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90-592: The regiment's first and second battalions were active in Istria and Belluno respectively, while the third battalion was a reserve unit stationed in Rome . All three surrendered to Allied or partisan forces in the last days of the war. On 23 March 1944 the 11th company of its 3rd battalion was the target of the Via Rasella attack in Rome, that led to the bloody German retaliation known as

180-694: A Sicherungsgruppe (security group) to cut off partisan withdrawal from the area. As Axis forces withdrew from the Balkans, I Battalion was stationed at Ajdovščina , then in Tolmin . Finally, in an attempt to impede the British 8th Army , the battalion was sent to the Predil Pass , near the modern Italian-Slovene border. The battalion surrendered to the 8th Army at Thörl-Maglern  [ de ] , Carinthia in May 1945 after

270-452: A Southern Slav identity in others) resulted in growing ethnic conflict between Italians on one side and Slovenes and Croats on the other side. This was intertwined with class conflict, as inhabitants of Istrian towns were mostly Italian, while Croats and Slovenes largely lived out in the eastern countryside. The Croatian word for the Istrians is Istrani , or Istrijani , the latter being in

360-677: A consequence, the Austrians saw the Italians as enemies and favored the Slav communities of Istria, fostering the nascent nationalism of Slovenes and Croats. During the meeting of the Council of Ministers of 12 November 1866, Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria outlined a wide-ranging project aimed at the Germanization or Slavization of the areas of the empire with an Italian presence: His Majesty expressed

450-542: A lengthy retreat. In Allied custody, the battalion was sent to a camp at Kötschach-Mauthen , from which some of its members escaped by to the South Tyrol through the Gailtal  [ de ] . The prisoners were first transferred to Udine , then to Bellaria – Igea Marina and were guarded with greater attention by New Zealand and Polish soldiers. The escapees from Kötschach-Mauthen that made it home were required to appear at

540-454: A less militarized structure. The Wehrmacht (1935-1945) of Nazi Germany used the rank of Oberstleutnant for Army and Air Force, much in the same style the Bundeswehr does. The Waffen-SS (1933-1945) used the rank Obersturmbannführer as an equivalent. The National People's Army (1956-1990) of East Germany used the rank Oberstleutnant (abbr. OSL) for its army and air force, whereas

630-545: A single L3/33 and L3/35 tankette , all captured from the Italians after 8 September 1943. On 5 April 1944, I Battalion embarked on Operation Bozen in the area of Brnčići  [ hr ] , near Kastav , resulting in the razing of the village of Gornji Turki. The battalion then participated in Operation Braunschweig . On 30 April, German troops of the 278th Infantry and 188th Reserve Mountain Divisions , and

720-489: A total of 25,409. Most of these people in these counties were ethnic Croats, but there were also Istro-Romanians declaring themselves as Istrian. Later, the 2021 Croatian census saw a decrease on Istrian self-designation, as 10,025 inhabitants of the Istria County used it. It has been proposed that Istria gain greater autonomy within a more decentralized Croatia. Examples of supporters of this include several members of

810-448: Is 61. The Oberstleutnant's shoulder straps in Army and Air Force are marked by two vertically aligned stars above oak leaves. The Federal Border Guard ( Bundesgrenzschutz ) used the rank Oberstleutnant until 1976, after which it was replaced by the terms Polizeioberrat and Polizeidirektor as part of the government's effort to transform West Germany 's federal border guard agency into

900-706: Is a soup made with beans and sauerkraut or sour turnip , potatoes , bacon , and spare ribs , known in the northern Adriatic regions. Under the name jota, it is typical and especially popular in Trieste and its province (where it is considered to be the prime example of Triestine food), in the Istrian peninsula, in the province of Gorizia , in the whole Slovenian Littoral , in the Rijeka area, and in Friuli , especially in some of its peripheral areas (the highland region of Carnia ,

990-469: Is a supranational European Region that includes Italian, Slovenian and Croatian Istria. There are some claims, Istrian Italians were more than 50% of the total population of Istria for centuries, while making up about a third of the population in 1900. With its strategic position at the southern tip of the peninsula and good harbor Pula was the primary base of the Austrian Navy. A limited tension with

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1080-621: Is also present in the peninsula. According to Austro-Hungarian censuses, which recorded language instead of ethnicity, the composition of Istria (i.e. the Habsburg Margraviate of Istria) was as follows (in thousands): The 2001 population census in Croatia counted 23 languages spoken by the people of Istria. In 2021 Census show that 76.40% are Croats, Italians were 5.01%, 2.96% were Serbs, 2.48% Bosniaks, 1.05% were Albanians, while regionally declared were 5.13%. The data for Slovenian Istria

