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145-563: From the 13th century until the first half of the 20th century, the island of Saaremaa was known in most of the world by variants of its other historical name Ösel . Saaremaa was called Eysysla in the Icelandic sagas and other early medieval Scandinavian sources ( Old Norse : [ˈœyˌsyːslɑ] ), meaning "the district (land) of island"). The island is called Saaremaa in modern Estonian and Saarenmaa in Finnish — literally "land of

290-694: A bombing campaign  [ ru ] on Berlin from Saaremaa. The island was then invaded and occupied by Nazi Germany later ( Operation Beowulf ). German troops were expelled and the island was reoccupied by the Soviet Red Army in the Moonsund Landing Operation in October and November 1944. In 1946, the Soviet military authorities declared Saaremaa a restricted zone closed to all non-local civilians, i.e., mainland Estonians and foreigners. It remained

435-557: A longhouse in Stöðvarfjörður that may date to as early as 800. Swedish Viking explorer Garðar Svavarsson was the first to circumnavigate Iceland in 870 and establish that it was an island. He stayed during the winter and built a house in Húsavík . Garðar departed the following summer, but one of his men, Náttfari , decided to stay behind with two slaves. Náttfari settled in what is now known as Náttfaravík, and he and his slaves became

580-456: A market economy with relatively low taxes , compared to other OECD countries, as well as the highest trade union membership in the world . It maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides universal health care and tertiary education . Iceland ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as quality of life, education, protection of civil liberties, government transparency, and economic freedom. It has

725-464: A shield volcano with a magma chamber underneath). Several classifications of the systems exist, for example there is one of 30 systems, and one of 34 systems, with the later currently being used in Iceland itself. The climate of Iceland's coast is subarctic . The warm North Atlantic Current ensures generally higher annual temperatures than in most places of similar latitude in the world. Regions in

870-528: A summit in Reykjavík in 1986 between United States President Ronald Reagan and Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev , during which they took significant steps towards nuclear disarmament . A few years later, Iceland became the first country to recognise the independence of Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania as they broke away from the USSR. Throughout the 1990s, the country expanded its international role and developed

1015-428: A "type area" illustrating the effects of post-glacial rebound and the holocene glacial retreat . In several other Nordic ports, like Tornio and Pori (formerly at Ulvila ), the harbour has had to be relocated several times. Place names in the coastal regions also illustrate the rising land: there are inland places named 'island', 'skerry', 'rock', 'point' and 'sound'. For example, Oulunsalo "island of Oulujoki "

1160-444: A 32 percent increase in Iceland's gross national income between 2002 and 2007. In 2003–2007, following the privatisation of the banking sector under the government of Davíð Oddsson , Iceland moved towards having an economy based on international investment banking and financial services. It was quickly becoming one of the most prosperous countries in the world, but was hit hard by a major financial crisis . The crisis resulted in

1305-572: A claim to sustaining one of the world's longest-running parliaments. Until the 20th century, Iceland relied largely on subsistence fishing and agriculture. Industrialization of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid after World War II brought prosperity, and Iceland became one of the world's wealthiest and most developed nations. In 1994 it became a part of the European Economic Area , further diversifying its economy into sectors such as finance, biotechnology, and manufacturing . Iceland has

1450-584: A convicted child sex offender. Snap elections in October 2017 brought to power a new coalition consisting of the Independence Party, the Progressive Party, and the Left-Green Movement , headed by Katrín Jakobsdóttir . After the 2021 parliamentary election , the new government was, just like the previous government, a tri-party coalition of the Independence Party, the Progressive Party, and

1595-636: A defence agreement was signed with the United States. American troops returned to Iceland as the Iceland Defence Force and remained throughout the Cold War . The US withdrew the last of its forces on 30 September 2006. Iceland prospered during the Second World War. The immediate post-war period was followed by substantial economic growth , driven by the industrialisation of the fishing industry and

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1740-460: A famine that killed nearly a quarter of the island's population. In addition, the eruption caused dust clouds and haze to appear over most of Europe and parts of Asia and Africa for several months afterwards, and affected climates in other areas. Iceland has many geysers , including Geysir , from which the English word is derived, and the famous Strokkur , which erupts every 8–10 minutes. After

1885-594: A fleet of sixteen ships and 500 Osilians ravaging the area that is now southern Sweden , then belonging to Denmark . Probably around 1000, Gunnar Hámundarson from Iceland took part in a Viking raid at Eysýsla (Saaremaa). There he obtained his famous atgeir , by taking it from a man named Hallgrímur. Njáls saga tells the following: Thence they held on south to Denmark and thence east to Smálönd and had victory wherever they went. They did not come back in autumn. The next summer they held on to Rafala ( Tallinn ) and fell in there with sea-rovers, and fought at once, and won

2030-525: A foreign policy orientated towards humanitarian and peacekeeping causes. To that end, Iceland provided aid and expertise to various NATO-led interventions in Bosnia , Kosovo , and Iraq . Iceland joined the European Economic Area in 1994, after which the economy was greatly diversified and liberalised. International economic relations increased further after 2001 when Iceland's newly deregulated banks began to raise great amounts of external debt , contributing to

2175-704: A fully sovereign and independent state in a personal union with Denmark. The Government of Iceland established an embassy in Copenhagen and requested that Denmark carry out on its behalf certain defence and foreign affairs matters, subject to consultation with the Althing. Danish embassies around the world displayed two coats of arms and two flags: those of the Kingdom of Denmark and those of the Kingdom of Iceland . Iceland's legal position became comparable to those of countries belonging to

2320-426: A long enough time. Thus, the observations of postglacial rebound provide a natural experiment to measure mantle rheology. Modelling of glacial isostatic adjustment addresses the question of how viscosity changes in the radial and lateral directions and whether the flow law is linear, nonlinear, or composite rheology. Mantle viscosity may additionally be estimated using seismic tomography , where seismic velocity

2465-466: A low- silica lava associated with effusive volcanism as has occurred also in Hawaii . Iceland, however, has a variety of volcanic types (composite and fissure), many producing more evolved lavas such as rhyolite and andesite . Iceland has hundreds of volcanoes with about 30 active volcanic systems. Surtsey , one of the youngest islands in the world, is part of Iceland. Named after Surtr , it rose above

2610-407: A man is to be slain with that atgeir, for something sings in it so loudly that it may be heard a long way off—such a strong nature has that atgeir in it. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia describes a fleet of sixteen ships and five hundred pirates from Saaremaa ravaging the area that is now southern Sweden , then belonging to Denmark . The XIVth book of Gesta Danorum , Saxo Grammaticus describes

