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129-576: About $ 2 million was raised in the RAIC campaign, which was expended to launch or modernize 34 facilities, with the employment of 17,500 garment workers in Soviet Russia. Corporation stockholders received an interest payment of 5% annually until the program was terminated in 1925. The Russian Revolution of 1917 and the bitter and bloody Civil War which followed left the economy of Soviet Russia shattered. Cities were depopulated as peasant-workers returned to

258-718: A ' made in Ethiopia ' brand, the government, global brands and foreign manufacturers did not anticipate that the base salary was simply too low for workers to make a living from." The prominence of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) within the European Union 's textile industry has been noted by the European Commission : The European textile and clothing industry is a highly diversified, innovation and creativity driven industrial sector made up largely of SMEs: firms had an average of 10 employees in 2009, down from 18 employees at

387-484: A Bangladeshi garment worker will earn in her lifetime. In April 2013, at least 1,135 textile workers died in the collapse of their factory. Other fatal accidents due to unsanitary factories have affected Bangladesh: in 2005 a factory collapsed and caused the death of 64 people. In 2006, a series of fires killed 85 people and injured 207 others. In 2010, some 30 people died of asphyxiation and burns in two serious fires. In 2006, tens of thousands of workers mobilized in one of

516-572: A European great power . It served as a capital of the Tsardom of Russia , and the subsequent Russian Empire, from 1712 to 1918 (being replaced by Moscow for a short period of time between 1728 and 1730). After the October Revolution in 1917, the Bolsheviks moved their government to Moscow. The city was renamed Leningrad after Lenin's death in 1924. It was the site of the siege of Leningrad during

645-609: A bountiful future that captured the imagination of wage workers around the world, motivating many to action. In the United States many of those most anxious to help were those recent émigrés from the Russian Empire , including hundreds of thousands of Jews who had escaped the anti-Semitic regime in seeking a better life in the new world. Many of these worked in the American garment trades, manufacturing clothing and participating in

774-562: A burgeoning New York City -based trade union movement in such unions as the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America (ACWA) and the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (ILGWU). Not only was there pressure from the rank-and-file below to do something to aid the embattled Soviet regime, but many union officials were themselves radically minded immigrants to America who had departed Russia some years previously with

903-579: A de facto donation but rather as an interest-bearing investment, the principal of which was to be insured by Lloyd's of London . An office for the project was maintained at 31 Union Square, Room 902, in New York City. The RAIC project was endorsed by popular Socialist Party leader Eugene V. Debs , freed from prison six months earlier, who noted the low share price made it possible for workers "to invest according to his means in this most timely and laudable undertaking to contribute America's full share toward

1032-521: A fortress at the mouth of the Neva River in 1611, which was later called Ingermanland . The small town of Nyen grew up around the fort. Before the 17th century, this area was inhabited by Finnic Izhorians and Votians . The Ingrian Finns moved to the region from the provinces of Karelia and Savonia during the Swedish rule. There was also some Estonian , Karelian , Russian and German population in

1161-413: A late addition to the industry and took off after English spinning technology was introduced at the turn of the 19th century. Industrialisation of the industry occurred in the 1830s after adoption of the factory system, and the removal of restrictions by Britain on the emigration of expert labour (1825) and of machinery (1842). Steam power was introduced but the cost of imported coal and steam engines, led to

1290-579: A lessened Soviet need for foreign investment in consumer dry goods production, a contributing factor to the end of RAIC was economic necessity on the American side, with the coffers of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers and the personal finances of its members drained by a protracted tailoring strike in 1925. RAIC provided a lasting impact by helping to regularize financial connections between the Industrial Bank of Moscow and two banks owned by

1419-480: A mainstream industry. In 1734 in Bury, Lancashire John Kay invented the flying shuttle — one of the first of a series of inventions associated with the cotton woven fabric industry. The flying shuttle increased the width of cotton cloth and speed of production of a single weaver at a loom . Resistance by workers to the perceived threat to jobs delayed the widespread introduction of this technology, even though

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1548-655: A maximum of 400 spindles; after, self-acting mules with up to 1300 spindles could be built. The industrial revolution changed the nature of work and society The three key drivers in these changes were textile manufacturing , iron founding and steam power . The geographical focus of textile manufacture in Britain was Manchester and the small towns of the Pennines and southern Lancashire . Textile production in England peaked in 1926, and as mills were decommissioned, many of

1677-653: A monthly salary of 26 dollars per month. These very low wages have led to low productivity, frequent strikes and high turnover. Some factories have replaced all their employees on average every 12 months, according to the 2019 report of the Stern Centre for Business and Human Rights at New York University . The report states: "Rather than the docile and cheap labour force promoted in Ethiopia, foreign-based suppliers have met employees who are unhappy with their pay and living conditions and who want to protest more and more by stopping work or even quitting. In their eagerness to create

1806-400: A naming act that established an official spelling; even in his own letters he used diverse spellings, such as Санктьпетерсьбурк ( Sanktpetersburk ), emulating German Sankt Petersburg , and Сантпитербурх ( Santpiterburkh ), emulating Dutch Sint-Pietersburgh , as Peter was multilingual and a Hollandophile. The name was later normalized and russified to Санкт-Петербург. A former spelling of

1935-492: A new general plan was outlined, whereby the city should expand to the south. Constructivism was rejected in favour of a more pompous Stalinist architecture . Moving the city centre further from the border with Finland, Stalin adopted a plan to build a new city hall with a huge adjacent square at the southern end of Moskovsky Prospekt , designated as the new main street of Leningrad. After the Winter (Soviet-Finnish) war in 1939–1940,

2064-577: A new plan in 1737. The city was divided into five boroughs, and the city centre was moved to the Admiralty borough, on the east bank between the Neva and Fontanka . It developed along three radial streets, which meet at the Admiralty building and are now known as Nevsky Prospect (which is considered the main street of the city), Gorokhovaya Street and Voznesensky Avenue . Baroque architecture became dominant in