1170-512: Is derived from the Histri ( Ancient Greek : Ἱστρών έθνος ) tribes, which Strabo refers to as living in the region and who are credited as being the builders of the hillfort settlements (castellieri). The Histri are classified in some sources as a "Venetic" Illyrian tribe with certain linguistic differences from other Illyrians. The Romans described the Histri as a fierce tribe of pirates, protected by

1260-630: Is derived from the river Ister (Ἴστρος) (modern Danube ), because the Greeks erroneously believed, early in their travels around the Mediterranean, that a branch of the Danube flowed into the Adriatic Sea in that area. In addition, the Greeks called the inhabitants of the area Histri (Ἴστροι); if this was their native name, it may have initially led the Greeks to assume a connection with the river Ister. The name

1350-569: Is known as Slovenian Istria , and includes the coastal municipalities of Piran / Pirano , Izola /Isola, and Koper /Capodistria. It also includes the Karstic municipality of Hrpelje-Kozina /Erpelle-Cosina. Northwards of Slovenian Istria, there is a tiny portion of the peninsula that lies in Italy. This smallest portion of Istria consists of the comunes of Muggia /Milje and San Dorligo della Valle /Dolina with Santa Croce ( Trieste ) lying farthest to

1440-636: Is named after the ancient city Histria , named after River Hister. In the Early Middle Ages , Istria was conquered and occupied by the Goths. Ostrogoth coins were found in Istria, as well as the remains of some buildings. South of Poreč there are the remains of the church of Sv. Petar, erected in the 5th century (with a baptistery added later), which reportedly served the Arian eastern Goths ruling Istria. Most notably,

1530-417: Is not as neatly organized, but the 2002 Slovenian census indicates that the four Istrian municipalities ( Izola /Isola d'Istria, Piran /Pirano, Koper /Capodistria, Ankaran/Ancarano) had a total of 56,482 Slovenes, 6,426 Croats, and 2,800 Italians. The small town of Peroj has had a unique history which exemplifies the multi-ethnic complexity of the history of the region, as do some villages on both sides of

1620-826: Is the highest portion of the Ćićarija /Cicceria mountain range; the rivers Dragonja /Dragogna, Mirna /Quieto, Pazinčica , and Raša ; and the Lim /Canale di Leme bay and valley. Istria lies in three countries: Croatia, Slovenia and Italy. By far the largest portion (90%) lies in Croatia. "Croatian Istria" is divided into two counties, the larger being Istria County in western Croatia. Important towns in Istria County include Pula /Pola, Poreč /Parenzo, Rovinj /Rovigno, Pazin /Pisino, Labin /Albona, Umag /Umago, Motovun /Montona, Buzet /Pinguente, and Buje /Buie. Smaller towns in Istria County include Višnjan /Visignano, Roč /Rozzo, and Hum /Colmo. The northwestern part of Istria lies in Slovenia: it

1710-662: Is the largest peninsula within the Adriatic Sea . Located at the top of the Adriatic between the Gulf of Trieste and the Kvarner Gulf , the peninsula is shared by three countries: Croatia, Slovenia , and Italy , 90% of its area being part of Croatia. Most of Croatian Istria is part of Istria County . The geographical features of Istria include the Učka /Monte Maggiore mountain range , which

1800-627: The Wehrmacht on 30 January in the presence of Karl Wolff and Karl Tinzl  [ de ] , then were assigned to the front. I Battalion, composed of 900 men under the command of Major Oskar Kretschmer , was sent to Istria, then in the Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral ( Operationszone Adriatisches Küstenland , OZAK), in February 1944. Based out of Opatija and under

1890-567: The pršut (similar to Italian prosciutto ) and on the preparation of homemade pasta. Traditional dishes of Italian origin also include gnocchi ( njoki ), risotto ( rižot ), focaccia ( pogača ), polenta ( palenta ), and brudet . Slovenian dishes of Italian origin are njoki (similar to Italian gnocchi ), rizota (the Slovenian version of risotto ) and zilkrofi (similar to Italian ravioli ). The Istrian stew ( Italian : Jota ; Croatian : Istarska jota ; Slovene : Jota )

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1980-513: The 2011 Croatian census , 25,203 people of the Istria County, constituting 12% of its population, declared themselves to be Istrian before any other nationality, making it the most abundant one in the county after Croatian. People also declared an Istrian identity in the Primorje-Gorski Kotar County , the county where the rest of Croatian Istria is located, therefore making the number of people declaring an Istrian identity in Croatia