2755-415: A mass of 20–80 metric tons (20–79 long tons; 22–88 short tons). At the altitude of 5–10 km (3–6 mi) the meteor broke into pieces. The largest fragment produced the main crater with a depth of 22 m (72 ft). Eight smaller craters with diameters ranging from 12 to 40 m (39 to 131 ft) and depths varying from 1 to 4 m (3 to 13 ft) are all within 1 kilometer (0.62 mi) of

2900-655: A part of the Governorate of Livonia . In 1840, the first spa opened in Kuressaare (then known as Arensburg), and the town experienced renaissance and became a popular seaside resort. During World War I, the West Estonian Archipelago was conquered by Imperial German Army in October 1917 ( Operation Albion ) and remained occupied by Germans until the end of hostilities in November 1918. Thereafter Saaremaa became part of

3045-406: A phase of inactivity, Geysir started erupting again after a series of earthquakes in 2000 . Geysir has since grown quieter and does not erupt often. With the widespread availability of geothermal power and the harnessing of many rivers and waterfalls for hydroelectricity , most residents have access to inexpensive hot water, heating, and electricity. The island is composed primarily of basalt ,

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3190-620: A popular holiday destination. In 2016, Prime Minister Sigmundur Davíð Gunnlaugsson resigned after being implicated in the Panama Papers scandal. Early elections in 2016 resulted in a right-wing coalition government of the Independence Party , the Reform Party and Bright Future . This government fell when Bright Future quit the coalition due to a scandal involving then-Prime Minister Bjarni Benediktsson 's father's letter of support for

3335-689: A restricted area until 1989. Estonia regained full independence in August 1991. The island forms the main barrier between the Gulf of Riga and the Baltic Sea. To the south of it is the main passage out of the gulf, the Irbe Strait , next to Sõrve Peninsula , the southernmost portion of the island. In medieval times islanders crossed the strait to form fishing villages on the Livonian coast , notably Pitrags . In those days it

3480-479: A society where subsistence depended almost entirely on agriculture. The Black Death swept Iceland twice, first in 1402–1404 and again in 1494–1495. The former outbreak killed 50% to 60% of the population, and the latter 30% to 50%. Around the middle of the 16th century, as part of the Protestant Reformation , King Christian III of Denmark began to impose Lutheranism on all his subjects. Jón Arason ,

3625-509: A subsequent battle on Öland in 1170 in which the Danish king Valdemar I mobilized his entire fleet to curb the incursions of pirates from " Couronia " (Courland) and Saaremaa. Perhaps the most renowned raid by the inhabitants of Saaremaa occurred in 1187, with the attack on the Swedish town of Sigtuna (other candidates as raiders are Karelians and Curonians ). Among the casualties of this raid

3770-570: A variety of soils, Saaremaa has a rich flora , illustrated by the fact that 80% of the plant species found in Estonia are represented here. Altogether 1200 species of vascular plants can be found in Saaremaa. About 120 of the local plant species are rare ones that have received special protection status. The most famous endemic species is Rhinanthus osiliensis , a rare little flower growing mostly in spring fens. Rare and beautiful flowers are widespread; out of

3915-473: Is Reykjavík , which is home to about 36% of the country's roughly 380,000 residents (excluding nearby towns/suburbs which are separate municipalities). The official language of the country is Icelandic . Iceland is on a rift between tectonic plates , and its geologic activity includes geysers and frequent volcanic eruptions . The interior consists of a volcanic plateau with sand and lava fields , mountains and glaciers , and many glacial rivers flow to

4060-407: Is colatitude and λ {\displaystyle \lambda } is longitude , t {\displaystyle t} is time, ρ i {\displaystyle \rho _{i}} and ρ w {\displaystyle \rho _{w}} are the densities of ice and water, respectively, γ {\displaystyle \gamma }

4205-553: Is a sitka spruce planted in 1949 in Kirkjubæjarklaustur ; it was measured at 25.2 m (83 ft) in 2013. Algae such as Chondrus crispus , Phyllphora truncata and Phyllophora crispa and others have been recorded from Iceland. The only native land mammal when humans arrived was the Arctic fox , which came to the island at the end of the ice age, walking over the frozen sea. On rare occasions, bats have been carried to

4350-447: Is a peninsula, with inland names such as Koivukari "Birch Rock", Santaniemi "Sandy Cape", and Salmioja "the brook of the Sound". (Compare [1] and [2] .) In Great Britain , glaciation affected Scotland but not southern England , and the post-glacial rebound of northern Great Britain (up to 10 cm per century) is causing a corresponding downward movement of the southern half of

4495-659: Is a reference surface for altitude measurement and plays vital roles in many human activities, including land surveying and construction of buildings and bridges. Since postglacial rebound continuously deforms the crustal surface and the gravitational field, the vertical datum needs to be redefined repeatedly through time. According to the theory of plate tectonics , plate-plate interaction results in earthquakes near plate boundaries. However, large earthquakes are found in intraplate environments like eastern Canada (up to M7) and northern Europe (up to M5) which are far away from present-day plate boundaries. An important intraplate earthquake

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4640-478: Is also monitored by a GPS network called BIFROST. Results of GPS data show a peak rate of about 11 mm/year in the north part of the Gulf of Bothnia , but this uplift rate decreases away and becomes negative outside the former ice margin. In the near field outside the former ice margin, the land sinks relative to the sea. This is the case along the east coast of the United States, where ancient beaches are found submerged below present day sea level and Florida

4785-496: Is also where most settlements are situated. The island's interior, the Highlands of Iceland , is a cold and uninhabitable combination of sand, mountains, and lava fields . The major towns are the capital city of Reykjavík , along with its outlying towns of Kópavogur , Hafnarfjörður , and Garðabær , nearby Reykjanesbær where the international airport is located, and the town of Akureyri in northern Iceland. The island of Grímsey on

4930-456: Is closer to continental Europe than to mainland North America, although it is closest to Greenland (290 kilometres; 155 nautical miles), an island of North America. Iceland is generally included in Europe for geographical, historical, political, cultural, linguistic and practical reasons. Geologically, the island includes parts of both continental plates. The closest bodies of land in Europe are

5075-408: Is due to the gravitational attraction between the mass of the melted water and the other masses, such as remaining ice sheets, glaciers, water masses and mantle rocks and the changes in centrifugal potential due to Earth's variable rotation. Accompanying vertical motion is the horizontal motion of the crust. The BIFROST GPS network shows that the motion diverges from the centre of rebound. However,

5220-539: Is due to the tendency towards the restoration of isostatic equilibrium (as in the case of isostasy of mountains). Unfortunately, that term gives the wrong impression that isostatic equilibrium is somehow reached, so by appending "adjustment" at the end, the motion of restoration is emphasized. Post-glacial rebound produces measurable effects on vertical crustal motion, global sea levels, horizontal crustal motion, gravity field, Earth's rotation, crustal stress, and earthquakes. Studies of glacial rebound give us information about

