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123-562: Rotte can refer to: German military airplane formation, see Organization of the Luftwaffe (1933–45)#Schwarm, Rotte and Kette Rotte (river) in the Netherlands Rotte (psaltery) , a medieval string instrument, member of the psaltery family Rotte (instrument) or German lyre, a medieval string instrument See also [ edit ] Rott (disambiguation) Topics referred to by

246-409: A Luftflotte . There was also a Fliegerabwehrkanone ( Flak ) unit. A Luftflotte was operationally divided into one or more Fliegerkorps ("Air Corps") of varying size, depending on its area of operations. They were responsible for all operational matters such as deployment, air traffic, ordnance and maintenance. A Fliegerkorps could potentially be loaned out to another Luftflotte depending on

369-409: A Luftgau designator. For example, section 3 of Luftgau VI would be designated '3/VI'. Flying units used the services of a Luftgau through Flughafenbereichkommandanturen (Airfield Regional Commands). Each Luftgau usually had five such commands. Each regional command was divided into five or more Einsatzhafenkommandanturen (Operational Airfield Commands). The operational commands were located at

492-458: A Staffel . A bomber Schwarm (at full strength, six aircraft) was divided into a Kette ("chain") of three aircraft. As such, a bomber Schwarm was equivalent to a flight in the Western Allied air forces. A Kette was also the term used for a "v" formation . A fighter Schwarm (four aircraft) was divided into two Rotten (singular: Rotte , "pack") of two aircraft, equivalent to

615-617: A referendum was to be held there. The former Imperial Territory of Alsace–Lorraine , which had been effectively under Prussian administration, was ceded to France without a vote. The annexation of the Free State of Waldeck-Pyrmont was the one Prussian territorial addition during the Weimar Republic. The Pyrmont district made the first step after a referendum in 1921. The rest of the state followed in 1929. The loss of territory had considerable negative economic and financial consequences for

738-500: A Captain and his position was designated Hauptmann beim Stabe (Captain at the Staff) correspondingly. As the war progressed, the various sub-units of each numbered Geschwader operated separately and often on totally different fronts or theaters of war. Free State of Prussia#National Socialist era (1933–1945) The Free State of Prussia ( German : Freistaat Preußen , pronounced [ˈfʁaɪʃtaːt ˈpʁɔʏsn̩] )

861-553: A batch of 25. For example, Luftflotte 1 Geschwader were numbered 0–25, Luftflotte 2 Geschwader became 26–50 and so on. Within the Air Ministry, for administration purposes, the Luftwaffe was organized into Luftgaue (Air Districts), based on the army's Wehrkreis ("military districts"). A Luftgau was responsible for all administrative activities, such as training, administration, maintenance, air defense, signals, recruitment and reserve personnel. The Generalmajor leading

984-400: A business managed by a self-employed member of their family such as an independent farmer or shop owner and who receive at most pocket money instead of a salary), and 4.5% were domestic workers. The unemployment rate in 1925 was 6%. The proportions varied depending on the predominant economic sector of the individual provinces. In more rural East Prussia, the number of contributing family members

1107-545: A cabinet minister, he was able to get significant resources and personnel allocated to the Luftwaffe compared to other branches of the armed forces. In 1945, close to the end of the war, Robert Ritter von Greim replaced Göring as Commander in Chief. The OKL, as the operational branch of the RLM, had complete control over unit movements, formation and personnel transfers. It had a strength of 25,000 personnel in 1939. On an operational level,

1230-667: A central tax administration. The Reich had fiscal sovereignty and distributed revenues to the states. Along with the military and railroads, waterways and a large part of social administration became the responsibility of the Reich. Although 61% of the Reich's population lived in Prussia in 1925, it had only two-fifths of the votes in the Reichsrat , the Reich-level equivalent of the State Council. In

1353-448: A centralized, well organized air force to be used as a weapon of war, like the army and navy. German aviators from World War I, followed this thought process. Since they had the backing of the German political leadership, this is how the Luftwaffe was originally conceived and formed. Following the tradition of putting a soldier in charge of the army and a sailor in charge of the navy, an aviator

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1476-579: A departure from the empire's Federal Council , and in contrast to the other states, only half of the members of the Reichsrat to which Prussia was entitled were appointed by the Prussian government. The remaining members were elected by the provincial parliaments. Between 1921 and 1925 the administration of state-owned enterprises was moved away from the direct responsibility of the Ministry of Trade and Industry on