2070-532: The 24th Waffen-SS Karstjäger , razed the village of Lipa and killed its 263 inhabitants. Croatian researcher Petra Predoević found that some testimonies and archival data implicated the Bozen Regiment, whose attack by Yugoslav partisans had been the cause of the Lipa massacre. On 3 May, the 3rd Company was assigned to Cacitti (between Divača and Hrpelje-Kozina ), while the 2nd Company was deployed to Šušnjevica as

2160-683: The Agordino  [ it ] were re-apprehended and held a camp at Cencenighe Agordino , that were participants in the Biois valley massacre were shot on recognition. The remaining prisoners were handed over to the Americans and joined I Battalion at Rimini. Like I Battalion, II Battalion was released from prison in September 1946. Participants of the Biois valley massacre were tried in 1979, but acquitted on lack of evidence. When called to testify, they condemned

2250-689: The Ardeatine massacre . Following the Badoglio Proclamation on 8 September 1943, the announcement of the Armistice of Cassibile , Germany invaded Italy . Two days later, South Tyrol , Trentino and Belluno came under German control as the Operational Zone of the Alpine Foothills ( Operationszone Alpenvorland , OZAV). This region formally existed under the Italian Social Republic , but

2340-625: The Eastern Front . Draft evasion incurred a death sentence and persecution of relatives, according to the Nazi doctrine of Sippenhaft . The forced recruitment of the Dableiber and the harsh punishment dolled out against draft evaders, as was the case for Franz Thaler , violated Articles 44, 45, and 46 of the Hague Convention of 1899 to which Germany was a signatory. Polizeiregiment "Südtirol"

2430-864: The Holy Roman Empire for centuries, and more specifically part of the domains of the Austrian Habsburgs since the 14th century. In 1797, with the Treaty of Campo Formio , the Venetian parts of the peninsula also passed to the Habsburg monarchy which became the Austrian Empire in 1804. The French victory of 1809 compelled Austria to cede a portion of its South Slav lands to France. Napoleon combined Istira, Carniola , western Carinthia , Gorica ( Gorizia ), Trieste and parts of Croatia, Dalmatia, and Dubrovnik to form

2520-631: The Illyrian Provinces . The Code Napoléon was introduced, and roads and schools were constructed. Local citizens were given administrative posts, and native languages were used to conduct official business. This sparked the Illyrian Movement for the cultural and linguistic unification of South Slavic lands. From the Middle Ages to the 19th century, Italian and Slavic communities in Istria had lived peacefully side by side because they did not know

2610-529: The Istrian Democratic Assembly (IDS), such as its former president Boris Miletić or the IDS deputy Emil Daus. Oberstleutnant Oberstleutnant ( German pronunciation: [ˈʔoːbɐstlɔʏtnant] ) (English: Lieutenant Colonel) is a senior field officer rank in several German -speaking and Scandinavian countries, equivalent to lieutenant colonel . It is currently used by both

2700-658: The Monte Grappa in September. From 20 August and into 21 August, contingents of II Battalion under Zugwachtmeister Erwin Fritz, 1st Fallschirm-Panzer Division Hermann Göring , and the SS-Mountain-Combat-School SS-Gebirgs-Kampfschule at Predazzo were involved in the Biois valley massacre  [ it ] . As a result of their actions, 44 civilians were killed and another 645 made homeless by

2790-646: The Placitum of Riziano was held in the Parish of Rižan ( Latin : Risanum ), which was a meeting between the representatives of Istrian towns and castles and the deputies of Charlemagne and his son Pepin. The report about this judicial diet illustrates the changes accompanying the transfer of power from the Eastern Roman Empire to the Carolingian Empire and the discontent of the local residents. Afterwards it

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2880-583: The Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca until 1918. At that time the borders of Istria included part of what is now Italian Venezia-Giulia and parts of modern-day Slovenia and Croatia, but not the city of Trieste. Many Istrian Italians looked with sympathy towards the Risorgimento movement that fought for the unification of Italy. However, after the Third Italian War of Independence (1866), when

2970-514: The Republic of Venice but were defeated, and were since further controlled by Venice. During the 13th century, the Patriarchate's rule weakened and the towns kept surrendering to Venice – Poreč in 1267, Umag in 1269, Novigrad in 1270, Sveti Lovreč in 1271, Motovun in 1278, Kopar in 1279, and Piran and Rovinj in 1283. Venice gradually dominated the whole coastal area of western Istria and