2193-469: A quarter of British exports during most of the 18th century, doubling between 1701 and 1770. The British textile industry drove the Industrial Revolution, triggering advancements in technology, stimulating the coal and iron industries, boosting raw material imports, and improving transportation, which made Britain the global leader of industrialization, trade, and scientific innovation. Exports by

2322-557: A rectangular grid of canals. The project was not completed but is evident in the layout of the streets. In 1716, Peter the Great appointed Frenchman Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond as the chief architect of Saint Petersburg. The style of Petrine Baroque , developed by Trezzini and other architects and exemplified by such buildings as the Menshikov Palace , Kunstkamera , Peter and Paul Cathedral , Twelve Collegia , became prominent in

2451-412: A separate condenser. In 1764, James Hargreaves is credited as inventor of the spinning jenny which multiplied the spun thread production capacity of a single worker — initially eightfold and subsequently much further. Others credit the invention to Thomas Highs . Industrial unrest and a failure to patent the invention until 1770 forced Hargreaves from Blackburn, but his lack of protection of

2580-546: A similar joint effort in the Soviet textile industry emerged during the Russian leg of a European fact-finding mission of ACWA president Hillman. Hillman spent more than a month in Soviet Russia studying the difficult situation facing its textile industry. Shocked by the famine and disrepair, Hillman advocated the immediate appropriation of financial aid to Soviet Russia, believing that infusion of foreign capital would be required to restore

2709-697: A strong interest in lending aid to the so-called proletarian dictatorship in Soviet Russia. Chief among these was Sidney Hillman , born in Žagarė , Lithuania (part of the Russian empire ) in 1887. As a youth Hillman had become a Marxist and had actively worked for the revolutionary overthrow of Tsarism from 1903 as a member of the Bund and the Menshevik wing of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP). It would be Hillman who would conceive of

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2838-629: Is "cheaper than anywhere else in the world." While some smaller factories were documented making pay cuts and layoffs, most downsizing was essentially speculative – the orders for goods kept coming even after the MFA expired. In fact, Bangladesh's exports increased in value by about $ 500 million in 2006. For textiles, like for many other products, there are certain national and international standards and regulations that need to be complied with to ensure quality, safety and sustainability. The following standards amongst others apply to textiles: The textile industry

2967-492: Is combined with the city's Russian heritage. Another nickname of Saint Petersburg is "The City of the White Nights" because of a natural phenomenon which arises due to the closeness to the polar region and ensures that in summer the night skies of the city do not get completely dark for a month. The city is also often called the "Northern Palmyra ", due to its extravagant architecture. Swedish colonists built Nyenskans ,

3096-520: Is considered to be one the largest polluters of water and soil ecosystems , causing "carcinogenic, mutagenic, genotoxic, cytotoxic and allergenic threats to living organisms". The textile industry uses over 8000 chemicals in its supply chain, also polluting the environment with large amounts of microplastics and has been identified in one review as the industry sector producing the largest amount of pollution. Petrograd Saint Petersburg , formerly known as Petrograd and later Leningrad ,

3225-454: Is one of the largest polluters in the globalized world of mostly free market dominated socioeconomic systems. Chemically polluted textile wastewater degrades the quality of the soil and water . The pollution comes from the type of conduct of chemical treatments used e.g., in pretreatment, dyeing, printing, and finishing operations that many or most market-driven companies use despite "eco-friendly alternatives". Textile industry wastewater

3354-424: Is primarily concerned with the design, production and distribution of textiles : yarn , cloth and clothing . Cotton is the world's most important natural fibre. In the year 2007, the global yield was 25 million tons from 35 million hectares cultivated in more than 50 countries. There are five stages of cotton manufacturing: In the textile industry, textile engineering is an area of engineering that involves

3483-460: Is second in global textile manufacturing and also second in silk and cotton production. 100% FDI is allowed via automatic route in textile sector. Rieter , Trutzschler, Saurer , Soktas, Zambiati, Bilsar, Monti, CMT, E-land , Nisshinbo , Marks & Spencer , Zara , Promod , Benetton , and Levi's are some of the foreign textile companies invested or working in India. The key British industry at

3612-448: Is still named Leningrad . Having passed the role of capital to Petersburg, Moscow never relinquished the title of "capital", being called pervoprestolnaya ('first throned') for 200 years. An equivalent name for Petersburg, the "Northern Capital", has re-entered usage today since several federal institutions were recently moved from Moscow to Saint Petersburg. Solemn descriptive names like "the city of three revolutions" and "the cradle of

3741-765: Is the second-largest city in Russia after Moscow . It is situated on the River Neva , at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea . The city had a population of 5,601,911 residents as of 2021, with more than 6.4 million people living in the metropolitan area . Saint Petersburg is the fourth-most populous city in Europe, the most populous city on the Baltic Sea, and the world's northernmost city of more than 1 million residents. As

3870-451: Is the one Mediterranean exception to the tendency of early industrialisation to be concentrated in northern Europe. The industry began in the early 18th century in Barcelona, when printed cloth chintz (Catalan: indianes) was produced as an import substitution. The market quickly expanded to the American colonies from where dyes and (later) cotton raw materials could be sourced. Spinning was

3999-525: Is the only industry that has generated huge employment for both skilled and unskilled labour in textiles. The textile industry continues to be the second-largest employment generating sector in India. It offers direct employment to over 35 million in the country. According to the Ministry of Textiles , the share of textiles in total exports during April–July 2010 was 11.04%. During 2009–2010, the Indian textile industry

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4128-639: Is Αγία Πετρούπολη, Agia Petroupoli ). Saint Petersburg has been traditionally called the "Window to Europe" and the "Window to the West" by the Russians. The city is the northernmost metropolis with more than 1 million people in the world, and is also often described as the " Venice of the North" or the "Russian Venice" due to its many water corridors, as the city is built on swamp and water. Furthermore, it has strongly Western European-inspired architecture and culture, which

4257-576: The Cartwright Loom, the Spinning Mule and the Boulton & Watt steam engine, the pieces were in place to build a mechanised woven fabric textile industry. From this point there were no new inventions, but a continuous improvement in technology as the mill-owner strove to reduce cost and improve quality. Developments in the transport infrastructure; that is the canals and after 1831 the railways facilitated