5365-583: Is expected to be submerged in the future. GPS data in North America also confirms that land uplift becomes subsidence outside the former ice margin. To form the ice sheets of the last Ice Age, water from the oceans evaporated, condensed as snow and was deposited as ice in high latitudes. Thus global sea level fell during glaciation. The ice sheets at the last glacial maximum were so massive that global sea level fell by about 120 metres. Thus continental shelves were exposed and many islands became connected with

5510-410: Is important in monitoring recent global warming. One of the possible impacts of global warming-triggered rebound may be more volcanic activity in previously ice-capped areas such as Iceland and Greenland. It may also trigger intraplate earthquakes near the ice margins of Greenland and Antarctica. Unusually rapid (up to 4.1 cm/year) present glacial isostatic rebound due to recent ice mass losses in

5655-461: Is in recognition that the response of the Earth to glacial loading and unloading is not limited to the upward rebound movement, but also involves downward land movement, horizontal crustal motion, changes in global sea levels and the Earth's gravity field, induced earthquakes, and changes in the Earth's rotation. Another alternate term is "glacial isostasy", because the uplift near the centre of rebound

5800-516: Is itself connected to Saaremaa by a causeway , the Väinatamm . Saaremaa can also be reached by ferry from Sõru on the island of Hiiumaa to Triigi. There are also passenger services from Roomassaare to the smaller island of Abruka . During many winters it is possible to drive to Saaremaa by an ice road between the mainland and Muhu or between Saaremaa and the island of Hiiumaa . There are regular bus services from Tallinn , Pärnu and Tartu on

5945-536: Is low compared with other countries (over one million species have been described worldwide). Iceland is essentially free of mosquitoes . Post-glacial rebound Post-glacial rebound (also called isostatic rebound or crustal rebound ) is the rise of land masses after the removal of the huge weight of ice sheets during the last glacial period , which had caused isostatic depression . Post-glacial rebound and isostatic depression are phases of glacial isostasy ( glacial isostatic adjustment , glacioisostasy ),

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6090-458: Is one of the leading factors. Mass changes of ice sheets can be monitored by measuring changes in the ice surface height, the deformation of the ground below and the changes in the gravity field over the ice sheet. Thus ICESat , GPS and GRACE satellite mission are useful for such purpose. However, glacial isostatic adjustment of the ice sheets affect ground deformation and the gravity field today. Thus understanding glacial isostatic adjustment

6235-466: Is one of the most well-preserved medieval castles in Estonia and bears testimony to the late Medieval Age. During the 14th–16th centuries, and possibly earlier, inhabitants of Saaremaa started to resettle into areas surrounding the Baltic Sea and, for example, to establish villages on the Livonian coast . Most of Saaremaa was ruled directly by the Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek, while some parts were enfeoffed to

6380-457: Is the ice thickness variation, S E = S E ( t ) {\displaystyle S^{E}=S^{E}(t)} represents the eustatic term (i.e. the ocean–averaged value of S {\displaystyle S} ), ⊗ i {\displaystyle \otimes _{i}} and ⊗ o {\displaystyle \otimes _{o}} denote spatio-temporal convolutions over

6525-480: Is the reference surface gravity, G s = G s ( h , k ) {\displaystyle G_{s}=G_{s}(h,k)} is the sea–level Green's function (dependent upon the h {\displaystyle h} and k {\displaystyle k} viscoelastic load–deformation coefficients - LDCs), I = I ( θ , λ , t ) {\displaystyle I=I(\theta ,\lambda ,t)}

6670-573: Is the surface expression of the Iceland Plateau , a large igneous province forming as a result of volcanism from the Iceland hotspot and along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge , the latter of which runs right through it. This means that the island is highly geologically active with many volcanoes including Hekla , Eldgjá , Herðubreið , and Eldfell . The volcanic eruption of Laki in 1783–1784 caused

6815-442: Is used as a proxy observable. Ice thickness histories are useful in the study of paleoclimatology , glaciology and paleo-oceanography. Ice thickness histories are traditionally deduced from the three types of information: First, the sea level data at stable sites far away from the centers of deglaciation give an estimate of how much water entered the oceans or equivalently how much ice was locked up at glacial maximum. Secondly,

6960-456: The Boreal Kingdom . Plantlife consists mainly of grassland, which is regularly grazed by livestock. The most common tree native to Iceland is the northern birch ( Betula pubescens ), which formerly formed forests over much of Iceland, along with aspens ( Populus tremula ), rowans ( Sorbus aucuparia ), common junipers ( Juniperus communis ), and other smaller trees, mainly willows. When

7105-521: The Danish–Icelandic Act of Union in 1918, with the establishment of the Kingdom of Iceland , sharing through a personal union the incumbent monarch of Denmark . During the occupation of Denmark in World War II, Iceland voted overwhelmingly to become a republic in 1944, ending the remaining formal ties to Denmark. Although the Althing was suspended from 1799 to 1845, Iceland nevertheless has

7250-494: The East Atlantic Flyway , a migration path of waterfowl. This "bird road" connects northeastern Europe with Arctic regions. Each year hundreds of thousands of migratory birds visit Saaremaa in spring and autumn. The barnacle goose , mute swan , whooper swan , eider , shelduck and a great many other bird species have been given protection status. But on the whole, the islands are somewhat poorer in wildlife species than

7395-583: The Faroe Islands (420 km; 225 nmi); Jan Mayen Island (570 km; 310 nmi); Shetland and the Outer Hebrides , both about 740 km (400 nmi); and the Scottish mainland and Orkney , both about 750 km (405 nmi). The nearest part of Continental Europe is mainland Norway, about 970 km (525 nmi) away, while mainland North America is 2,070 km (1,120 nmi) away, at

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7540-582: The Little Ice Age , and overgrazing by sheep imported by settlers caused a loss of critical topsoil due to erosion . Today, many farms have been abandoned. Three-quarters of Iceland's 100,000 square kilometres (39,000 sq mi) is affected by soil erosion; 18,000 km (6,900 sq mi) is affected to a degree serious enough to make the land useless. Only a few small birch stands now exist in isolated reserves. The Icelandic Forest Service and other forestry groups promote large-scale reforestation in

7685-524: The Mid-Atlantic Ridge , a ridge along which the oceanic crust spreads and forms new crust. This part of the mid-ocean ridge is located above a mantle plume, causing Iceland to be subaerial (above the surface of the sea). The ridge marks the boundary between the Eurasian and North American Plates , and Iceland was created by rifting and accretion through volcanism along the ridge. Many fjords punctuate Iceland's 4,970-km-long (3,088-mi) coastline, which

