits of his friend and original patron, producing the baroque equestrian portrait along with the standing portraits now at the Hermitage and São Paulo . It is possible that other portraits by Velázquez commissioned by the King were destroyed after Olivares' fall — in

2482-481: The envy and loathing of the rest of the nobility , and monarchs were sometimes obliged by political pressure to dismiss or execute them; in the Middle Ages nobles often rebelled in order to seize and kill a favourite. Too close a relationship between monarch and favourite was seen as a breach of the natural order and hierarchy of society. Since many favourites had flamboyant "over-reaching" personalities, they often led

2555-470: The face of the increased French threat and the need to raise men, money and arms to defend the Peninsula, Olivares sent his army of 9,000 men into Catalonia expecting relatively limited resistance. Chaos ensued in the form of a major revolt; Portugal followed suit later in the year in the face of Olivares' attempts to convince its nobility to serve in the war in Catalonia, with Lisbon offering Philip's throne to

2628-419: The growing hatred against his rule. These plans took form first in Olivares' ' Union of Arms ' concept, put forward in 1624. This would have involved the different elements of Philip's territories raising fixed quotas of soldiers in line with their size and population. Despite being portrayed by Olivares as a purely military plan, it reflected Olivares' desire for a more closely unified Spain – although not, it

2701-403: The height of their success that year, Olivares' plan had severely overstretched Spanish resources and ultimately failed, leaving Spain to face a massive counter-attack in 1637. By 1639, Olivares was attempting to convince the King to compromise with the French but without success; he considered making a separate peace with the Dutch, which would have freed up resources for the war on France, but

2774-509: The knowledge of the new king. It has been claimed that le Daim's career was the origin of the term, as favori (the French word) first appeared around the time of his death in 1484. Privado in Spanish was older, but was later partly replaced by the term valido ; in Spanish, both terms were less derogatory than in French and English. Spain had a succession of validos during the reigns of Philip II , Philip III , and Philip IV . Such rises from menial positions became progressively harder as

2847-622: The late 17th century, the royal favourite as quasi- Prime Minister declined; in France, the King resolved to rule directly , while in Britain, as the power of the monarch relative to Parliament declined, executive power slowly passed to the new office of Prime Minister and other parliamentary ministers. The term is also sometimes employed by writers who want to avoid terms such as " royal mistress ", "friend", "companion", or "lover" (of either sex). Some favourites had sexual relations with their monarch (or

2920-505: The level of taxation in many of the more peripheral provinces was less than in Castile, but the privileged position of the Castilian nobility at all senior levels of royal appointment was a contentious issue for the less favoured provinces. This loose system had successfully resisted reform and higher taxation before, resulting in Spain having had historically, up until the 1640s at least, less than

2993-480: The meeting of the General Assemblies of Guernica in 1633, demanding for all of the abusive taxes to be revoked and for the restoration of the tax exemption recognized in the privileges. The rebellion, which lasted on-and-off for more than three years, was definitively crushed in the spring of 1634, when the main ringleaders were arrested and executed. Philip opted to pardon the rest of the rebels and to suspend

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3066-453: The monarch through the social life of the court, rather than the business of politics or administration. Figures like William Cecil and Jean-Baptiste Colbert , whose accelerated rise through the administrative ranks owed much to their personal relations with the monarch , but who did not attempt to behave like grandees of the nobility, were also often successful. Elizabeth I had Cecil as Secretary of State and later Lord High Treasurer from

3139-525: The monarch's spouse), but this was far from universal. Many were favoured for their skill as administrators, while others were close friends of the monarch. The term has an inbuilt element of disapproval and is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as "One who stands unduly high in the favour of a prince", citing Shakespeare : "Like favourites/ Made proud by Princes" ( Much Ado about Nothing , 3.1.9 ). Favourites inevitably tended to incur

3212-520: The name of favourites , or privadoes ... . And we see plainly that this hath been done, not by weak and passionate princes only, but by the wisest and most politic that ever reigned; who have oftentimes joined to themselves some of their servants; whom both themselves have called friends, and allowed other likewise to call them in the same manner; using the word which is received between private men. Lord Macaulay wrote in 1844 of George III 's old tutor, John Stuart , who became Prime Minister : "He

3285-405: The new honour — according to a practice almost unique in Spanish history. Accordingly, he was commonly spoken of as the count-duke. Olivares' personality and appearance have attracted much comment, especially by 17th-century writers, who were generally critical of them. He possessed a strikingly 'big, heavy body and florid face'. Contemporaries described an 'extravagant, out-size personality with

3358-566: The opinion of his countrymen, the accepted model of a grasping and incapable favorite, although this commonly held opinion about his personality has changed. His personal reputation has traditionally been portrayed unfavorably, especially compared to his French contemporary, Cardinal Richelieu , a trend which began in the 18th century. See the Estudios del reinado de Felipe IV. of Don Antonio Canovas (Madrid, 1889); and Don F Silvela's introduction, much less favourable to Olivares, to his edition of