4386-794: The Council of Labor and Defense (STO) authorizing RAIC to do business with various Soviet agencies and another with the Supreme Council for National Economy (Vesenkha) insuring the RAIC's contracts and pledging a dividend of 8% on invested funds if either the Soviets or the Americans sought to terminate the company after a three-year trial period. The first investment by RAIC took the form of small machine parts and other machinery, with delivery beginning in August 1922. Despite promises to raise $ 1 million to fully finance

4515-545: The European Union (EU) imposed no restrictions or duties on imports from the very poor countries, such as Bangladesh , leading to a massive expansion of the industry there. At the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) Uruguay Round , it was decided to bring the textile trade under the jurisdiction of the World Trade Organization (WTO). The WTO Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC) provided for

4644-686: The Gold Star sign was installed in April 1985. In October 1946 some territories along the northern coast of the Gulf of Finland , which had been annexed into the USSR from Finland in 1940 under the peace treaty following the Winter War , were transferred from Leningrad Oblast to Leningrad and divided into Sestroretsky District and Kurortny District . These included the town of Terijoki (renamed Zelenogorsk in 1948). Leningrad and many of its suburbs were rebuilt over

4773-606: The Great Northern War , Peter the Great captured Nyenskans and soon replaced the fortress. On 27 May [ O.S. 16 May] 1703, closer to the estuary (5 km (3 mi) inland from the gulf ), on Zayachy (Hare) Island , he laid down the Peter and Paul Fortress , which became the first brick and stone building of the new city. The city was built by conscripted peasants from all over Russia; in some years several Swedish prisoners of war were also involved under

4902-529: The Kuznetsk Basin of Western Siberia , the brainchild of émigré IWW activist William "Big Bill" Haywood and Dutch communist S. J. Rutgers . This input of American organizational know-how and technology had been credited with a tenfold rise in worker productivity in the Kemerovo coal mines, and had spurred the interest of Soviet government officials in replication of the program in other fields. The idea for

5031-518: The Leningrad Affair (1949–1952), a notable event in the postwar political struggle in the USSR . It was a product of rivalry between Stalin's potential successors where one side was represented by the leaders of the city Communist Party organization – the second most significant one in the country after Moscow. The entire elite leadership of Leningrad was destroyed, including the former mayor Kuznetsov ,

5160-759: The Leningrad Military District of the Russian Armed Forces . The Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Saint Petersburg is home to the Hermitage , one of the largest art museums in the world, the Lakhta Center , the tallest skyscraper in Europe , and was one of the host cities of the 2018 FIFA World Cup and the UEFA Euro 2020 . The name day of Peter I falls on 29 June, when

5289-685: The Narva Triumphal Arch . In 1825, the suppressed Decembrist revolt against Nicholas I took place on the Senate Square in the city, a day after Nicholas assumed the throne. By the 1840s, neoclassical architecture had given way to various romanticist styles, which dominated until the 1890s, represented by such architects as Andrei Stackenschneider ( Mariinsky Palace , Beloselsky-Belozersky Palace , Nicholas Palace , New Michael Palace ) and Konstantin Thon ( Moskovsky railway station ). With

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5418-544: The October Revolution , which led to the end of the social-democratic provisional government , the transfer of all political power to the Soviets , and the rise of the Communist Party . After that the city acquired a new descriptive name, "the city of three revolutions", referring to the three major developments in the political history of Russia of the early 20th century. In September and October 1917, German troops invaded

5547-472: The October revolution " used in the Soviet era are reminders of the pivotal events in national history that occurred here. Petropolis is a translation of a city name to Greek, and is also a kind of descriptive name: Πέτρ- is a Greek root for 'stone', so the "city from stone" emphasizes the material that had been forcibly made obligatory for construction from the first years of the city (a modern Greek translation

5676-539: The Russian Orthodox Church observes the memory of apostles Peter and Paul . The consecration of the small wooden church in their names (its construction began at the same time as the citadel) made them the heavenly patrons of the Peter and Paul Fortress , while Saint Peter at the same time became the eponym of the whole city. When in June 1703 Peter the Great renamed the site after Saint Peter, he did not issue

5805-571: The Second World War , the most lethal siege in history. In June 1991, only a few months before the Belovezha Accords and the dissolution of the USSR , voters supported restoring the city's original appellation in a city-wide referendum . As Russia's cultural centre, Saint Petersburg received over 15 million tourists in 2018. It is considered an important economic, scientific, and tourism centre of Russia and Europe. In modern times,

5934-604: The West Estonian archipelago and threatened Petrograd with bombardment and invasion. On 12 March 1918, Lenin transferred the government of Soviet Russia to Moscow, to keep it away from the state border. During the Russian Civil War , in mid-1919 Russian anti-communist forces with the help of Estonians attempted to capture the city, but Leon Trotsky mobilized the army and forced them to retreat back to Estonia . On 26 January 1924, five days after Lenin's death, Petrograd

6063-461: The emancipation of the serfs undertaken by Alexander II in 1861 and an Industrial Revolution , the influx of former peasants into the capital increased greatly. Poor boroughs spontaneously developed on the outskirts of the city. Saint Petersburg surpassed Moscow in population and industrial growth; it became one of the largest industrial cities in Europe, with a major naval base (in Kronstadt ),

6192-435: The 1920s and 1930s, the poor outskirts were reconstructed into regularly planned boroughs . Constructivist architecture flourished around that time. Housing became a government-provided amenity ; many "bourgeois" apartments were so large that numerous families were assigned to what were called "communal" apartments ( kommunalkas ). By the 1930s, 68% of the population lived in such housing under very poor conditions. In 1935,

6321-401: The 20th century. In the 1920s, the computer was invented; in the 1940s, acetate , modacrylic , metal fibres, and saran were developed; acrylic , polyester , and spandex were introduced in the 1950s. Polyester became hugely popular in the apparel market, and by the late 1970s, more polyester was sold in the United States than cotton. By the late 1980s, the apparel segment was no longer