7830-456: The Vestmannaeyjar archipelago. Lakes and glaciers cover 14.3% of its surface; only 23% is vegetated. The largest lakes are Þórisvatn reservoir: 83–88 km (32–34 sq mi) and Þingvallavatn : 82 km (32 sq mi); other important lakes include Lagarfljót and Mývatn . Jökulsárlón is the deepest lake, at 248 m (814 ft). Geologically, Iceland is part of

7975-543: The clouded apollo butterflies and Roman snails . The coastal areas of Saaremaa are well-known seal habitats; in fact, the indigenous gray seal can be found in three large permanent resting areas on the islets off the coast in the western and southern parts of Saaremaa. Nowadays, the local population of said seals is slightly increasing . Ringed seals can be encountered everywhere in the coastal waters of Saaremaa but, because of their timidity, it has not been possible to make an estimation of their number. The islands lie in

8120-400: The deformation of the Earth's crust in response to changes in ice mass distribution. The direct raising effects of post-glacial rebound are readily apparent in parts of Northern Eurasia , Northern America , Patagonia , and Antarctica . However, through the processes of ocean siphoning and continental levering , the effects of post-glacial rebound on sea level are felt globally far from

8265-413: The gravity field , which is sensitive to all mass on the surface and within the Earth, is affected by the redistribution of ice/melted water on the surface of the Earth and the flow of mantle rocks within. Today, more than 6000 years after the last deglaciation terminated, the flow of mantle material back to the glaciated area causes the overall shape of the Earth to become less oblate . This change in

8410-530: The viscoelastic mantle material to flow away from the loaded region. At the end of each glacial period when the glaciers retreated, the removal of this weight led to slow (and still ongoing) uplift or rebound of the land and the return flow of mantle material back under the deglaciated area. Due to the extreme viscosity of the mantle, it will take many thousands of years for the land to reach an equilibrium level. The uplift has taken place in two distinct stages. The initial uplift following deglaciation

8555-479: The "average height" over a thousand years or so. Glacial isostatic adjustment also plays an important role in understanding recent global warming and climate change. Before the eighteenth century, it was thought, in Sweden , that sea levels were falling. On the initiative of Anders Celsius a number of marks were made in rock on different locations along the Swedish coast. In 1765 it was possible to conclude that it

8700-400: The "new land" is legally the property of the owner of the water area, not any land owners on the shore. Therefore, if the owner of the land wishes to build a pier over the "new land", they need the permission of the owner of the (former) water area. The landowner of the shore may redeem the new land at market price. Usually the owner of the water area is the partition unit of the landowners of

8845-634: The 13th century. In 1397, Iceland followed Norway's integration into the Kalmar Union along with the kingdoms of Denmark and Sweden, coming under de facto Danish rule upon its dissolution in 1523. The Danish kingdom introduced Lutheranism by force in 1550, and the Treaty of Kiel formally ceded Iceland to Denmark in 1814. Influenced by ideals of nationalism after the French Revolution , Iceland's struggle for independence took form and culminated in

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8990-560: The 1850s under the leadership of Jón Sigurðsson , based on the burgeoning Icelandic nationalism inspired by the Fjölnismenn and other Danish-educated Icelandic intellectuals. In 1874, Denmark granted Iceland a constitution and limited home rule. This was expanded in 1904, and Hannes Hafstein served as the first Minister for Iceland in the Danish cabinet. The Danish–Icelandic Act of Union , an agreement with Denmark signed on 1 December 1918 and valid for 25 years, recognised Iceland as

9135-473: The 36 species found in Estonia, 35 of them are found on Saaremaa and its adjacent islands. Over 40% of Saaremaa is covered with forests, most of which are mixed forests, but in some areas, one can find broad-leaved (deciduous) trees, which are relicts of plant communities of former milder climatic periods. Wooded meadows were common in Saaremaa before World War II , but many of these unique natural complexes have gradually become overgrown and thus converted into

9280-550: The Amundsen Sea embayment region of Antarctica coupled with low regional mantle viscosity is predicted to provide a modest stabilizing influence on marine ice sheet instability in West Antarctica, but likely not to a sufficient degree to arrest it. The speed and amount of postglacial rebound is determined by two factors: the viscosity or rheology (i.e., the flow) of the mantle, and the ice loading and unloading histories on

9425-607: The Arctic Circle contains the northernmost habitation of Iceland, whereas Kolbeinsey contains the northernmost point of Iceland. Iceland has three national parks : Vatnajökull National Park , Snæfellsjökull National Park , and Þingvellir National Park . The country is considered a "strong performer" in environmental protection, having been ranked 13th in Yale University 's Environmental Performance Index of 2012. A geologically young land at 16 to 18 million years old, Iceland

9570-625: The Commonwealth of Nations, such as Canada, whose sovereign is King Charles III . During World War II, Iceland joined Denmark in asserting neutrality. After the German occupation of Denmark on 9 April 1940, the Althing replaced the King with a regent and declared that the Icelandic government would take control of its own defence and foreign affairs. A month later, British armed forces conducted Operation Fork ,

9715-447: The Earth's crust is continuing even today at a rate of 2 mm (0.079 in) per year. The West Estonian islands are low-lying plains resting on limestone; their average elevation is roughly 15 meters (49 ft) above sea level. Limestone has become denuded in a great number of places, resulting in cliffs, limestone pits and quarries at Mustjala , Ninase , Pulli , Üügu and Kaugatuma . Because of its mild maritime climate and

9860-732: The Left-Green Movement, headed by Prime Minister Katrín Jakobsdóttir. In April 2024, Bjarni Benediktsson of the Independence party succeeded Katrín Jakobsdóttir as prime minister. Iceland is at the juncture of the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. The main island is entirely south of the Arctic Circle , which passes through the small Icelandic island of Grímsey off the main island's northern coast. The country lies between latitudes 63 and 68°N , and longitudes 25 and 13°W . Iceland

10005-541: The Livonian Order. In 1559, the bishopric and Saaremaa were sold to Denmark, becoming part of Danish Estonia . From 1570 until 1645 the entire island was under Danish possession. In 1645, Saaremaa was ceded from Denmark to Sweden by the Treaty of Brömsebro . In 1721, along with the rest of Livonia , Saaremaa (then known by its Swedish name of Ösel) was ceded to the Russian Empire by the Treaty of Nystad , becoming

10150-447: The SLE reads where S {\displaystyle S} is the sea–level change, N {\displaystyle N} is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth's center of mass, and U {\displaystyle U} is vertical displacement. In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow: where θ {\displaystyle \theta }