1599-499: A dominant weapon of war. Unlike the other two forces, air power did not have past experience to draw upon. This resulted in the air force having to learn from experience rather than the classroom. There were no cohesive ideas for the organization of a structured, modern air force. One train of thought subordinated the air force to the army in support of land operations and to the navy for maritime tasks. It would be staffed by soldiers or sailors trained to fly. The second theory envisioned

1722-465: A factor. The large population movements within Prussia slowed. In contrast to the period before 1914, more people were moving into Prussia from foreign countries than were emigrating. In-migration from ceded territories along with increasing immigration, especially from eastern Europe, both played a role. There were also major differences in population density across Prussia. In 1925 East Prussia had an average of 60.9 inhabitants per square kilometer, while

1845-666: A few cities and in areas that were more rural and Protestant, especially east of the Elbe River . In East Prussia the DNVP received over 30% of the vote in the 1928 federal election for the Reichstag. The Centre was strong in Catholic areas such as Silesia, the Rhineland and Westphalia. The left-wing parties were important in large cities and heavily commercial non-Catholic areas. In Berlin, for example,

1968-514: A fourth or even a fifth gruppe was added to single engine fighter geschwader . On several occasions, day fighter Geschwader or Jagdgeschwader were formed with four Gruppe strength from start. Each Gruppe had its own Stabsschwarm , which mirrored the two pairs of the Geschwader's Stabsschwarm . The only difference was that the command company of the Gruppe was commanded not by a Major, but by

2091-538: A letter to the Cardinal of Cologne Felix von Hartmann , Minister President Hirsch assured him that Hoffmann's provisions for ending clerical supervision of schools had been illegal because they had not been voted on in the cabinet. More strongly than any other government measures, Hoffmann's socialist cultural policies turned large segments of the population against the revolution. The Christmas Eve fighting in Berlin between

2214-465: A military command point of view ( Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ) (OKW). Göring was the cabinet minister of aviation ( Reichsminister der Luftfahrt ) during most of this period. He also served as the Commander in Chief of the Luftwaffe ( Oberbefehlshaber der Luftwaffe ). As a cabinet minister, he was responsible for civil aviation and all aspects of aircraft manufacturing and supply. Operationally,

2337-467: A pair in the English-speaking world. As such a fighter Schwarm was equivalent to a section/element in the Western Allied air forces. The term Rotte was also used for a formation of two aircraft: the smallest tactical unit, consisting of a leader and a wingman. A Stabschwarm ("staff schwarm ") was attached to each Geschwader . The OKW was the highest in the military command structure. It

2460-454: A province. The Hohenzollern Lands in southern Germany were a unique type of administrative district ( Regierungsbezirk ) that was not a true province but that had almost all the rights of one. The provinces were headed by governors ( Oberpräsidenten ) appointed by the Ministry of State. There was in addition a provincial council consisting of the governor, a member appointed by the Minister of

2583-408: A provincial committee from its own ranks to manage day-to-day business. The provincial parliaments sent representatives to the national-level Reichsrat and the corresponding Prussian State Council ( Staatsrat ). Below the provincial level there were (as of 1933) 34 administrative districts; some provinces, including Posen-West Prussia, Upper Silesia, Schleswig-Holstein and also Berlin, had just

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2706-580: A result, on 1 August 1938, Luftwaffenkommando Ostpreußen (Airforce Command East Prussia) replaced Luftkreis 1. This change also rendered the three digit Geschwader identifiers meaningless. From 1 November 1938, Geschwader identifiers were changed universally. The third digit of the Unit Identifier was replaced with the same digit as its parent Luftwaffengruppenkommando . For example, all units under Luftwaffengruppenkommando 1 (headquartered in Berlin), had

2829-705: A signals command, a medical battalion and a procurement and supply group. Their area of operations also included civilian airfields and Civil Air Defense. The following year, all the replacement battalions in that area also came under their control. In 1936, these were extended to regiment size or Fliegerersatzregimente . From 1935 to 1936, Flak units in the area also came under their command. Hermann Göring and Erhard Milch appointed retired army lieutenant generals to lead each Luftkreis . These were Hans Halm  [ de ] , Edmund Wachenfeld  [ de ] and Leonhard Kaupisch . They were promoted to General der Flieger . A retired navy officer, Konrad Zander ,