6450-756: The ACWA — the Amalgamated Trust and Savings Bank of Chicago and the Amalgamated Bank of New York. This relationship made possible the transfer of additional funds from workers in America to their family members in the Soviet Union, with more than $ 9 million being so transmitted by the start of 1925. This significantly eased the dire economic situation of Soviet citizens attempting to rebuild their lives amidst economic chaos. Garments Industry The textile industry

6579-531: The Axis invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941. The siege lasted 872 days, or almost two and a half years, from 8 September 1941 to 27 January 1944. The Siege of Leningrad proved one of the longest, most destructive, and most lethal sieges of a major city in modern history . It isolated the city from food supplies except those provided through the Road of Life across Lake Ladoga , which could not make it through until

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6708-577: The German words Sankt and Burg . In March 1917, during the February Revolution Nicholas II abdicated for himself and on behalf of his son, ending the Russian monarchy and over three hundred years of Romanov dynastic rule . On 7 November [ O.S. 25 October] 1917, the Bolsheviks , led by Vladimir Lenin , stormed the Winter Palace in an event known thereafter as

6837-598: The Neva River, and a seaport on the Baltic. The names of Saints Peter and Paul , bestowed upon the original city's citadel and its cathedral (from 1725 – a burial vault of Russian emperors) coincidentally were the names of the first two assassinated Russian emperors, Peter III (1762, supposedly killed in a conspiracy led by his wife, Catherine the Great ) and Paul I (1801, Nikolay Alexandrovich Zubov and other conspirators who brought to power Alexander I ,

6966-410: The Russian industrial base. Hillman proposed expanding the Kuzbas model, reorganizing and establishing a section of the industry in accordance with American practice and American technology. This proposal met with official approval, and two hours of negotiations with Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin ensued to finalize the particulars. Hillman and Lenin signed a formal agreement, naming nine factories for

7095-549: The Soviet era, many historic architectural monuments of the previous centuries were destroyed by the new regime for ideological reasons. While that mainly concerned churches and cathedrals, some other buildings were also demolished. On 1 December 1934, Sergey Kirov , the Bolshevik leader of Leningrad, was assassinated under suspicious circumstances, which became the pretext for the Great Purge . In Leningrad, approximately 40,000 were executed during Stalin's purges. During World War II, German forces besieged Leningrad following

7224-504: The Soviet–Finnish border moved northwards. Nevsky Prospekt with Palace Square maintained the functions and the role of a city centre. In December 1931, Leningrad was administratively separated from Leningrad Oblast . At that time it included the Leningrad Suburban District, some parts of which were transferred back to Leningrad Oblast in 1936 and turned into Vsevolozhsky District , Krasnoselsky District , Pargolovsky District and Slutsky District (renamed Pavlovsky District in 1944). During

7353-400: The Winter Palace and prohibited spacing between buildings. During the reign of Catherine the Great in the 1760s–1780s, the banks of the Neva were lined with granite embankments. However, it was not until 1850 that the first permanent bridge across the Neva, Annunciation Bridge , was allowed to open. Before that, only pontoon bridges were allowed. Obvodny Canal (dug in 1769–1833) became

7482-508: The acting mayor Pyotr Sergeevich Popkov, and all their deputies; overall 23 leaders were sentenced to the death penalty, 181 to prison or exile (rehabilitated in 1954). About 2,000 ranking officials across the USSR were expelled from the party and the Komsomol and removed from leadership positions. The Leningrad Metro underground rapid transit system , designed before the war, opened in 1955 with its first eight stations decorated with marble and bronze . However, after Stalin's death in 1953,

7611-412: The area. At the end of the 17th century, Peter the Great, who was interested in seafaring and maritime affairs, wanted Russia to gain a seaport to trade with the rest of Europe. He needed a better seaport than the country's main one at the time, Arkhangelsk , which was on the White Sea in the far north and closed to shipping during the winter. On 12 May [ O.S. 1 May] 1703, during

7740-440: The author of the first nickname of Petersburg which he called Петри ( Petri ). It took some years until the known Russian spelling of this name finally settled. In 1740s Mikhail Lomonosov uses a derivative of Greek: Πετρόπολις (Петрополис, Petropolis ) in a Russified form Petropol ' (Петрополь). A combo Piterpol (Питерпол) also appears at this time. In any case, eventually the usage of prefix " Sankt- " ceased except for

7869-514: The average power of a mill engine was 48 hp, but Quarry Bank mill installed a new 100 hp water wheel. William Fairbairn addressed the problem of line-shafting and was responsible for improving the efficiency of the mill. In 1815 he replaced the wooden turning shafts that drove the machines at 50rpm, to wrought iron shafting working at 250 rpm, these were a third of the weight of the previous ones and absorbed less power. Secondly, in 1830, using an 1822 patent, Richard Roberts manufactured

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7998-450: The beginning of the 18th century was the production of textiles made with wool from the large sheep-farming areas in the Midlands and across the country (created as a result of land-clearance and enclosure ). This was a labour-intensive activity providing employment throughout Britain, with major centres being the West Country; Norwich and environs; and the West Riding of Yorkshire . The export trade in woolen goods accounted for more than

8127-419: The beginning of the decade. In 2011, the sector consisted of more than 185 000 companies employing 1.7 million people in Europe and with a total turnover of € 152 billion. The cotton industry in Catalonia was the first industry in Spain to industrialise and led, by the mid 19th century, to Catalonia becoming the main industrial region of Spain, a position it maintained until well into the 20th century. Catalonia

8256-434: The central of Pakistan industrialisation. Between 1947 and 2000, the number of textile Mills increased from 3 to 600. In the same time, spindles increased in number from 177,000 to 805 million. Many Western multinationals use labor in Bangladesh, which is one of the cheapest in the world: 30 euros per month compared to 150 or 200 in China. Four days is enough for the CEO of one of the top five global textile brands to earn what