10295-680: The US Marshall Plan programme, through which Icelanders received the most aid per capita of any European country (at US$ 209, with the war-ravaged Netherlands a distant second at US$ 109). Vigdís Finnbogadóttir assumed Iceland's presidency on 1 August 1980, making her the first elected female head of state in the world. The 1970s were marked by the Cod Wars —several disputes with the United Kingdom over Iceland's extension of its fishing limits to 200 nmi (370 km) offshore. Iceland hosted

10440-466: The addition of melted ice water from glaciers and ice sheets, recent sea level changes are affected by the thermal expansion of sea water due to global warming, sea level change due to deglaciation of the last glacial maximum (postglacial sea level change), deformation of the land and ocean floor and other factors. Thus, to understand global warming from sea level change, one must be able to separate all these factors, especially postglacial rebound, since it

10585-399: The captains—one's name is Hallgrímur, and the other's Kolskeggur. I know them to be mighty men of war; and I know too that they have such good weapons that the like are not to be had. Hallgrímur has an atgeir which he had made by seething-spells; and this is what the spells say, that no weapon shall give him his death-blow save that atgeir. That thing follows it too that it is known at once when

10730-505: The common signatures of the Ice Age . In addition, post-glacial rebound has caused numerous significant changes to coastlines and landscapes over the last several thousand years, and the effects continue to be significant. In Sweden , Lake Mälaren was formerly an arm of the Baltic Sea , but uplift eventually cut it off and led to its becoming a freshwater lake in about the 12th century, at

10875-536: The continents through dry land. This was the case between the British Isles and Europe ( Doggerland ), or between Taiwan, the Indonesian islands and Asia ( Sundaland ). A land bridge also existed between Siberia and Alaska that allowed the migration of people and animals during the last glacial maximum. The fall in sea level also affects the circulation of ocean currents and thus has important impact on climate during

11020-407: The country is growing by about seven square kilometers per year. Studies suggest that rebound will continue for at least another 10,000 years. The total uplift from the end of deglaciation depends on the local ice load and could be several hundred metres near the centre of rebound. Recently, the term "post-glacial rebound" is gradually being replaced by the term "glacial isostatic adjustment". This

11165-566: The country's climate continued to grow colder, resulting in mass emigration to the New World , particularly to the region of Gimli , Manitoba in Canada, which was sometimes referred to as New Iceland . About 15,000 people emigrated, out of a total population of 70,000. A national consciousness arose in the first half of the 19th century, inspired by romantic and nationalist ideas from mainland Europe. An Icelandic independence movement took shape in

11310-416: The country's total exports. Birds, especially seabirds, are an important part of Iceland's animal life. Atlantic puffins , skuas , and black-legged kittiwakes nest on its sea cliffs. Commercial whaling is practised intermittently along with scientific whale hunts. Whale watching has become an important part of Iceland's economy since 1997. Around 1,300 species of insects are known in Iceland. This

11455-417: The country. Due to the reforestation efforts, the forest cover of Iceland increased six-fold since the 1990s. This helps to offset carbon emissions, prevent sand storms and increase the productivity of farms. The planting of new forests has increased the number of trees, but the result does not compare to the original forests. Some of the planted forests include introduced species . The tallest tree in Iceland

11600-438: The crater; these are summarized by Lennart Meri in his book Hõbevalge . Dolomite , limestone , curative mud , mineral water , ceramic clay , sand , and gravel are the major local resources. Of these local resources, dolomite is perhaps the most famous above all. The majority of the island's population is Estonian (97%). The two most numerous ethnic minorities, Russians and Finns , together comprise less than 3% of

11745-607: The crusaders' hold on Saaremaa got stronger, Christianity also became more established on the island, and to this day Saaremaa has a unique set of medieval churches in Kaarma , Karja , Kihelkonna , Muhu , Pöide , Püha and Valjala churches. The crusader's fortress Kuressaare Castle , known in German as Schloss Arensburg, was built by the Teutonic Order for the bishops of Ösel–Wiek (Estonian: Saare-Lääne). Construction began in 1380 and it

11890-493: The direction of seafloor spreading at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge . This shows that the stress due to postglacial rebound had played an important role at deglacial time, but has gradually relaxed so that tectonic stress has become more dominant today. According to the Mohr–Coulomb theory of rock failure, large glacial loads generally suppress earthquakes, but rapid deglaciation promotes earthquakes. According to Wu & Hasagawa,

12035-513: The eruption, known as the Mist Hardships ( Icelandic : Móðuharðindin ), over half of all livestock in the country died. Around a quarter of the population starved to death in the ensuing famine . In 1814, following the Napoleonic Wars , Denmark-Norway was broken up into two separate kingdoms via the Treaty of Kiel , but Iceland remained a Danish dependency. Throughout the 19th century,

12180-570: The events known locally as the Turkish Abductions , in which hundreds of residents were taken into slavery in North Africa and dozens killed; this was the only invasion in Icelandic history to have casualties. The 1707–08 Iceland smallpox epidemic is estimated to have killed a quarter to a third of the population. In 1783 the Laki volcano erupted, with devastating effects. In the years following

12325-448: The fight. After that they steered east to Eysýsla (Saaremaa) and lay there somewhile under a ness. There they saw a man coming down from the ness above them; Gunnar went on shore to meet the man, and they had a talk. Gunnar asked him his name, and he said it was Tófi. Gunnar asked again what he wanted. "Thee I want to see," says the man. "Two warships lie on the other side under the ness, and I will tell thee who command them: two brothers are

12470-522: The first permanent residents of Iceland to be documented. The Norwegian-Norse chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson built his homestead in present-day Reykjavík in 874. Ingólfr was followed by many other emigrant settlers, largely Scandinavians and their thralls , many of whom were Irish or Scottish . By 930, most arable land on the island had been claimed; the Althing , a legislative and judicial assembly

12615-550: The first tier of Estonian football, the Meistriliiga . Saaremaa has been competing in the biannual Island Games since 1991. There are three main international traditional sport events in Saaremaa: Saaremaa Rally takes place every year in October and attracts thousands of rally fans. The first rally was an amateur competition and it took place in 1974. The first professional competition took place in 1975 and from 1993

12760-491: The flow law of mantle rocks, which is important to the study of mantle convection, plate tectonics and the thermal evolution of the Earth. It also gives insight into past ice sheet history, which is important to glaciology , paleoclimate , and changes in global sea level. Understanding postglacial rebound is also important to our ability to monitor recent global change. Erratic boulders , U-shaped valleys , drumlins , eskers , kettle lakes , bedrock striations are among

12905-429: The future, and thus is important for water resource management planning. In Sweden Lake Sommen 's outlet in the northwest has a rebound of 2.36 mm/a while in the eastern Svanaviken it is 2.05 mm/a. This means the lake is being slowly tilted and the southeastern shores drowned. Ice, water, and mantle rocks have mass , and as they move around, they exert a gravitational pull on other masses towards them. Thus,