3060-903: The Venetian language whose antecedents in the region extend before the inception of the Venetian Republic or to the Istriot language the oldest spoken language in Istria, dated back to the Romans, today spoken in the southwest of Istria. It can also refer to Istrian Croats who adopted the veneer of Italian culture as they moved from rural to urban areas, or from the farms into the bourgeoisie. Similarly, national powers claim Istrian Croats according to local language, so that speakers of Čakavian and Štokavian dialects of Croatian are considered to be Croatians while speakers of other dialects may be considered to be Slovene. Croatian dialect speakers are descendants of

3150-653: The Veneto and Friuli regions were ceded by the Austrians to the newly formed Kingdom Italy , Istria remained part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire , together with other Italian-speaking areas on the eastern Adriatic. This triggered the gradual rise of Italian irredentism among many Italians in Istria, who demanded the unification of Istria with Italy. The Italians in Istria supported the Italian Risorgimento : as

3240-414: The Volksmarine used the term Fregattenkapitän . The rank of Oberstløytnant was introduced around the same time as Denmark , as Norway at the time was part of Denmark–Norway . The Swedish variant överstelöjtnant , is a senior field grade military officer rank in the Swedish Army and the Swedish Air Force , immediately below the rank of colonel and just above the rank of major . It

3330-541: The Western Roman Empire , the region was pillaged by the Goths , the Eastern Roman Empire , and the Avars. The first Avaro-Slavic invasion of Istria was recorded in 599. Another major incursion occurred around 600–602, in which all of Istria was devastated with fire and rapine. This was followed by the 611 invasion, the most devastating for the peninsula. It remains unclear when and how the first Slavic settlement occurred. Traces of early Slavic incursions and settlement are scarce. A few Avar findings have been discovered on

3420-436: The ground and air forces of Austria , Germany , Switzerland , Denmark , and Norway . The Swedish rank överstelöjtnant is a direct translation, as is the Finnish rank everstiluutnantti . Austria's armed forces, the Bundesheer , uses the rank Oberstleutnant as its sixth-highest officer rank. Like in Germany and Switzerland, Oberstleutnants are above Majors and below Obersts. The term also finds usage with

3510-451: The "Slav" social group. Discussions about Istrian ethnicity often use the words "Italian", "Croatian", and "Slovene" to describe the character of the Istrian people. However these terms are best understood as "national affiliations" that may exist in combination with or independently of linguistic, cultural and historical attributes. In the Istrian context, for example, the word "Italian" can just as easily refer to autochthonous speakers of

3600-416: The "Tyrolean blockheads" ( Tiroler Holzköpfer ). Like all German police units, the Polizeiregiment "Bozen" was under overall control of the SS. Nazi Germany began centralizing its police forces in January 1934, that come under SS control from April 1934, while retaining distinct uniforms, command structure, recruiting and most of the chain of command. In historiography since the Via Rasella attack,

3690-409: The "Vittorio-Veneto" barracks in Bolzano, arrested, put under surveillance, and transferred to Rimini and then to Taranto . All prisoners were released in September 1946. II Battalion was sent to province of Belluno in February 1944 where, between March and December, it participated in 85 anti-partisan actions. The most prominent of these were in the Biois valley  [ it ] in August and

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3780-710: The 19th century it included a large population of Italians , Croats , and Slovenes as well as some Istro-Romanians , Serbs , and Montenegrins ; however, official statistics in those times did not show those nationalities as they do today. In 1910, the ethnic and linguistic composition was completely mixed. According to the Austrian census results, out of 404,309 inhabitants in Istria, 168,116 (41.6%) spoke Serbo-Croatian , 147,416 (36.5%) spoke Italian , 55,365 (13.7%) spoke Slovene , 13,279 (3.3%) spoke German , 882 (0.2%) spoke Istro-Romanian , 2,116 (0.5%) spoke other languages, and 17,135 (4.2%) were non-citizens, which had not been asked for their language of communication. During

3870-451: The Austrian Bundespolizei (federal police force) and Justizwache (prison guards corps). These two organizations are civilian in nature, but their ranks are nonetheless structured in a military fashion. The Danish rank of oberstløjtnant is based around the German term. Ranked OF-4 within NATO and having the paygrade of M401, it is used in the Royal Danish Army and the Royal Danish Air Force . Typically, suffixes can be applied to

3960-420: The Austrian state did not in fact stop the rise of the use of the Italian language, in the second part of the 19th century, when the population of predominantly Italian-speaking towns in Istria had a significant rise: in the part of Istria that eventually became part of Croatia, the first Austrian census from 1846 found 34 thousand Italian speakers, alongside 120 thousand Croatian speakers (in the Austrian censuses,