8385-514: The city architecture of the early 18th century. In 1724 the Academy of Sciences , University and Academic Gymnasium were established in Saint Petersburg by Peter the Great. In 1725, Peter died at age fifty-two. His endeavors to modernize Russia had been opposed by the Russian nobility . There were several attempts on his life and a treason case involving his son. In 1728, Peter II of Russia moved his seat back to Moscow. But four years later, in 1732, under Empress Anna of Russia , Saint Petersburg

8514-400: The city authorities arranged for the mayoral elections and a referendum upon the city's name, when the original name Saint Petersburg was restored. The turnout was 65%; 66.13% of the total count of votes went to Anatoly Sobchak , who became the first directly elected mayor of the city . Meanwhile, economic conditions started to deteriorate as the country tried to adapt to major changes. For

8643-496: The city authorities until December 2010, when after the statement of President Dmitry Medvedev , the city decided to find a more appropriate location for this project. In the same year, the new location for the project was relocated to Lakhta , a historical area northwest of the city centre, and the new project would be named Lakhta Center . Construction was approved by Gazprom and the city administration and commenced in 2012. The 462 m (1,516 ft) high Lakhta Center has become

8772-407: The city during the first sixty years, culminating in the Elizabethan Baroque, represented most notably by Italian Bartolomeo Rastrelli with such buildings as the Winter Palace . In the 1760s, Baroque architecture was succeeded by neoclassical architecture . Established in 1762, the Commission of Stone Buildings of Moscow and Saint Petersburg ruled that no structure in the city could be higher than

8901-414: The city has the nickname of being "the Northern Capital of Russia" and is home to notable federal government bodies such as the Constitutional Court of Russia and the Heraldic Council of the President of the Russian Federation . It is also a seat for the National Library of Russia and a planned location for the Supreme Court of Russia , as well as the home to the headquarters of the Russian Navy , and

9030-415: The city was renamed Leningrad in January 1924. The referendum on restoring the historic name was held on 12 June 1991, with 55% of voters supporting " Saint Petersburg " and 43% supporting " Leningrad ". The turnout was 65% . Renaming the city Petrograd was not an option. This change officially took effect on 6 September 1991. Meanwhile, the oblast whose administrative center is also in Saint Petersburg

9159-410: The city's name in English was Saint Petersburgh . This spelling survives in the name of a street in the Bayswater district of London, near St Sophia's Cathedral , named after a visit by the Tsar to London in 1814. A 14 to 15-letter-long name, composed of the three roots , proved too cumbersome, and many shortened versions were used. The first General Governor of the city Menshikov is maybe also

9288-455: The cotton industry – centered in Lancashire – had grown tenfold during this time, but still accounted for only a tenth of the value of the woolen trade. Before the 17th century, the manufacture of goods was performed on a limited scale by individual workers, usually on their own premises (such as weavers' cottages ). Goods were transported around the country by clothiers who visited

9417-557: The country's largest strike movements, affecting almost all of the 4,000 factories. The Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and Exporters Association (BGMEA) uses police forces to crack down. Three workers were killed, and hundreds more were wounded by bullets, or imprisoned. In 2010, after a new strike movement, nearly 1,000 people were injured among workers as a result of the repression. Employees of Ethiopian garment factories, who work for brands such as Guess , H&M or Calvin Klein , receive

9546-428: The design, production, and distribution of textile products through processes including cultivation, harvesting, spinning, weaving, and finishing of raw materials, encompassing both natural and synthetic fibers. Artificial fibres can be made by extruding a polymer , through a spinneret (polymers) into a medium where it hardens. Wet spinning (rayon) uses a coagulating medium. In dry spinning (acetate and triacetate),

9675-460: The developing world. Developing countries have a natural advantage in textile production because it is labor-intensive and they have low labor costs. According to a World Bank / International Monetary Fund (IMF) study, the system has cost the developing world 27 million jobs and $ 40 billion a year in lost exports. However, the Arrangement was not negative for all developing countries. For example,

9804-401: The earned wages were ones that should “supplement the family income rather than provide it”, which was typically done by that of the breadwinning father or husband. It was commonly acknowledged that the role of a woman as a textile worker was a "secondary occupation and that a woman's real work was raising children and running the household”. This socially accepted convention was illustrated in

9933-442: The effort, American fundraising through sale of stock fell short of the mark, although an initial payment of $ 200,000 was made early in 1923. RAIC's operations were governed by a nine-member Control Board, seven of whom were Soviets owing to the unequal financial commitment of the two parties to the enterprise. Day-to-day management of RAIC's manufacturing facilities was largely turned over to American skilled workers and experts, with

10062-418: The extensive use of hydraulic power from the late 1860s. The Multi Fibre Arrangement (MFA) governed the world trade in textiles and garments from 1974 through 2004, imposing quotas on the amount developing countries could export to developed countries . It expired on 1 January 2005. The MFA was introduced in 1974 as a short-term measure intended to allow developed countries to adjust to imports from

10191-567: The fibers by hand, to using a drop spindle , to using a spinning wheel . Spindles or parts of them have been found in archaeological sites and may represent one of the first pieces of technology available. The spinning wheel was most likely invented in the Islamic world by the 11th century. The woven fabric portion of the textile industry grew out of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century as mass production of yarn and cloth became

10320-642: The first loom with a cast iron frame, the Roberts Loom . In 1842 James Bullough and William Kenworthy , made the Lancashire Loom , a semiautomatic power loom : although it is self-acting, it has to be stopped to recharge empty shuttles. It was the mainstay of the Lancashire cotton industry for a century, until the Northrop Loom (invented in 1894, with an automatic weft replenishment function) gained ascendancy. Thirdly, also in 1830, Richard Roberts patented

10449-403: The first self-acting mule. Stalybridge mule spinners strike was in 1824; this stimulated research into the problem of applying power to the winding stroke of the mule. The draw while spinning had been assisted by power, but the push of the wind had been done manually by the spinner, the mule could be operated by semiskilled labor. Before 1830, the spinner would operate a partially powered mule with

10578-531: The first time since the 1940s, food rationing was introduced, and the city received humanitarian food aid from abroad. This dramatic time was depicted in photographic series of Russian photographer Alexey Titarenko . Economic conditions began to improve only at the beginning of the 21st century. In 1995, a northern section of the Kirovsko-Vyborgskaya Line of the Saint Petersburg Metro