2952-418: A single administrative district. A total of 361 districts (called Kreise or Landkreise ) formed the basis of state administration in rural areas and small towns. Larger cities generally formed urban districts ( Stadtkreise ), of which there were a total of 116. While there were only five urban districts in agrarian East Prussia, there were 21 in industrial Westphalia. See also: Constitution of

3075-586: A small staff along with an adjutant (Staff Officer) for operational as well as for administrative purposes. There was a Stabschwarm (Command Flight) of four aircraft in two pairs. The 1st Pair ( 1. Rotte ) included the Geschwaderkommodore with the Adjutant IIa (the Geschwader's staff officer in charge of officer personnel affairs) as his wingman. The 2nd Pair ( 2. Rotte ) included the 1. Generalstabsoffizier Ia (the Geschwader's Chief of Operations) with

3198-478: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Organization of the Luftwaffe (1933%E2%80%9345)#Schwarm, Rotte and Kette Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles (1919), Germany was prohibited from having an air force, with the former German Empire 's Luftstreitkräfte disbandment in 1920. German pilots were secretly trained for military aviation, first in

3321-784: The Erprobungskommando units, a Lehrdivision did not undertake the testing of experimental aircraft. As the war went on, some of the units under its command were used for operational purposes. In the Luftwaffe the largest mobile and autonomous unit was the Geschwader . A Geschwader was the equivalent of a Wing in the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF). It would be used for different purposes such as bombing, interception (both single and twin engine), ground attack and reconnaissance. A Geschwader would be named, based on its purpose. There were several Geschwader with

3444-522: The Fliegerkorps . Some remained in operation on the Eastern Front . A Jagdkorps was a more specialized version of a Fliegerkorps with limited responsibility to fighter command only. A Jagd-Division was subordinated to a Jagdkorps but specialized in fighter operations. Jagd-Divisionen (fighter divisions) were active at one point or other during this period. Together the fighter force of Luftwaffe

3567-582: The Independent SPD (USPD), a more leftist and anti-war group that had broken away from the original united SPD in 1917, and to enter into an alliance with the council movement, a form of council communism . On 12 November 1918 commissioners from the Workers' and Soldiers' Councils of Greater Berlin, including Paul Hirsch, Otto Braun (MSPD) and Adolph Hoffmann (USPD), appeared before the last Deputy Minister President of Prussia, Robert Friedberg. They declared

3690-504: The Luftflotte , a Fliegerkorps also had an adjutant as well as other departments. However, it did depend on the parent Luftflotte for administrative and supply purposes. The Fliegerkorps were numbered consecutively in Roman numerals. During the initial organization of the Luftwaffe, it was divided into Fliegerdivisionen . However, during later reorganizations, most of these were replaced by

3813-633: The Luftgau-kommando of each Luftgau reported to the Air Ministry. Those Luftgaue established within Germany were numbered non-consecutively with Roman numerals. Luftgaue were also established as required in occupied Europe and were named after their location: Feldluftgaue were established directly behind the actual frontline. Each Luftgau had its own section for the following matters: These sections were numbered in Arabic numerals followed by

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3936-627: The Major beim Stabe (the "Major at the Staff", commanding the Geschwader's Stabskompanie - the command company and for that reason also designated as StabsKp ) as his wingman. On the rare occasions when more aircraft were made available, the Stabsschwarm could have 5 or even 6 fighter aircraft instead of the standard 4 and transport, liaison or rescue aircraft could be attached to it. Typically there were three Gruppen (groups) under each Geschwader and sometimes

4059-710: The Nazi Party seized power in 1933, even though a Prussian government under Hermann Göring continued to function formally until 1945. After the end of the Second World War , by decree of the Allied Control Council , the de jure abolition of Prussia occurred on 25 February 1947. On 9 November 1918, in the early days of the Revolution of 1918–1919 that brought down the German monarchy , Prince Maximilian von Baden ,

4182-504: The People's Navy Division and units of the German army led to the withdrawal of the USPD from the government in both Prussia and at the Reich level. The dismissal of Emil Eichhorn (USPD) as Berlin's police chief triggered the failed Spartacist Uprising of 5 – 12 January 1919 that attempted to turn the direction of the revolution towards the founding a communist state. Prussia's continued existence

4305-512: The RLM aircraft designation system airframe number matching the aircraft they were meant to test. Along with the aircraft test and evaluation, a Lehrdivision was also responsible for testing anti-aircraft defenses and air signals equipment. The staff of this division were required to have prior combat experience. The Lehr units in this division were usually made part of operational units, receiving help from them for testing under combat conditions. Unlike