13050-407: The glacial maximum. During deglaciation, the melted ice water returns to the oceans, thus sea level in the ocean increases again. However, geological records of sea level changes show that the redistribution of the melted ice water is not the same everywhere in the oceans. In other words, depending upon the location, the rise in sea level at a certain site may be more than that at another site. This

13195-463: The greatest migration from Iceland since 1887, with a net emigration of 5,000 people in 2009. Iceland's economy stabilised under the government of Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir and grew by 1.6% in 2012. The centre-right Independence Party was returned to power in coalition with the Progressive Party in the 2013 election. In the following years, Iceland saw a surge in tourism as the country became

13340-449: The heights of ancient beaches in the sea level data and observed land uplift rates (e.g. from GPS or VLBI ) can be used to constrain local ice thickness. A popular ice model deduced this way is the ICE5G model. Because the response of the Earth to changes in ice height is slow, it cannot record rapid fluctuation or surges of ice sheets, thus the ice sheet profiles deduced this way only gives

13485-546: The inhabitants. Compared to the Republic of Estonia on the whole, the population of Saare County and particularly of Kuressaare town is younger, whereas the number of the retired people is considerably smaller. Saaremaa is located in the heart of the Baltic region , which is one of the most rapidly growing markets in Europe, with 70 million consumers. The island's "Gates to the West" include

13630-514: The intraplate earthquakes in eastern Canada and may have played some role in triggering earthquakes in the eastern US including the New Madrid earthquakes of 1811 . The situation in northern Europe today is complicated by the current tectonic activities nearby and by coastal loading and weakening. Increasing pressure due to the weight of the ice during glaciation may have suppressed melt generation and volcanic activities below Iceland and Greenland. On

13775-476: The invasion and occupation of the country, violating Icelandic neutrality . In 1941, the Government of Iceland, friendly to Britain, invited the then-neutral United States to take over its defence so that Britain could use its troops elsewhere. On 31 December 1943, the Danish–Icelandic Act of Union expired after 25 years. Beginning on 20 May 1944, Icelanders voted in a four-day plebiscite on whether to terminate

13920-402: The island (up to 5 cm per century). This will eventually lead to an increased risk of floods in southern England and south-western Ireland. Since the glacial isostatic adjustment process causes the land to move relative to the sea, ancient shorelines are found to lie above present day sea level in areas that were once glaciated. On the other hand, places in the peripheral bulge area which

14065-523: The island was first settled, it was extensively forested, with around 30% of the land covered in trees. In the late 12th century, Ari the Wise described it in the Íslendingabók as "forested from mountain to sea shore". Permanent human settlement greatly disturbed the isolated ecosystem of thin, volcanic soils and limited species diversity . The forests were heavily exploited over the centuries for firewood and timber. Deforestation , climatic deterioration during

14210-440: The island was then called Garðarshólmur, which means "Garðar's Isle". Then came a Viking named Flóki Vilgerðarson ; his daughter drowned en route, then his livestock starved to death. The sagas say that the rather despondent Flóki climbed a mountain and saw a fjord ( Arnarfjörður ) full of icebergs, which led him to give the island its new and present name. The notion that Iceland's Viking settlers chose that name to discourage

14355-553: The island with the winds, but they are not able to breed there. No native or free-living reptiles or amphibians are on the island. The animals of Iceland include the Icelandic sheep , cattle , chickens , goats , the sturdy Icelandic horse , and the Icelandic Sheepdog , all descendants of animals imported by Europeans. Wild mammals include the Arctic fox, mink , mice, rats, rabbits, and reindeer . Polar bears occasionally visit

14500-458: The island's first permanent settler. In the following centuries, Norwegians , and to a lesser extent other Scandinavians , immigrated to Iceland, bringing with them thralls (i.e., slaves or serfs) of Gaelic origin. The island was governed as an independent commonwealth under the native parliament, the Althing , one of the world's oldest functioning legislative assemblies. After a period of civil strife , Iceland acceded to Norwegian rule in

14645-415: The island, travelling from Greenland on icebergs, but no Icelandic populations exist. In June 2008, two polar bears arrived in the same month. Marine mammals include the grey seal ( Halichoerus grypus ) and harbour seal ( Phoca vitulina ). Many species of fish live in the ocean waters surrounding Iceland, and the fishing industry is a major part of Iceland's economy, accounting for roughly half of

14790-552: The isle " or "land of the island", i.e. the same as the ancient Scandinavian name for the island. The old Scandinavian name is also the origin of the island's name in Danish Øsel , German and Swedish Ösel , Gutnish Oysl , and in Latin , Osilia . In Latvian , the island is called Sāmsala , which possibly means "the island of Saami ". Saaremaa may have been the historic Ultima Thule . According to archaeological finds,

14935-462: The lakes gradually tilt away from the direction of the former ice maximum, such that lake shores on the side of the maximum (typically north) recede and the opposite (southern) shores sink. This causes the formation of new rapids and rivers. For example, Lake Pielinen in Finland, which is large (90 x 30 km) and oriented perpendicularly to the former ice margin, originally drained through an outlet in

15080-412: The largest horizontal velocity is found near the former ice margin. The situation in North America is less certain; this is due to the sparse distribution of GPS stations in northern Canada, which is rather inaccessible. The combination of horizontal and vertical motion changes the tilt of the surface. That is, locations farther north rise faster, an effect that becomes apparent in lakes. The bottoms of

15225-437: The last Catholic bishop of Hólar , was beheaded in 1550 along with two of his sons. The country subsequently became officially Lutheran, and Lutheranism has since remained the dominant religion. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Denmark imposed harsh trade restrictions on Iceland. Natural disasters, including volcanic eruptions and disease, contributed to a decreasing population. In the summer of 1627, Barbary Pirates committed

15370-416: The location and dates of terminal moraines tell us the areal extent and retreat of past ice sheets. Physics of glaciers gives us the theoretical profile of ice sheets at equilibrium, it also says that the thickness and horizontal extent of equilibrium ice sheets are closely related to the basal condition of the ice sheets. Thus the volume of ice locked up is proportional to their instantaneous area. Finally,

15515-452: The locations of current and former ice sheets. During the last glacial period , much of northern Europe , Asia , North America , Greenland and Antarctica were covered by ice sheets , which reached up to three kilometres thick during the glacial maximum about 20,000 years ago. The enormous weight of this ice caused the surface of the Earth 's crust to deform and warp downward, forcing

15660-456: The main crater. The age estimates of the crater vary, with 4000 ± 1000 BCE being a commonly accepted estimate, though other estimates suggest the explosion was as recent as 660 ± 85 BCE . The energy of the impact—about 80 TJ (20 kilotons of TNT), comparable with the Hiroshima bomb —burned forests within a radius of 6 km (3.7 mi) of the impact site. There are numerous legends related to