10707-400: The formal official documents, where a three-letter abbreviation "СПб" ( SPb ) was very widely used as well. In the 1830s Alexander Pushkin translated the "foreign" city name of "Saint Petersburg" to the more Russian Petrograd (Russian: Петроград , IPA: [pʲɪtrɐˈgrat] ) in one of his poems. However, it was only on 31 August [ O.S. 18 August] 1914, after

10836-426: The former capital of Imperial Russia , and a historically strategic port , it is governed as a federal city . The city was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on 27 May 1703 on the site of a captured Swedish fortress , and was named after the apostle Saint Peter . In Russia , Saint Petersburg is historically and culturally associated with the birth of the Russian Empire and Russia's entry into modern history as

10965-547: The frame which produced what became known as the Derby Rib , that produced a knit and purl stitch. This allowed stockings to be manufactured in silk and later in cotton. In 1768, Hammond modified the stocking frame to weave weft-knitted openworks or nets by crossing over the loops, using a mobile tickler bar – this led in 1781 to Thomas Frost's square net. Cotton had been too coarse for lace , but by 1805 Houldsworths of Manchester were producing reliable 300 count cotton thread. With

11094-433: The gradual dismantling of the quotas that existed under the MFA. This process was completed on 1 January 2005. However, large tariffs remain in place on many textile products. Bangladesh was expected to suffer the most from the ending of the MFA, as it was expected to face more competition, particularly from China . However, this was not the case. It turns out that even in the face of other economic giants, Bangladesh's labor

11223-467: The head of the city administration . The title of the city head was changed from "mayor" to "governor". In 2000, Yakovlev won re-election. His second term expired in 2004; the long-awaited restoration of the broken subway connection was expected to finish by that time. But in 2003 Yakovlev suddenly resigned, leaving the governor's office to Valentina Matviyenko . The law on election of the City Governor

11352-587: The higher rate of production generated an increased demand for spun cotton. In 1761, the Duke of Bridgewater's canal connected Manchester to the coal fields of Worsley and in 1762, Matthew Boulton opened the Soho Foundry engineering works in Handsworth , Birmingham . His partnership with Scottish engineer James Watt resulted, in 1775, in the commercial production of the more efficient Watt steam engine which used

11481-443: The hiring process of female textile workers, employers preferred “hiring women who were young and unmarried: most machine operatives were between the ages of 16 and 25”. This also affected the wage of female textile workers, since it was considered that a women’s wage in the textile industry was one to supplement the family, there was a “belief that women did not merit or require wages as high as those of men”. Major changes came to

11610-450: The hundreds. Investment eventually topped the $ 2 million mark with RAIC production ultimately expanded to 34 factories, employing 17,500 workers in total. Dividends were twice paid to stockholders, an initial partial payment of 3% paid at the end of 1923, covering the first half year of productive operations, and a second payment of 5% in January 1925, covering the year 1924. News coverage of

11739-588: The idea allowed the concept to be exploited by others. As a result, there were more than 20,000 spinning jennies in use by the time of his death. Also in 1764, Thorp Mill, the first water-powered cotton mill in the world was constructed at Royton , Lancashire, and was used for carding cotton. With the spinning and weaving process now mechanized, cotton mills cropped up all over the North West of England. The stocking frame invented in 1589 for silk became viable when in 1759, Jedediah Strutt introduced an attachment for

11868-546: The import of raw materials and export of finished cloth. Firstly, the use of water power to drive mills was supplemented by steam driven water pumps, and then superseded completely by the steam engines . For example, Samuel Greg joined his uncle's firm of textile merchants, and, on taking over the company in 1782, he sought out a site to establish a mill. Quarry Bank Mill was built on the River Bollin at Styal in Cheshire . It

11997-591: The institution known as the Russian-American Industrial Corporation as a mechanism to import garment-making machinery and organizational know-how to Soviet Russia in a tangible effort to aid the successful development of the Russian Revolution. The idea to establish a corporation for the construction of clothing factories was born in the summer of 1921. Already in that year there was a model American-inspired industrial colony established in

12126-648: The introduction of American production methods into backwards Russian industry being one of the primary appeals of the program from the perspective of the Soviet regime. The nine initial factories provided to RAIC by the Soviet government were to be expanded to a network of fifteen facilities around the country under the terms of the contractual agreement. These factories were to produce a range of consumer commodities, including shirts, coats, suits, overcoats, underwear, caps, gloves, and other fabric goods. Factories were staffed both by Soviet and American workers, most of whom were returning émigrés from Tsarist Russia, numbering in

12255-420: The lake froze. More than one million civilians were killed, mainly from starvation. There were incidents of cannibalism, with around 2,000 residents arrested for eating other people. Many others escaped or were evacuated, so the city became largely depopulated. On 1 May 1945 Joseph Stalin , in his Supreme Commander Order No. 20, named Leningrad, alongside Stalingrad , Sevastopol , and Odesa , hero cities of

12384-753: The largest market for fibre products, with industrial and home furnishings together representing a larger proportion of the fibre market. Industry integration and global manufacturing led to many small firms closing for good during the 1970s and 1980s in the United States; during those decades, 95% of the looms in North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia shut down, and Alabama and Virginia also saw many factories close. The largest exporters of textiles in 2013 were China ($ 274 billion), India ($ 40 billion), Italy ($ 36 billion), Germany ($ 35 billion), Bangladesh ($ 28 billion) and Pakistan ($ 27 Billion). The textile industry in India traditionally, after agriculture,

12513-521: The latter payment asserted the total number of stockholders in RAIC to be 5,500. The Soviet economy's recovery via the market-oriented New Economic Policy (NEP) alleviated the need for external capitalization of the consumer goods industry. RAIC was consequently terminated by the end of 1925. The company's impact during the first years of NEP had been significant, with its factories in eight cities reckoned to have produced more than twenty percent of total Soviet clothing output in those years. In addition to