4428-792: The Reichstag . Ebert then charged Paul Hirsch , the MSPD's party leader in the Prussian House of Representatives , with maintaining peace and order in Prussia. The last Minister of the Interior of the Kingdom of Prussia, Bill Drews , legitimized the transfer of de facto governmental power to Hirsch. On 10 November Ebert found himself forced to form a joint government, the Council of the People's Deputies , with representatives of

4551-509: The Rhine Province had 295.6. Because of the extent of its low population rural regions, Prussia had a density of 130.7 per square kilometer, which was below average among the German states. The Free State of Saxony , by way of contrast, had 333 inhabitants per km . Urbanization and urban growth lost momentum compared to the pre-1914 period. Population increases in larger cities were caused not so much by in-migration as by incorporation. This

4674-590: The constituent Prussian State Assembly . During the campaign, reaching out to female voters, who were going to the polls for the first time, played an important role. In Catholic regions of the state, Hoffmann's anti-clerical school program helped the Centre Party to mobilize its voter base. The MSPD emerged as the strongest party, followed by the Centre and the German Democratic Party (DDP). The Assembly met for

4797-798: The Free State of Prussia   – via Wikisource . (Full text in English) Carl Severing did not submit a draft constitution until 26 April 1920 because of delays caused by the Kapp Putsch and the wait for the Reich constitution , which was ratified on 11 August 1919. On 30 November 1920 the State Assembly adopted the constitution of the Free State of Prussia . 280 deputies voted in favor, 60 against and 7 abstained. The DNVP and independent deputies in particular voted against it. In contrast to

4920-521: The German average. Despite the efforts of the Prussian government in areas such as education, upward mobility remained limited. In 1927/28, only one percent of junior lawyers came from working-class families. Advancement opportunities were significantly better from primary schools. The proportion of students from working-class families at educational academies rose from 7 percent in 1928/29 to 10 percent in 1932/33. The Free State consisted of twelve provinces plus Berlin, whose status corresponded to that of

5043-418: The Interior and five members elected by the provincial committee. The provinces each had a parliament. In Hesse-Nassau , municipal parliaments existed for the district associations alongside the provincial parliament. The provincial parliaments elected a Landeshauptmann who headed the governmental administration; the corresponding office in Berlin was the mayor. In addition, the provincial parliament elected

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5166-467: The Interior. This later became the Paratroop Tank Corps ( Fallschirmjägerpanzerkorps ). By September 1939, the Luftwaffe had a total of 4,000 aircraft and 400,000 personnel. This strength had grown to 1,700,000 by 1941. In total, 571,000 of these were in anti-aircraft units and another 18 percent were in the signals branch. Only 36 percent or 588,000 comprised aircrew, but this also included

5289-521: The Luftwaffe command was shared by the Inspector of Combat Flight ( General der Kampfflieger ) and the Inspector of Fighters ( General der Jagdflieger ) along with the Secretary of State for Aviation . The German air force was divided into three operational branches: These three branches were further divided into sub-branches such as Paratroops, air engineering, air medical corps and air-crew. Since

5412-521: The Luftwaffe resided with the RLM, the German Air Ministry and its operational branch, the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe (OKL), or Air Force High Command. These institutions together were responsible for the direction of research, production and overall maintenance of aircraft. As head of the Luftwaffe, Göring was responsible for the war effort and for the resources sent to a particular region. As

5535-422: The Luftwaffe was divided into air fleets ( Luftflotten ), not entirely unlike the nearly contemporary United States Army Air Corps and (after late June 1941) USAAF numbered air forces . Each air fleet was responsible for a particular geographic region. They were self-contained units equipped with all types of aircraft and their own supply elements, maintenance staff, administration and legal departments. At

5658-411: The Luftwaffe was organized in a geographical fashion rather than on a strategic functional basis, it had independent administrative as well as operational command structures. Each geographical area had its own supply and maintenance corps. For this reason, any aviation units moving within that geographical area did not need to carry its own maintenance staff. This allowed for a great deal of mobility within

5781-496: The Luftwaffe was organized in similar fashion to the army. Its units had a flexible composition with sub-units being added or removed when necessary. These sub-units tended to be semi-autonomous and highly mobile. This offered the flexibility required to support the ground units. From the start of the Spanish Civil War , the Luftwaffe was in action continuously without the time for rest or training. Multiple political acts and