4050-416: The Byzantines but was of Lombard descent, is reported as its dux in 599. Pope Gregory I in 600 wrote to bishop of Salona Maximus in which he expresses concern about arrival of the Slavs , "Et quidem de Sclavorum gente, quae vobis valde imminet, et affligor vehementer et conturbor. Affligor in his quae jam in vobis patior; conturbor, quia per Istriae aditum jam ad Italiam intrare coeperunt" (And as for

4140-425: The Entente promised Italy Istria and parts of Dalmatia , South Tyrol , the Greek Dodecanese Islands , parts of Albania and Turkey, plus more territory for Italy's North Africa colonies. After the war, Italy annexed Istria. Istria's political and economic importance declined under Italian rule, and after the fascist takeover of Italy in 1922 the Italian government began a campaign of forced Italianization . In 1926,

4230-429: The German state employee paygrade system, the Oberstleutnant is placed within Besoldungsgruppe A and receives either the A14 or A15 paygrades, depending on individual seniority. Thus, the Oberstleutnant is paid an equivalent wage to that of first-class consuls and legates in the foreign service (A14) or state-employed school directors, ambassadors and general consuls (A15). The age limit for Oberstleutnant-rank officers

4320-422: The Goths used Istrian stone to build their best known monument, the Mausoleum of Theodoric in Ravenna . In the following centuries, the peninsula was attacked and conquered by the Lombards , often in conjunction with the Slavs, such as in 601. However, the extent to which the Lombards occupied Istria is a matter of debate. After the Goths, Istria became part of the Exarchate of Ravenna . Gulfaris , who served

4410-418: The Istrian territory, chiefly around Nesactium . By 642 the Slavs were settled in the peninsula, as indicated by the mission of an abbot Martin, sent by Pope John IV to rescue captives held by the pagans in Istria and Dalmatia . After the barbaric invasions, the western part of Istria was annexed to the Lombard Kingdom in 751, and then annexed to the Frankish kingdom by Pepin of Italy in 789. In 804,

4500-416: The Italian and Slovene parts (which make up 1% and 9% of the territory of Istria, respectively), while in the Croatian part (90% of the region), there are Croats , Italians, Istro-Romanians and Istriot -speakers, as well as some non-native minorities. Most of Croatian Istria is located in the Istria County of the country. Istria is the region of Croatia where regionalist sentiment is the strongest. In

4590-410: The Italian language suggests that amongst those who declared themselves Italian speakers in Istria, there were people whose mother tongue was different." D'Alessio notes even members of the Austrian state bureaucracy and the members of their families with the German mother tongue tended to use Italian, after living in Istrian small towns long enough. The Poles, Czechs and Slovenes and Croats tended to join

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4680-434: The Latin name Hister, or Danube (especially its lower course). Ancient folktales reported —inaccurately— that the Danube split in two or "bifurcated" and came to the sea near Trieste as well as at the Black Sea . The story of the "bifurcation of the Danube" is part of the Argonaut legend. There is also a suspected link (but no historical documentation in support of it) to the commune of Istria in Constanța, Romania which

4770-502: The Torre and Natisone river valleys, or Slavia Veneta ). The stew, based on etymology, most likely originated in Friuli before spreading east and south. Istrian identity , also known as Istrianity, Istrianism or Istrianness, is the regionalist identity developed by the inhabitants of the part of Istria located in Croatia . Istria is the biggest peninsula in the Adriatic Sea and a multiethnic region divided between Croatia, Italy and Slovenia . Italians and Slovenes live in both

4860-444: The Učka that are still identified with the Istro-Romanian people which the UNESCO Redbook of Endangered Languages calls "the smallest ethnic group in Europe". The cuisine of Istria is influenced by Italian cuisine , given the historical presence of local ethnic Italians ( Istrian Italians ), influence that has eased after the Istrian–Dalmatian exodus . For example, the influence of Italian cuisine on Croatian dishes can be seen in

4950-505: The Venetian state. Other coastal towns followed shortly thereafter. Bajamonte Tiepolo was sent away from Venice in 1310, to start a new life in Istria after his downfall. A description of the 16th-century Istria with a precise map was prepared by the Italian geographer Pietro Coppo . A copy of the map inscribed in stone can now be seen in the Pietro Coppo Park in the center of the town of Izola in southwestern Slovenia . The Inner part of Istria around Mitterburg ( Pazin ) had been part of

5040-420: The area to Plomin on the eastern part of the peninsula. The wealthier coastal towns cultivated increasingly strong economic relationships with Venice and by 1348 were eventually incorporated into its territory, while their inland counterparts fell under the sway of the weaker Patriarchate of Aquileia, which became part of the Habsburg Empire in 1374. On 15 February 1267, Parenzo was formally incorporated with