12642-481: The manufacturing of cloth in Northern Europe dates back to Neolithic times. During the late medieval period, cotton began to be imported into Northern Europe . Without any knowledge of what it came from, other than that it was a plant , noting its similarities to wool, people in the region could only imagine that cotton must be produced by plant-borne sheep. John Mandeville , writing in 1350, stated as fact

12771-406: The most important textile. This set the foundations for the changes. The textile sector accounts for 54% of Pakistan 's export earnings. The industry's contribution in the nation's exports account for 8.5% of the total GDP. Textile exports stood at $ 4.4 billion in 2017–18. The industry employs a large section of the labour force in the country. Pakistan is the 4th largest producer of cotton with

12900-471: The now-preposterous belief: "There grew in India a wonderful tree which bore tiny lambs on the edges of its branches. These branches were so pliable that they bent down to allow the lambs to feed when they are hungry." This aspect is retained in the name for cotton in many European languages, such as German Baumwolle , which translates as "tree wool". By the end of the 16th century, cotton was cultivated throughout

13029-466: The original name, Sankt-Peterburg , was returned by citywide referendum. Today, in English the city is known as Saint Petersburg . Local residents often refer to the city by its shortened nickname, Piter (Russian: Питер , IPA: [ˈpʲitʲɪr] ). After the October Revolution the name Red Petrograd (Красный Петроград, Krasny Petrograd ) was often used in newspapers and other prints until

13158-484: The perceived ornamental excesses of the Stalinist architecture were abandoned. From the 1960s to the 1980s many new residential boroughs were built on the outskirts; while the functionalist apartment blocks were nearly identical to each other, many families moved there from kommunalkas in the city centre to live in separate apartments. On 12 June 1991 , simultaneously with the first Russian SFSR presidential elections ,

13287-735: The polymer is contained in a solvent that evaporates in the heated exit chamber. In melt spinning (nylons and polyesters) the extruded polymer is cooled in gas or air and then sets. Some examples of synthetic fibers are polyester, rayon, acrylic fibers and microfibers. All these fibres will be of great length, often kilometres long. Synthetic fibers are more durable than most natural fibers and will readily pick-up different dyes. Artificial fibres can be processed as long fibres or batched and cut so they can be processed like natural fibre. Sheep, goats, rabbits, silkworms, and other animals, as well as minerals like asbestos, are sources of natural fibers (cotton, flax, sisal). These vegetable fibers can originate from

13416-480: The post-war decades, partially according to pre-war plans. The 1948 general plan for Leningrad featured radial urban development in the north as well as in the south. In 1953, Pavlovsky District in Leningrad Oblast was abolished, and parts of its territory, including Pavlovsk, merged with Leningrad. In 1954, the settlements Levashovo , Pargolovo and Pesochny merged with Leningrad. Leningrad gave its name to

13545-594: The preservation of its historical and architectural environment became controversial. After 2005, the demolition of older buildings in the historical centre was permitted. In 2006, Gazprom announced an ambitious project to erect a 403 m (1,322 ft) skyscraper (the Okhta Center ) opposite to Smolny , which could result in the loss of the unique line of Petersburg landscape. Urgent protests by citizens and prominent public figures of Russia against this project were not considered by Governor Valentina Matviyenko and

13674-527: The project — six in Petrograd (today's St. Petersburg), and three in Moscow — conditional upon the raising of $ 1 million for the project in the United States. The initiative was originally conceived as one which would eventually extend beyond the clothing industry into other divisions of Soviet industry, Hillman declared in an interview with the official state newspaper Izvestiia prior to his departure. The matter

13803-415: The reconstruction of Russia and the promotion of the highest human welfare throughout the world." Following approval of the RAIC program by the convention of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers, Hillman returned to Soviet Russia in the summer of 1922 to hammer out additional details of the enterprise. Contracts were negotiated with the chief economic planning organizations of the day, including an agreement with

13932-399: The scrapped mules and looms were bought up and reinstated in India. Women began entering the workforce in the 19th century through textile factories, the industrial and garment assembly jobs done during this time “[provided a] point for participation by rural women in the formal economy”. While women began entering the workforce and earning wages for themselves, there was an assumption that

14061-420: The seed (cotton), the stem (bast fibres: flax, hemp, jute), or the leaf (sisal). All of these sources require a number of steps, each of which has a distinct name, before a clean, even staple is produced. All of these fibers, with the exception of silk, are short, only a few centimeters long, and have a rough surface that allows them to adhere to other like staple fibers. There are some indications that weaving

14190-649: The son of their victim). The third emperor's assassination took place in Saint Petersburg in 1881 when Alexander II was murdered by terrorists (see the Church of the Savior on Spilled Blood ). The Revolution of 1905 began in Saint Petersburg and spread rapidly into the provinces. On 1 September 1914, after the outbreak of World War I, the Imperial government renamed the city Petrograd , meaning "Peter's City", to remove

14319-631: The southern limit of the city. The most prominent neoclassical and Empire-style architects in Saint Petersburg included: In 1810, Alexander I established the first engineering higher education , the Saint Petersburg Main military engineering School in Saint Petersburg. Many monuments commemorate the Russian victory over Napoleonic France in the Patriotic War of 1812 , including the Alexander Column by Montferrand, erected in 1834, and

14448-525: The supervision of Alexander Menshikov . Tens of thousands of serfs died while building the city. Later, the city became the centre of the Saint Petersburg Governorate . Peter moved the capital from Moscow to Saint Petersburg in 1712, nine years before the Treaty of Nystad of 1721 ended the war. He referred to Saint Petersburg as the capital (or seat of government) as early as 1704. While the city

14577-704: The textile industry during the 20th century, with continuing technological innovations in machinery, synthetic fibre, logistics, and globalization of the business. The business model that had dominated the industry for centuries was to change radically. Cotton and wool producers were not the only source for fibres, as chemical companies created new synthetic fibres that had superior qualities for many uses, such as rayon , invented in 1910, and DuPont 's nylon , invented in 1935 as in inexpensive silk substitute, and used for products ranging from women's stockings to tooth brushes and military parachutes. The variety of synthetic fibres used in manufacturing fibre grew steadily throughout