5904-571: The Luftwaffe. Strategically, all three German military forces were part of a single service called, "The Defensive Power" ( Die Wehrmacht ; from wehren ( Verb ), to defend; and die Macht , the Power, Might) controlled by the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW); the head of the OKW was part of the Cabinet. Within the OKW, each service was headed by its own operational command: The top levels of control of

6027-572: The Luftwaffe. The following parts of the Luftwaffe were under its command: The other components, such as armament and aircraft manufacturing remained under the control of the RLM. The OKL was led by the Chief of the General Staff. It was strategically divided into eight directorates ( Abteilungen ) numbered consecutively. The directorates were: There were also 17 Inspectorates ( Luftwaffen Inspektion ): Six Luftkreise (Air Service Commands) were established on 1 April 1934. These were each

6150-514: The MSPD, six from the Centre, four each from the DDP and the right-wing nationalist German National People's Party (DNVP), and one each from the USPD and the liberal German People's Party (DVP). (See the Constitution section below for additional details.) On 25 March 1919 the provisional revolutionary Hirsch government resigned. It was replaced, as in the Reich, by a coalition of MSPD, Centre and DDP,

6273-484: The Ministry of State as a whole. With a two-thirds majority, it could impeach ministers before the state court. The Ministry of State was the highest and leading authority in the state; it consisted of the Minister President and the ministers of state (Article 7). Although it was organized collegially, the Minister President had policy-making authority (Article 46). He was elected by Parliament. After an amendment to

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6396-533: The Polish population ( first Silesian uprising ). The violence there was suppressed by military means as well. In Pomerania clashes broke out between agricultural workers and large landowners, who received support from regional army and Freikorps units. Agriculture Minister Otto Braun pushed through an emergency decree in September to enforce collectively agreed on regulations regarding farm workers' wages. In March 1920

6519-477: The Prussian state, including the costs of repatriation and provision for state employees. Under the Ministry of Justice alone, 3,500 civil servants and employees were affected. After 1918 the population did not increase as rapidly as it had before the war. In addition to the continuation of the demographic transition of modern industrial societies to lower birth rates, the losses of the First World War were also

6642-573: The Reich and other states in the Weimar Republic, there was no state president. The lack of an institution above the governing ministers and the parliamentary majority clearly distinguished Prussia from the Reich. Overall, the position of Parliament under the constitution was strong. A distinctive feature was the Minister President's position, which was elevated by his authority to make policy. Minister President Otto Braun in particular clearly recognized this and made purposeful use it. The constitution also provided for elements of plebiscitary democracy in

6765-571: The Reich level. The DNVP had a special affinity to the former Prussian monarchy. Among the regional parties, the German-Hanoverian Party (DHP) had some influence. The MSPD and USPD, which had split in 1917, merged in 1922 and resumed the original SPD name. (A small and politically insignificant part of the USPD continued to exist until 1931 when it merged with the Socialist Worker's Party of Germany .) The DNVP and DVP had strongholds in

6888-552: The SPD's vote came to 34% in 1928 and the KPD's to almost 30%. The rise of the Nazi Party (NSDAP) changed the pattern, but it remained dominant in basic terms until 1932. Within Prussia there were considerable differences in support for the Republic. The majority in Berlin, the Rhineland and Westphalia were in favor of a democracy, while reservations remained in the eastern and agrarian provinces. In

7011-456: The SPD, pushed republican reform of the administration and police, with the result that Prussia was considered a bulwark of democracy within the Weimar Republic. As a result of the Prussian coup d'état instigated by Reich Chancellor Franz von Papen in 1932, the Free State was subordinated to the Reich government and deprived of its independence. Prussia had thus de facto ceased to exist before

7134-813: The Soviet Union during the late 1920s, and then in Germany in the early 1930s. In Germany, the training was done under the guise of the German Air Sports Association ( German : Deutscher Luftsportverband (DLV)) at the Central Commercial Pilots School ( Zentrale der Verkehrs Fliegerschule (ZVF)). Following its 15 May 1933 formation in secret, the formation of the German air arm was openly announced in February 1935, with Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring as its Commander-in-Chief ( Oberbefehlshaber der Luftwaffe ), in blatant defiance of