5130-590: The attack, Death in Rome . In it, he cites notes taken during an interview with ex-partisan Mario Fiorentini on 27 March 1965 stating that the men of the battalion wore SS markings on their uniform, while as part of the Ordnungspolizei all servicemen in the regiment wore standard German police green uniforms and insignia. Istria Istria ( / ˈ ɪ s t r i ə / IST -ree-ə ; Croatian and Slovene : Istra ; Italian and Venetian : Istria ; Istriot : Eîstria ; Istro-Romanian : Istria ; Latin : Histria ; Ancient Greek : Ἱστρία )

5220-423: The behavior of their former commanders. Erwin Fritz, then a resident of Göttingen , West Germany and a retired police commissioner, was tried in absentia because his extradition was refused. Fritz's defense was given to Roland Riz, the vice-president of the South Tyrolean People's Party , who requested an acquittal. Fritz was initially sentenced with life imprisonment by the Corte d'Assise of Bologna , which

5310-415: The border. It became an international boundary with the independence of both countries from Yugoslavia in 1991. Since Croatia 's first multi-party elections in 1990, the Istrian regionalist party Istrian Democratic Assembly (IDS-DDI, Istarski demokratski sabor or Dieta democratica istriana ) has consistently received a majority of the vote and maintained through the 1990s a position often contrary to

5400-406: The central offices to the strong duty to proceed in this way to what has been established. Although a member of the Central Powers , Italy remained neutral at the start of WWI, and soon launched secret negotiations with the Triple Entente , bargaining to participate in the war on its side, in exchange for significant territorial gains. To get Italy to join the war, the secret 1915 Treaty of London

5490-460: The destruction of 245 homes. In March 1945, II Battalion hung 14 civilians in Belluno 's central square for the killing of three soldiers by partisans. South Tyrolean historian Leopold Steurer  [ de ] noted that the battalion, and the Bozen Regiment by extension, became infamous for its brutality in Belluno. Most of II Battalion was taken prisoner by partisans at Agordo on 2 May 1945. Battalion members who had attempted escape through

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5580-437: The difficult navigation of their rocky coasts. It took two military campaigns for the Romans to finally subdue them in 177 BC. The region was then called together with the Venetian part the X. Roman Region of "Venetia et Histria", the ancient definition of the northeastern border of Italy. Dante Alighieri refers to it as well, the eastern border of Italy per ancient definition is the river Arsia . The eastern side of this river

5670-435: The direct command of the Ordnungspolizei commander in Trieste , Oberstleutnant Hermann Kintrup and indirectly commanded by the commander of the Waffen-SS in OZAK, Odilo Globocnik , was tasked with combating partisans and securing transportation routes from Trieste to Ljubljana . I Battalion was the only fully motorized battalion in the regiment, possessing an AB 41 and a Lancia 1ZM , both armored cars , and

5760-417: The ethnic composition of the population was not surveyed, only the main "language of use" of a person). By 1910, the proportion changed significantly: there were 108 thousand Italian speakers and 134 thousand Croatian speakers. Vanni D'Alessio notes (2008), the Austrian surveys of the language of use "overestimated the diffusion of the socially dominant languages of the empire... The capacity of assimilation of

5850-433: The first armed antifascist resistance group in Europe soon penetrated into Slovene and Croatian-speaking parts of Istria. In World War II, Istria became a battleground of competing ethnic and political groups. Istrian nationalist groups which were pro-fascist and pro-Allied and Yugoslav-supported pro-communist groups fought with each other and the Italian army. After the German withdrawal in 1945, Yugoslav partisans gained

5940-433: The government in Zagreb , led by the then nationalistic party Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ, Hrvatska demokratska zajednica ), with regards to decentralization in Croatia and certain facets of regional autonomy . However, that changed in 2000 when the IDS formed with five other parties a left-centre coalition government, led by the Social Democratic Party of Croatia (SDP, Socijaldemokratska Partija Hrvatske ). After

6030-407: The immediate aftermath of the signing of the Paris Peace Treaty on February 10, 1947 which granted Pula and the greater part of Istria to Yugoslavia. The division of Istria between Croatia and Slovenia runs on the former republic borders, which were not precisely defined in the former Yugoslavia. Various points of contention remain unresolved between the two countries regarding the precise line of