3431-496: The original order concerning the price of salt as a concession. This economic history -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Gaspar de Guzm%C3%A1n, Count-Duke of Olivares Gaspar de Guzmán y Pimentel, 1st Duke of Sanlúcar, 3rd Count of Olivares , GE , known as the Count-Duke of Olivares (taken by joining both his countship and subsequent dukedom ) (6 January 1587 – 22 July 1645),

3504-410: The other Castilian nobility. His use of juntas – committees – packed with his own men, irritated many. Olivares was also largely blamed by contemporaries for the new royal palace of Buen Retiro , the huge cost of which appeared to fly in the face of the wider austerity measures Olivares had championed in the 1630s. 1641 had seen a disastrous bout of inflation, causing economic chaos. More generally

3577-555: The problem of domestic policy through the prism of foreign affairs. Spain in the early 17th century was a collection of possessions – the kingdoms of Castile , Aragon , Naples , Portugal , the autonomous provinces of Valencia , Catalonia and Andalusia as well as the Netherlands , Duchy of Milan etc. – all loosely joined through the institution of the Castile monarchy and the person of Philip IV. Each part had different taxation, privileges and military arrangements; in practice,

3650-473: The problem, Olivares felt, was Spain's moral and spiritual decline. De Zúñiga and Olivares had both presented Philip IV with the concept of restoring the kingdoms to their condition under Philip II , undoing the alleged decline that had occurred under the King's father, Philip III, and in particular his royal favourite, the Francisco Gómez de Sandoval, 1st Duke of Lerma . Olivares was concerned that Spain

3723-439: The rest of the day, often until 11 o'clock at night. Initially, Olivares would meet with the King three times a day, although this declined over time until he met with him only once a day. Whilst living a private life of " Spartan austerity" himself, Olivares was skillful in using the formal and elaborate protocol of the court as a way of controlling the ambitions of Philip's enemies and rivals. Determined to attempt to improve

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3796-426: The scope for giving political power to a favourite was reduced by the growing importance of Parliament . After the "mushroom" Buckingham was assassinated by John Felton in 1628, Charles I turned to Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford , who had been a leader of Parliamentary opposition to Buckingham and the King, but had become his supporter after Charles made concessions. Strafford can therefore hardly be called

3869-426: The solution at least in a reform of the Spanish state. Olivares saw Catalan and the other provinces as paying less to the crown than they should, and did not really understand why the inhabitants should object to a fairer distribution of taxes. He was confident in the intellectual argument for a better defended, better ordered Spain, and never seems to have shown serious doubt that his plans would succeed, or understood

3942-448: The time she ascended the throne in 1558 until his death 40 years later. She had more colourful relationships with several courtiers; the most lasting and intimate one was with Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester , who was also a leading politician. Only in her last decade was the position of the Cecils, father and son, challenged, by Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex , when he fatally attempted

4015-510: The title of El Nicandro , which was perhaps written by an agent but was undeniably inspired by the fallen minister. El Nicandro was denounced to the Inquisition , and it is not impossible that Olivares might have ended in the prisons of the Holy Office, or on the scaffold, if he had not died beforehand of natural causes. His rivals felt that Loeches remained too close to the court, and he

4088-463: The upper echelons of Castilian society. The King himself noted that it might be necessary to sacrifice Olivares' life in order to divert unpopularity from the royal house. The end was near, but the King parted with him reluctantly in January 1643, and only under the pressure of a court intrigue headed by Queen Isabel . He retired by the King's order first to Loeches , where he published an apology under

4161-452: The usual number of fiscal revolts for an early modern European state. By the 1620s and '30s, however, the ability of the Spanish monarchy to extract resources from Castile was at breaking point, as illustrated by Olivares' early failure to reform the millones food tax in Castile, and with war continuing across Europe, new options were necessary. Like many contemporaries, Olivares was 'haunted' by Spain's potential decline, and saw part of

4234-470: The way to their own downfall with their rash behaviour. As the opinions of the gentry and bourgeoisie grew in importance, they too often strongly disliked favourites. Dislike from all classes could be especially intense in the case of favourites who were elevated from humble, or at least minor, backgrounds by royal favour. Titles and estates were usually given lavishly to favourites, who were compared to mushrooms because they sprang up suddenly overnight, from

4307-438: The work of government – Richelieu had his "créatures" and Olivares his "hechuras". Oxenstierna and William Cecil , who both died in office, successfully trained their sons to succeed them. The favourite can often not be easily distinguished from the successful royal administrator, who at the top of the tree certainly needed the favour of the monarch, but the term is generally used of those who first came into contact with

4380-474: Was a Spanish royal favourite (Spanish: valido ) of Philip IV and minister. He was appointed as Grandee on 10 April 1621. A day after the ending of the Twelve Years' Truce in January 1643, he over-exerted Spain in foreign affairs and unsuccessfully attempted domestic reform. His policy of committing Spain to recapture Holland led to a renewal of the Eighty Years' War while Spain was also embroiled in