7257-451: The State Assembly. The Ministry of State was appointed by the President of the State Assembly, had a collegial structure, and depended on the confidence of a majority in Parliament. In order to provide legal certainty, all previous laws that did not contradict the provisions of the provisional order remained in force. The most important task of the Assembly was to draft a constitution. The constitutional committee included eleven members from

7380-480: The Versailles Treaty. Initial plans were for long-term growth of the Luftwaffe over a period of five years with the intention of using the Luftwaffe as a strategic force. These plans were changed several times, especially after the June 1936 death of Walter Wever and the succession of Ernst Udet . The focus and role of the Luftwaffe became one of ground support for the German Army during its Lightning War ( Blitzkrieg ) campaigns. Göring, using his political capital,

7503-401: The aircraft maintenance personnel. When the war ended on 8 May 1945, more than 97,000 air-crew would be reported dead, wounded or missing. All aspects of aviation including the Luftwaffe, came under the control of the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM), the Reich Air Ministry. Since the Luftwaffe was one of the three armed forces, it came under the Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces from

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7626-466: The airfields where it serviced the flying units. Operationally under the OKL, all Luftwaffe units were organized into Luftflotte , which were equivalent to an army group. Its size and number of subordinated units, was flexible and changed depending on need. The Luftflotten were created according to the geographical area. As the Wehrmacht occupied new territories, new Luftflotten were created. Each Luftflotte , had an adjutant or staff officer assisting

7749-410: The army units, with one unit controlling a specific area. Each Luftwaffe unit was self-contained and had complete control over all aspects of Luftwaffe forces in that area. Before becoming head of the Luftwaffe, Göring was Interior Minister of Prussia . In this position he had formed his own army, starting from a 400 men police department to regiment size. When Göring took over the Luftwaffe, he brought

7872-402: The authoritarian state it had been in the past and became a parliamentary democracy under its 1920 constitution . During the Weimar period it was governed almost entirely by pro-democratic parties and proved more politically stable than the Republic itself. With only brief interruptions, the Social Democratic Party (SPD) provided the Minister President . Its Ministers of the Interior, also from

7995-404: The cabinet. Other non-partisan ministers or ministers belonging to different political camps were also included, such as the Minister of War, initially Heinrich Schëuch , then from January 1919 Walther Reinhardt . The narrower, decisive political cabinet, however, included only politicians from the two workers' parties. Since the leadership qualities of the two chairmen were comparatively weak, it

8118-402: The commander. The purpose of a Luftgau was to provide administrative and logistical support to each airfield, whereas the Fliegerkorps controlled all operational matters. The Luftgau headquarters command consisted of one Generalmajor and a staff of 50 to 100 officers. Each Fliegerkorps would have a number of smaller units under its command. Each Geschwader within the Fliegerkorps

8241-442: The commanding officer. Although a Luftflotte could be moved from one area to another by the RLM, the Luftflotte had absolute control over all aspects of aviation in that area, including ground operations. This also included legal, administration, signals and supply work. They were essentially divided into operational or administrative commands. The signal services consisted of three Luft-Nachrichtenregimenter (signals regiments) in

8364-415: The consequent need for a show of strength forced the Luftwaffe to be in a perpetual state of readiness. This did not allow time for organizational strategy. Göring complicated the hierarchy by bringing the paratrooper ( Fallschirmjäger ) and Flak Corps (anti-aircraft units) under his command. Due to his political differences with the army leadership, he raised his own police force as Prussian Minister of

8487-494: The eastern provinces, a revolt broke out at Christmas 1918 with the aim of restoring a Polish state . The movement soon encompassed the entire Province of Posen and eventually took on the character of a guerrilla war. Even for many supporters of the Republic, Prussian dominance seemed a dangerous burden for the Reich. Hugo Preuß , author of the draft version of the Weimar Constitution , originally envisaged breaking Prussia into various smaller states. Given Prussian dominance in

8610-407: The efforts of Günther Korten and Karl Koller , the Luftwaffe High Command ( Oberkommando der Luftwaffe ) (OKL), was formed. Colonel General ( Generaloberst ) Hans Jeschonnek was appointed Chief of Staff of the OKL. This created a military command out of the all encompassing Reich Air Ministry (RLM), controlling all aspects of aviation. The OKL covered general as well as operational staff of

8733-440: The establishment of the German National Railway , and the ministry was dissolved in 1921. The office of Minister of Welfare, which had existed in the provisional government, was formally created. There were also ministries of the interior, finance, justice, agriculture and trade. The Ministry of Spiritual, Educational and Medical Affairs was renamed the Ministry of Science, Art and National Education in 1918. The economic interests of