6120-577: The last decades of the Habsburg dynasty the coast of Istria profited from tourism within the Empire. Generally speaking, Italians lived on the western coast and in the inland cities of northern Istria, while Croats lived on the eastern coast and in the eastern and southeastern inland parts of the countryside. In the second half of the 19th century a clash of new ideological movements, Italian irredentism (which claimed Trieste and Istria), Slovene nationalism , and Croatian nationalism (developing individual identities in some quarters while seeking to unite in

6210-521: The legal specification of a.D., is unofficial. The armed forces of West Germany and unified Germany since 1955, the Bundeswehr uses the Oberstleutnant rank in the German Army and German Air Force . Equivalents in the other branches are Fregattenkapitän for the German Navy , Oberfeldarzt for medical staff, Flottillenarzt for naval medical staff, Oberfeldapotheker for apothecary staff, Flottillenapotheker for naval apothecary staff, and Oberfeldveterinär for veterinary medical staff. Within

6300-524: The local Chakavian dialect . The term Istrani is also used in Slovenia. The Italian word for the Istrians is Istriani and today the Italian minority is organized in many towns. The Istrian county in Croatia is bilingual, as are large parts of Slovenian Istria. Every citizen has the right to speak either Italian or Croatian (Slovene in Slovenian Istria and Italian in the town of Koper/Capodistria, Piran/Pirano, Portorož/Portorose, and Izola/Isola d'Istria) in public administration or in court. Furthermore, Istria

6390-421: The national identification, given that they generically defined themselves as " Istrians " of "Romance" or "Slavic" culture. After this seven-year period, the Austrian Empire regained Istria, which became part of the constituent Kingdom of Illyria . This kingdom was broken up in 1849, after which Istria formed part of Austrian Littoral , also known as the "Küstenland", which also included the city of Trieste and

6480-588: The north. The ancient region of Histria extended over a much wider area, including the whole Karst Plateau with the southern edges of the Vipava Valley /Vipacco Valley, the southwestern portions of modern Inner Carniola with Postojna /Postumia and Ilirska Bistrica /Bisterza, and the Italian Province of Trieste , but not the Liburnian coast which was already part of Illyricum . The name Istria (Ἰστρία)

6570-580: The one side and Venetians/other Italians on the other side yielded to each other culturally while simultaneously distancing themselves from members of their ethnic groups living farther away. Another important Istrian community are the Istro-Romanians in the south and north of the Učka mountain range of Istria. A small Albanian community, which until the late 19th century spoke the Istrian Albanian dialect

6660-646: The people of the Slavs who are really approaching you, I am very depressed and confused. I am depressed because I sympathize with you, confused because they over the Istria began to enter the Italy). Some ancient reporters, including Pope Gregory, who were unaware of the importance of the Avars in the Balkans, used the terms "Slavs" to refer to the Avars or the Avaro-Slavs. After the fall of

6750-661: The precise order that action be taken decisively against the influence of the Italian elements still present in some regions of the Crown and, appropriately occupying the posts of public, judicial, masters employees as well as with the influence of the press, work in South Tyrol , Dalmatia and Littoral for the Germanization and Slavization of these territories according to the circumstances, with energy and without any regard. His Majesty calls

6840-733: The reformed HDZ won the Croatian parliamentary elections in late 2003 and formed a minority government, the IDS has cooperated with the state government on many projects, both local (in Istria County ) and national. Since Slovenia's accession to the European Union and the Schengen Area , customs and immigration checks have been abolished at the Italian-Slovenian border. The region has traditionally been ethnically mixed. Under Austrian rule in

6930-602: The refugees of the Turkish invasion and Ottoman Empire of Bosnia and Dalmatia in the 16th century. The government of the Republic of Venice had settled them in Inner Istria, which had been devastated by wars and plague. As with other regions, the local dialects of the Croatian communities vary greatly across close distances. The Istrian Croatian and Italian vernaculars had both developed for many generations before being divided as they are today. This meant that Croats/Slovenes on

7020-614: The region on 30 November 1943. All men born in 1924 and 1925 were drafted into the Todt Organization , Südtiroler Ordnungsdienst  [ de ] (SOD), Trento Security Corps  [ it ] (CST), Ordnungspolizei , or into the Wehrmacht or Waffen-SS . A following ordinance on 7 January 1944 widened the draft pool to all men born between 1894 and 1926, regardless of nationality. Dableiber  [ it ] , Tyroleans who had opted for Italian citizenship, were accused of treason and harassed. Many were sent to

7110-524: The third battalion of the Bozen Regiment was often erroneously identified as a Waffen-SS volunteer detachment. Italian historian Lorenzo Baratter  [ it ] , author of several works on the South Tyrolean police regiments, noted the frequency and repetition of this error. American journalist Robert Katz erroneously supported the idea of the battalion being part of the Waffen-SS in his work on