15805-413: The mainland, which use the ferry from Virtsu to Muhu. Kuressaare Airport offers regular flights to Tallinn operated by NyxAir . There are regular services to Ruhnu and Pärnu operated by Diamond Sky . Historically there was a Soviet air base at Aste Airfield during the Cold War . Plans to connect Saaremaa to the mainland by either bridge or tunnel are being studied. FC Kuressaare competes in

15950-436: The mainland. Neither mole , mink , nor otter can be found here, whilst the Eurasian lynx and the brown bear are infrequent guests. Kaali is a small group of nine unique meteorite craters on Saaremaa. The largest of the craters measures 110 m (360 ft) in diameter and contains a small lake, known as Kaali järv ("Lake Kaali"). The meteor cluster had an impact velocity of 10–20 km/s (6–12 mi/s) and

16095-476: The middle of the lake near Nunnanlahti to Lake Höytiäinen . The change of tilt caused Pielinen to burst through the Uimaharju esker at the southwestern end of the lake, creating a new river ( Pielisjoki ) that runs to the sea via Lake Pyhäselkä to Lake Saimaa . The effects are similar to that concerning seashores, but occur above sea level. Tilting of land will also affect the flow of water in lakes and rivers in

16240-586: The newly independent Republic of Estonia . Most of the local Baltic German population of the island was resettled to Germany following the August 1939 Nazi–Soviet Pact . During World War II , the island was first occupied by the Soviet Red Army in June 1940 and, along with the rest of Estonian territory, formally annexed into the Stalinist USSR in August 1940. On 8 August 1941, Soviet Naval Aviation started

16385-472: The northeastern hinterland. The temperature records for Reykjavík are 26.2 °C (79.2 °F) on 30 July 2008, and −24.5 °C (−12.1 °F) on 21 January 1918. The entire country is in a single ecoregion , the Iceland boreal birch forests and alpine tundra . Some areas are covered by glaciers . Phytogeographically , Iceland belongs to the Arctic province of the Circumboreal Region within

16530-410: The northern tip of Labrador . Iceland is the world's 18th-largest island , and Europe's second-largest island after Great Britain and before Ireland. The main island covers 101,826 km (39,315 sq mi), but the entire country is 103,000 km (40,000 sq mi) in size, of which 62.7% is tundra . Iceland contains about 30 minor islands, including the lightly populated Grímsey and

16675-401: The ocean in a series of volcanic eruptions between 8 November 1963 and 5 June 1968. Only scientists researching the growth of new life are allowed to visit the island. The country has around 30 active volcanic systems. Within each are volcano-tectonic fissure systems and many, but not all of them, also have at least one central volcano (mostly in the form of a stratovolcano , sometimes of

16820-442: The ocean tides. In the words of Wu and Peltier, the solution of the SLE yields the space– and time–dependent change of ocean bathymetry which is required to keep the gravitational potential of the sea surface constant for a specific deglaciation chronology and viscoelastic earth model. The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier, Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi. In its simplest form,

16965-464: The ordinary forest. The same is true for alvars (limestone areas covered with thin soil and stunted vegetation). Once a typical and exclusive landscape element in Saaremaa alvars are now in decline. Nature conservation planning for Saaremaa now includes protection of the largest and most unusual alvar areas. Saaremaa has a wide variety of rare wildlife species, ranging from insects to seals. The smallest protected wildlife species in terms of size include

17110-587: The other hand, decreasing pressure due to deglaciation can increase the melt production and volcanic activities by 20-30 times. Recent global warming has caused mountain glaciers and the ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica to melt and global sea level to rise. Therefore, monitoring sea level rise and the mass balance of ice sheets and glaciers allows people to understand more about global warming. Recent rise in sea levels has been monitored by tide gauges and satellite altimetry (e.g. TOPEX/Poseidon ). As well as

17255-507: The personal union with Denmark, abolish the monarchy, and establish a republic. The vote was 97% to end the union, and 95% in favour of the new republican constitution. Iceland formally became a republic on 17 June 1944, with Sveinn Björnsson as its first president. In 1946, the US Defence Force Allied left Iceland. The nation formally became a member of NATO on 30 March 1949, amid domestic controversy and riots . On 5 May 1951,

17400-502: The present day villages on the west coast set back unexpectedly far from the shore. These effects are quite dramatic at the village of Alby , for example, where the Iron Age inhabitants were known to subsist on substantial coastal fishing. As a result of post-glacial rebound, the Gulf of Bothnia is predicted to eventually close up at Kvarken in more than 2,000 years. The Kvarken is a UNESCO World Natural Heritage Site , selected as

17545-539: The rally has been international. Saaremaa Velotuur is a group race of road cyclists that is oldest in the Nordic countries (held since 1957) and the only international one in the Baltic states. Saaremaa three-day running marathon takes place on the roads around Kuressaare town and Sõrve peninsula. The main race consists of three different runs, which are held on three sequential days (10+16,195+16=42,195 km). The first marathon

17690-435: The rebound stress that is available to trigger earthquakes today is of the order of 1 MPa. This stress level is not large enough to rupture intact rocks but is large enough to reactivate pre-existing faults that are close to failure. Thus, both postglacial rebound and past tectonics play important roles in today's intraplate earthquakes in eastern Canada and southeast US. Generally postglacial rebound stress could have triggered

17835-481: The reconstructed Kuressaare Airport and Roomassaare Harbour , the operation of modern ferries between Saaremaa and the Estonian mainland, and the rapid development of the telecommunications. Saaremaa is also a significant tourist destination, revisited by 35% of foreign and 95% of domestic tourists. Saaremaa is reached by TS Laevad 's ferries from Virtsu on the Estonian mainland to Kuivastu on Muhu island, which

17980-772: The resistance of the local inhabitants remained strong. The crusaders founded the Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek there. When the Order was defeated by the Lithuanian army in the Battle of Saule in 1236, the Saaremaa islanders rebelled. The conflict was ended by a treaty that was signed by the Osilians and the Master of the Order. In the following year, the Sword-Brothers were absorbed into the Teutonic Order . As

18125-524: The sea through the lowlands . Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a temperate climate , despite a latitude just south of the Arctic Circle . Its latitude and marine influence keep summers chilly, and most of its islands have a polar climate . According to the ancient manuscript Landnámabók , the settlement of Iceland began in 874 AD, when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became

18270-621: The settlement of their verdant isle is most likely a myth. According to both Landnámabók and Íslendingabók , monks known as the Papar lived in Iceland before Scandinavian settlers arrived, possibly members of a Hiberno-Scottish mission . An archaeological excavation has revealed the ruins of a cabin in Hafnir on the Reykjanes peninsula . Carbon dating indicates that it was abandoned sometime between 770 and 880. In 2016, archaeologists uncovered