8856-612: The first time on 13 March 1919, during the final days of the violent Berlin March battles and the Ruhr uprising . On 20 March the Assembly passed a law for the provisional ordering of the state's powers. It transferred all previous rights of the Prussian king, including his role as the highest authority of the Protestant church, to the Ministry of State, with the exception of his right to adjourn or close

8979-458: The form of referendums and petitions. The legislative period of the Parliament was four years. It could be dissolved by majority vote or referendum. Parliament acted as the legislature, elected the Minister President, had the right to establish committees of inquiry, and could amend the constitution by a majority of two-thirds of the deputies. It also had the right to censure individual ministers or

9102-416: The former empire, there was sympathy for the idea. Otto Landsberg (MSPD) of the Council of the People's Deputies commented, "Prussia occupied its position with the sword and that sword is broken. If Germany is to live, Prussia in its present form must die." The new socialist government of Prussia was opposed to such a move. On 23 January 1919 participants in an emergency meeting of the central council and

9225-741: The inhabitants lived in village communities in 1925, in the Province of Westphalia the figure was just 16.5%. In East Prussia 12.4% of the population lived in cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants; in the Rhine Province it was over 41%. Industry and the skilled trades dominated Prussia's economy in 1925, accounting for 41.3% of all workers. Agriculture played only a secondary role at 22%, with trade and transport trailing only slightly at 17.5%. The other economic sectors lagged well behind. There were strong geographic differences in Prussia's economic structure as well. In East Prussia agriculture employed 45.4% of

9348-794: The initiative of the department's minister, Wilhelm Siering (SPD). Joint stock companies were formed to manage the state-owned mines, salt works, smelters, water works, and electrical generation plants. Ideas about the economic common good, such as those advocated by State Secretary Hans Staudinger (SPD), also played a role in the expedited development of state-owned companies. The Prussian party system – made up of conservatism ( German National People's Party , DNVP), political Catholicism ( Centre Party ), liberalism ( German People's Party , DVP, and German Democratic Party , DDP), social democracy ( Majority Social Democratic Party , MSPD) and socialism/communism (Independent Social Democratic Party , USPD, and Communist Party of Germany , KPD) – corresponded to that at

9471-534: The large landowners remained in place. In educational policy, Minister of Culture Adolph Hoffmann abolished religious instruction as a first step in a push towards the separation of church and state. The move triggered considerable unrest in Catholic areas of Prussia and revived memories of Bismarck's 1870s Kulturkampf ('cultural conflict') against the Catholic Church. At the end of December 1919, MSPD Minister Konrad Haenisch rescinded Hoffmann's decree. In

9594-472: The largely rural area east of the Elbe River , that feared loss of its traditional power. While the Reich government fled to Stuttgart , the Prussian government remained in Berlin. A general strike against the putsch, initiated in particular by unions and civil servants, largely paralyzed public life in Prussia. Most of the governors of the Prussian provinces stood behind the legal state government. Only those of

9717-520: The last Chancellor of the German Empire – who like most of his predecessors was also Minister President of Prussia – announced the abdication of Wilhelm II as German Emperor and King of Prussia before he had in fact done so. On the same day, Prince Maximilian transferred the office of Reich Chancellor to Friedrich Ebert , the chairman of the Majority SPD (MSPD), which was the largest party in

9840-417: The nature of the operation. There were a total of 13 Fliegerkorps . Similar to the Luftflotte , each Fliegerkorps had its own geographical area of operations. It consisted of several Geschwader along with Reconnaissance Gruppen (Groups). The Geschwader could be either fighter or bomber units. Depending on the nature or purpose of the Fliegerkorps , it would have only bomber or fighter units. Similar to

9963-554: The new government confiscated the royal property and placed it under the Ministry of Finance. The following day, the Majority and Independent Social Democrats formed the Prussian revolutionary cabinet along the lines of the coalition at the Reich level. It included Paul Hirsch, Eugen Ernst and Otto Braun of the MSPD and Heinrich Ströbel , Adolph Hoffmann and Kurt Rosenfeld of the USPD. Almost all departments were under ministers from both parties. Hirsch and Ströbel became joint chairmen of