4453-556: Was a favourite, and favourites have always been odious in this country. No mere favourite had been at the head of the government since the dagger of Felton had reached the heart of the Duke of Buckingham". In 1974 Jean Bérenger published "Pour une enquête européenne, l'histoire du ministeriat au XVIIe siècle" in Annales , a seminal study on the subject. According to Bérenger, the simultaneous success of minister-favourites in several monarchies of

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4526-449: Was a fitting emblem for the fourth Philip of Spain — taking for his own symbol the sunflower. Whilst displaying huge confidence in his own capabilities and judgment, he also felt considerable 'doubt and uneasiness' over his position as chief minister to the king. Olivares was well known for his passion for work. Olivares would rise early, go to confession, wake Philip IV and discuss the day's events with him, before then working throughout

4599-632: Was a period of constant war, and finally of disaster abroad and of rebellion at home. Olivares' foreign policy was based around his assessment that Philip IV was surrounded by jealous rivals across Europe, who wished to attack his position as a champion of the Catholic Church ; in particular, Olivares saw the rebellious Dutch as a key enemy. Although Olivares made much of religion as a facet of Spain's foreign policy, in practice he often overruled that principle. It has also been argued that Olivares' dislike of flamboyant spending may have influenced his views of

4672-684: Was a traditional enemy of the Counts of Olivares, to remove him from power in the Andalusian revolt in 1641 . By the following year, his situation was weakening as the Catalan revolt dragged on. Olivares' nephew and favoured successor, along with Olivares' daughter and young baby had all died in 1626, and in the absence of other children he chose to legitimate his bastard son, Don Enrique Felipez de Guzman in 1641. In doing so he had effectively disinherited another nephew and heir , causing huge family tensions within

4745-473: Was a trusted Habsburg minister who lived grandly, but he was not really a favourite, partly because most of his career was spent away from the monarch. Some favourites came from very humble backgrounds: Archibald Armstrong , jester to James I of England infuriated everyone else at court but managed to retire a wealthy man; unlike Robert Cochrane , a stonemason (probably a senior one, more like an architect than an artisan ) who became Earl of Mar before

4818-494: Was a very particular combination of centralised power in the form of Olivares, and loose government executed by small committees. Over time, Olivares began to suffer under his tremendous workload, developing sleeping disorders and, later in life, clearly suffering from mental illness . He became increasingly impatient with those who disagreed with him, flying into rages, and refusing to listen to advice proffered by his own advisers. His behaviour may also have been exacerbated by

4891-552: Was crucial to the creation of a fresh Spanish army in northern Italy, and the projection of that force under the leadership of Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand along the Spanish Road into Germany, where the 'almost miraculous appearance' of the army defeated the Protestant alliance at the Battle of Nördlingen (1634) . The scene had been set, Olivares believed, for a renewed attack on the Dutch. Olivares' strategy ultimately failed due to

4964-512: Was executed in 1641. There were later minister-favourites in England, but they knew that the favour of the monarch alone was not sufficient to rule, and most also had careers in Parliament. In 1721, the new office of Prime Minister was created, formalizing the replacement of ministers chosen by the monarch with a political head of government . In France, the movement was in the opposite direction. On

5037-485: Was moved onto his sister's palace at Toro . He endeavoured to satisfy his passion for work, partly by sharing in the municipal government of the town and the regulation of its commons, woods and pastures. He died, increasingly consumed by madness, in 1645. The Olivares library was not preserved as he had instructed after his death, and his collection of private and state papers was largely destroyed in an 18th-century fire. The Count-Duke became, and for long remained, in

5110-543: Was the need by the monarchy of Habsburg Spain to maintain its costly army in the wars of Northern Europe . The tax was preceded by other measures to raise money, such as the application of fees to trade in wool or woolen cloth. The population of Biscay reacted angrily against the representatives of royal authority, even going so far as to assassinate the procurator of the Court of Corregidor in October 1632. The revolt also blocked

5183-465: Was to die the following year, that he was now the dominant force at court; he had become what is known in Spain as a valido , something more than a prime minister, the favourite and alter ego of the king. His compound title is explained by the fact that he inherited the title of Count of Olivares , but was created Duke of Sanlúcar la Mayor by King Philip IV of Spain. He begged the King to allow him to preserve his inherited title in combination with

5256-424: Was too attached to the idea of limpieza de sangre , 'purity of blood', and worried about Castilians' disinclination for manual work. For Olivares, the concept of Spain was centred on the monarchy and Philip IV as a person; unlike his French contemporary Cardinal Richelieu , Olivares did not elaborate a concept of the 'state' as separate from the person of the king. Olivares was inclined to see domestic policy as

5329-471: Was vividly described by Tacitus , was the subject of numerous works all around Europe. Shakespeare was more cautious, and with the exceptions of Falstaff , badly disappointed in his hopes of becoming a favourite, and Cardinal Wolsey in Henry ;VIII , he gives no major parts to favourites. Francis Bacon , almost a favourite himself, devoted much of his essay On Friendship to the subject, writing as

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