18415-454: The shores, a collective holding corporation. The sea-level equation ( SLE ) is a linear integral equation that describes the sea-level variations associated with the PGR. The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888, when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean sea level , and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of

18560-597: The signing of the Old Covenant in 1262, which ended the Commonwealth and brought Iceland under the Norwegian crown. Possession of Iceland passed from the Kingdom of Norway (872–1397) to the Kalmar Union in 1415, when the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden were united. After the break-up of the union in 1523, it remained a Norwegian dependency, as a part of Denmark–Norway . Infertile soil, volcanic eruptions, deforestation, and an unforgiving climate made for harsh life in

18705-470: The smallest population of any NATO member and is the only one with no standing army , possessing only a lightly armed coast guard . The Sagas of Icelanders say that a Norwegian named Naddodd (or Naddador) was the first Norseman to reach Iceland; in the ninth century, he named it Snæland or "Snowland" because it was snowing. Following Naddodd, the Swede Garðar Svavarsson arrived, and so

18850-463: The south coast is warmer, wetter, and windier than the north. The Central Highlands are the coldest part of the country. Low-lying inland areas in the north are the aridest. Snowfall in winter is more common in the north than in the south. The highest air temperature recorded was 30.5 °C (86.9 °F) on 22 June 1939 at Teigarhorn on the southeastern coast. The lowest was −38 °C (−36.4 °F) on 22 January 1918 at Grímsstaðir and Möðrudalur in

18995-420: The state of stress at any location continuously changes in time. The changes in the orientation of the state of stress is recorded in the postglacial faults in southeastern Canada. When the postglacial faults formed at the end of deglaciation 9000 years ago, the horizontal principal stress orientation was almost perpendicular to the former ice margin, but today the orientation is in the northeast–southwest, along

19140-441: The surface of Earth. The viscosity of the mantle is important in understanding mantle convection , plate tectonics , the dynamical processes in Earth, and the thermal state and thermal evolution of Earth. However viscosity is difficult to observe because creep experiments of mantle rocks at natural strain rates would take thousands of years to observe and the ambient temperature and pressure conditions are not easy to attain for

19285-532: The territory of Saaremaa has been inhabited from at least 5000 BCE . Nordic Iron Age ship burials , dated to 700–750 CE, have been found in Sõrve Peninsula . Sagas talk about numerous skirmishes between the islanders and Vikings . Saaremaa was the wealthiest county of ancient Estonia and the home of notorious pirates, sometimes called the Eastern Vikings. The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia describes

19430-464: The time when Stockholm was founded at its outlet . Marine seashells found in Lake Ontario sediments imply a similar event in prehistoric times. Other pronounced effects can be seen on the island of Öland , Sweden, which has little topographic relief due to the presence of the very level Stora Alvaret . The rising land has caused the Iron Age settlement area to recede from the Baltic Sea , making

19575-481: The topography of Earth's surface affects the long-wavelength components of the gravity field. The changing gravity field can be detected by repeated land measurements with absolute gravimeters and recently by the GRACE satellite mission. The change in long-wavelength components of Earth's gravity field also perturbs the orbital motion of satellites and has been detected by LAGEOS satellite motion. The vertical datum

19720-534: The world with similar climates include the Aleutian Islands , the Alaska Peninsula , and Tierra del Fuego , although these regions are closer to the equator. Despite its proximity to the Arctic, the island's coasts remain ice-free through the winter. Ice incursions are rare, with the last having occurred on the north coast in 1969. The climate varies between different parts of the island. Generally speaking,

19865-507: Was adopted by consensus around 999–1000, although Norse paganism persisted among segments of the population for some years afterward. The Icelandic Commonwealth lasted until the 13th century when the political system devised by the original settlers proved unable to cope with the increasing power of Icelandic chieftains. The internal struggles and civil strife of the Age of the Sturlungs led to

20010-511: Was almost immediate due to the elastic response of the crust as the ice load was removed. After this elastic phase, uplift proceeded by slow viscous flow at an exponentially decreasing rate. Today, typical uplift rates are of the order of 1 cm/year or less. In northern Europe, this is clearly shown by the GPS data obtained by the BIFROST GPS network; for example in Finland , the total area of

20155-485: Was easier and quicker to cross the strait towards nearby Kolka , Saunags or Mazirbe , than travel by horse large distances inland. The highest point on the island is 54 m above sea level. The Kaali crater is on the island. The island has much forested terrain. One of the symbols of the island is the juniper . More than 10,000 years ago the first parts of Saaremaa arose from the Baltic Ice Lake . The uplift of

20300-482: Was held in 1974. Iceland Iceland ( Icelandic : Ísland , pronounced [ˈistlant] ) is a Nordic island country between the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans , on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge between North America and Europe . It is culturally and politically linked with Europe and is the region's westernmost and most sparsely populated country . Its capital and largest city

20445-539: Was initiated to regulate the Icelandic Commonwealth . The lack of arable land also served as an impetus to the settlement of Greenland starting in 986. The period of these early settlements coincided with the Medieval Warm Period , when temperatures were similar to those of the early 20th century. At this time about 25% of Iceland was covered with forest, compared to 1% in the present day. Christianity

20590-490: Was not a lowering of sea levels but an uneven rise of land. In 1865 Thomas Jamieson came up with a theory that the rise of land was connected with the ice age that had been first discovered in 1837. The theory was accepted after investigations by Gerard De Geer of old shorelines in Scandinavia published in 1890. In areas where the rising of land is seen, it is necessary to define the exact limits of property. In Finland,

20735-614: Was the Swedish archbishop Johannes . Archaeological excavations have not verified the traditions of destruction of the town. Normal life in Sigtuna continued until town started to slowly lose its importance during 13th century due to navigability problems caused by post-glacial rebound . In 1227, Saaremaa was conquered by the Livonian Brothers of the Sword during the Livonian Crusade but

20880-422: Was the magnitude 8 New Madrid earthquake that occurred in mid-continental US in the year 1811. Glacial loads provided more than 30 MPa of vertical stress in northern Canada and more than 20 MPa in northern Europe during glacial maximum. This vertical stress is supported by the mantle and the flexure of the lithosphere . Since the mantle and the lithosphere continuously respond to the changing ice and water loads,

21025-418: Was uplifted during glaciation now begins to subside. Therefore, ancient beaches are found below present day sea level in the bulge area. The "relative sea level data", which consists of height and age measurements of the ancient beaches around the world, tells us that glacial isostatic adjustment proceeded at a higher rate near the end of deglaciation than today. The present-day uplift motion in northern Europe

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