14706-481: The third largest spinning capacity in Asia. It contributes 5% to the global spinning capacity. At present, there are 1,221 ginning units, 442 spinning units and 124 large spinning units in addition to 425 small units which produce textiles. Pakistan is the third largest consumer of cotton. Exports of $ 3.5 billion were recorded in 2017–18 (6.5% of the total exported cotton on the world). In 1950, textile manufacturing emerged as

14835-407: The village with their trains of packhorses . Some of the cloth was made into clothes for people living in the same area, and a large amount of cloth was exported. River navigations were constructed, and some contour-following canals . In the early 18th century, artisans were inventing ways to become more productive. Silk , wool, fustian , and linen were being eclipsed by cotton, which was becoming

14964-419: The villages of their origin for a planned redistribution of land. Short of labor, raw materials, and organizational capability, factories were shuttered and industrial production plummeted. The Great Famine of 1921 swept the country, killing millions through starvation and disease. Through it all the governing Bolshevik Party stood firm as the world's first Socialist republic, offering a contrasting vision of

15093-554: The war with Germany had begun, that Tsar Nicholas II renamed the city Petrograd in order to expunge the German words Sankt and Burg . Since the prefix "Saint" was omitted, this act also changed the eponym and the "patron" of the city from Saint Peter to Peter the Great, its founder. On 26 January 1924, shortly after the death of Vladimir Lenin , it was renamed to Leningrad (Russian: Ленинград , IPA: [lʲɪnʲɪnˈgrat] ), meaning 'Lenin City'. On 6 September 1991,

15222-686: The war. A law acknowledging the honorary title of "Hero City" passed on 8 May 1965 (the 20th anniversary of the victory in the Great Patriotic War), during the Brezhnev era . The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR awarded Leningrad as a Hero City the Order of Lenin and the Gold Star medal "for the heroic resistance of the city and tenacity of the survivors of the Siege". The Hero-City Obelisk bearing

15351-586: The warmer regions of Asia and the Americas. The main steps in the production of cloth are producing the fibre, preparing it, converting it to yarn, converting yarn to cloth, and then finishing the cloth. The cloth is then taken to the manufacturer of garments. The preparation of the fibres differs the most, depending on the fibre used. Flax requires retting and dressing, while wool requires carding and washing. The spinning and weaving processes are very similar between fibers, however. Spinning evolved from twisting

15480-525: Was again designated as the capital of the Russian Empire . It remained the seat of the Romanov dynasty and the Imperial Court of the Russian tsars , as well as the seat of the Russian government, for another 186 years until the communist revolution of 1917 . In 1736–1737 the city suffered from catastrophic fires. To rebuild the damaged boroughs, a committee under Burkhard Christoph von Münnich commissioned

15609-650: Was already known in the Palaeolithic . An indistinct textile impression has been found at Pavlov , Moravia. Neolithic textiles were found in pile dwellings excavations in Switzerland and at El Fayum, Egypt at a site which dates to about 5000 BC . In Roman times, wool, linen and leather clothed the European population, and silk, imported along the Silk Road from China, was an extravagant luxury. The use of flax fiber in

15738-576: Was being built, Peter lived in a three-room log cabin with his wife Catherine and their children. During its first few years, the city developed around Trinity Square on the right bank of the Neva, near the Peter and Paul Fortress. However, Saint Petersburg soon started to be built out according to a plan. By 1716 the Swiss Italian Domenico Trezzini had elaborated a project whereby the city centre would be on Vasilyevsky Island and shaped by

15867-524: Was changed, breaking the tradition of democratic election by universal suffrage that started in 1991. In 2006, the city legislature re-approved Matviyenko as governor. Residential building had intensified again; real-estate prices inflated greatly, which caused many new problems for the preservation of the historical part of the city. Although the central part of the city has a UNESCO designation (there are about 8,000 architectural monuments in Petersburg),

15996-400: Was cut off by underground flooding, creating a major obstacle to the city development for almost ten years. On 13 June 1996, Saint Petersburg, alongside Leningrad Oblast and Tver Oblast , signed a power-sharing agreement with the federal government, granting it autonomy. This agreement was abolished on 4 April 2002. In 1996, Vladimir Yakovlev defeated Anatoly Sobchak in the elections for

16125-436: Was initially powered by a water wheel , but installed steam engines in 1810. Quarry Bank Mill in Cheshire still exists as a well-preserved museum, having been in use from its construction in 1784 until 1959. It also illustrates how the mill owners exploited child labour, taking orphans from nearby Manchester to work the cotton. It shows that these children were housed, clothed, fed and provided with some education. In 1830,

16254-423: Was pegged at US$ 55 billion, 64% of which services domestic demand. In 2010, there were 2,500 textile weaving factories and 4,135 textile finishing factories in all of India. According to AT Kearney 's 'Retail Apparel Index', India was ranked as the fourth most promising market for apparel retailers in 2009. India is first in global jute production and shares 63% of the global textile and garment market. India

16383-532: Was renamed Leningrad . Later many streets and other toponyms were renamed accordingly, with names in honour of communist figures replacing historic names given centuries before. The city has over 230 places associated with the life and activities of Lenin. Some of them were turned into museums, including the cruiser Aurora – a symbol of the October Revolution and the oldest ship in the Russian Navy . In

16512-622: Was taken to the 5th National Convention of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers, held in Chicago in May 1922, and was ratified there. In a speech to union members, Hillman charged the Allied powers with engaging in a systematic campaign "to starve Russia into submission to the rule of international financiers" and argued that aid to Soviet Russia was not a matter of being for or against Bolshevism, but rather "for or against slaughter of millions of people." Hillman's report

16641-482: Was warmly applauded and plans for the establishment of a new international development company fell rapidly into place. Papers were filed in Delaware on June 2, 1922, to legally incorporate the new entity, to be known as the Russian-American Industrial Corporation (RAIC). Funds for the project were to be raised by having union members purchase capital stock in RAIC, priced at $ 10/share. Sales of stock were not packaged as

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