7200-465: The upper hand and began a violent purge of real or suspected opponents in an "orgy of revenge". After the end of World War II , Istria was ceded to Yugoslavia , except for a small part in the northwest corner that formed Zone B of the provisionally independent Free Territory of Trieste ; Zone B was under Yugoslav administration and after the de facto dissolution of the Free Territory in 1954 it

7290-507: The use of Slavic languages in schools and government was banned, even Slavic family names were Italianized to suit the fascist authorities. Slavic newspapers and libraries were closed, all Slavic cultural, sporting, business and political associations were banned. As a result, 100,000 Slavic-speakers left Italian-annexed areas in an exodus, moving mostly to Yugoslavia. The organization TIGR , founded in 1927 by young Slovene liberal nationalists from Gorizia region and Trieste and regarded as

7380-578: The word Oberstleutnant to specify the individual type of officer. Retired officers that are not incapacitated (i.e. theoretically available for reactivation) from service continue to use their title with the suffix a.D. (Germany) or aD (Switzerland), an abbreviation of außer Dienst , 'out of service'. Suffixes that specify military specialization in active service include Oberstleutnant i.G. ('im Generalstabsdienst') for general staff officers or Oberstleutnant d.R. ('der Reserve') for reservists. The suffix i.R. ('im Ruhestand'), implying retirement without

7470-545: Was de facto ruled by Franz Hofer , the Gauleiter of Tyrol-Vorarlberg . The Central Recruitment Office was set up in South Tyrol by the Wehrmacht and Waffen-SS to form military units from residents of the OZAV. German authorities were at first limited to "Optanten," Tyroleans who had opted for German citizenship , but poor recruiting prompted Hofer to begin conscription in

7560-474: Was also incorporated into Yugoslavia. Only the small town of Muggia , near Trieste , being part of Zone A remained with Italy. The events of the period are visible in Pula . The city, located on the southernmost tip of the Istrian peninsula, had an Istrian Italian majority. Between December 1946 and September 1947, a large proportion of the city's inhabitants were forced to emigrate to Italy . Most of them left in

7650-475: Was formed in October 1943 under the command of Oberst Alois Menschick. By the end of the month the regiment, now called Polizeiregiment "Bozen" , had over 2000 soldiers in four battalions , each composed of four, later three, numbered battalions (I, II, III). Its members were trained for three months in the use of their weapons, camouflage , squad combat, and counter-guerrilla warfare . They were sworn into

7740-860: Was housed in the attic of the Palazzo del Viminale , which had housed the Italian Ministry of the Interior before its transfer to Toscolano-Maderno . 9th Company supervised the construction of defensive works at Albano Laziale , 10th Company guarded the Vatican and public buildings, and 11th Company was a reserve. For rotation, the 11th would relieve the 10th on 24 March 1944. Members of III Battalion, some of whom were Ladins and spoke German poorly, did not receive leave and were forbidden from interacting with Romans or attending church. The native German officers routinely insulted their charges during training, and nicknamed them

7830-542: Was rescinded by an appeal that found the sentence impotent by lack of jurisdiction. Fritz was again tried in 1988, by the Military Tribunal of Verona , but acquitted based on lack of evidence. III Battalion was transferred to Rome over seven days, from 12 February to 19 February 1944, likely as an agreement between Hofer and Wolff. The transfer was carried out with great difficulty because of ongoing battles at Monte Cassino and at Anzio . Theoretically, III Battalion

7920-528: Was settled by people whose culture was different from Histrians. Earlier influence of the Iapodes was attested there, while at some time between the 4th and 1st century BC the Liburnians extended their territory and it became a part of Liburnia . On the northern side, Histria extended much further north and included the Italian city of Trieste. Some scholars speculate that the names Histri and Istria are related to

8010-429: Was successively controlled by the dukes of Carantania , Merania , Bavaria and by the patriarch of Aquileia , before it became the territory of the Republic of Venice in 1267. The medieval Croatian kingdom held only the far eastern part of Istria (the border was near the river Raša ), but they lost it to the Holy Roman Empire in the late 11th century. In 1145, the cities of Pula, Koper and Izola rose against

8100-456: Was under the command of Wolff, but was de facto commanded by Luftwaffe General Kurt Mälzer . After being captured, Wolff stated that III Battalion had been made available to Albert Kesselring upon his request to conduct police duties in Rome and to protect the Vatican . Previously, this had been carried out by the 2nd Fallschirmjäger Division . The battalion, reduced to three companies,

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