10086-405: The old Prussian three-class franchise . At the municipal level, however, it took eight months before the existing governmental bodies were replaced by democratically legitimized ones. Deliberations concerning a fundamental reform of property relations in the countryside, in particular the breaking up of large landholdings, did not bear fruit. The manor districts that were the political power base of

10209-488: The previous government deposed and claimed the management of state affairs for themselves. On the same day the commissioners issued instructions that all departments of the state should continue their work as usual. A manifesto, "To the Prussian People!", stated that the goal was to transform "the old, fundamentally reactionary Prussia ... into a fully democratic component of the unified People's Republic." On 13 November

10332-526: The provinces of Posen and West Prussia became part of the new state of Poland , and East Prussia was separated from the rest of Reich territory by the Polish Corridor . Additional changes were decided by plebiscites. In Northern Schleswig 74% of the vote on 10 February 1920 was in favor of annexation to Denmark , to which it was subsequently ceded. In the southern part, 81% of voters chose on 14 March to remain in Germany. The new German-Danish border

10455-441: The provinces of Schleswig-Holstein , Hanover and East Prussia supported the putsch. It is noteworthy that August Winnig, the governor of East Prussia, was a Social Democrat. The situation was different with many district administrators. There was a clear east–west divide among them. In the western provinces almost all of the district administrators stood by the constitutional government, even if in some cases only under pressure from

10578-461: The provisional government spoke out against Prussia's dissolution. With the Centre Party abstaining, the State Assembly during its first sessions adopted a resolution against a possible breakup of Prussia. Aside from a few exceptions, which included Friedrich Ebert, there was little support for it even among the Council of the People's Deputies at the Reich level because it was seen as the first step toward

10701-578: The putschists. The "Braun-Severing system" became synonymous with democratic Prussia. Most of the German territorial cessions stipulated in the Treaty of Versailles affected Prussia. Eupen-Malmedy went to Belgium , Danzig became a free city under the administration of the League of Nations , and the Memel Territory came under Allied administration before ultimately going to Lithuania . The Hultschiner Ländchen went to Czechoslovakia , large areas of

10824-565: The range of its tasks. Widespread strikes, especially in the mining industry of the Ruhr, began in January 1919. They led to shortages in energy supplies across Germany, and particularly in Prussia caused transportation problems as well. In early April Reichswehr troops marched into the Ruhr and bloodily put down the uprising. In August 1919 armed uprisings took place in Upper Silesia among segments of

10947-444: The regiment along with him to the Luftwaffe and created his own ground forces in the form of Luftwaffe Field Divisions and Paratrooper Regiments ( Fallschirmjäger ) under the Luftwaffe. He eventually included a tank regiment ( Fallschirm-Panzer Division ), Flak units and a signals regiment ( Luftnachrichten Regiment ) under the Luftwaffe umbrella. Before the 1930s and 1940s, air power had not matured enough to be considered

11070-491: The republican order in the Reich and in Prussia was challenged by the Kapp Putsch , a right-wing attempt to overthrow the Reich government. It was part of specifically Prussian history in that the only relatively united social group behind the putsch was the state's large landowners. They were joined by some military officers and members of the educated civil service. Overall, the putsch was a rebellion of conservative East Elbia ,

11193-440: The rules of procedure, an absolute majority was required from 1932 onward. The Minister President appointed the other ministers (Article 45). The constitution did not specify the ministries; they came about from practical requirements. Following the transfer of military responsibilities to the Reich, there was no Prussian Minister of War after 1919. The Minister of Public Works also lost his most important area of responsibility with

11316-491: The same purpose. They would be named with an Arabic numeral following the word. It was also customary to give an additional title to a Geschwader in honor of a distinguished person. For example, Jagdgeschwader 2 was named Jagdgeschwader 2 Richthofen in honor of Manfred von Richthofen . Each Geschwader was commanded by a Geschwaderkommodore . This person usually had the rank of Oberst (equivalent to colonel), Oberstleutnant (lieutenant colonel) or major. He had

11439-407: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Rotte . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rotte&oldid=1254319356 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description

11562-501: The same time. The government was to inform the body about affairs of state. The State Council could express its views, had the right to initiate legislation and could lodge an objection to laws passed by Parliament. With a two-thirds majority, Parliament could, with a few exceptions, reject the objection or call for a referendum. Until 1933 the mayor of Cologne and future Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany , Konrad Adenauer ,

11685-435: The secession of the Rhineland from the Reich. The mood in Prussia was more uncertain. In December 1919 the State Assembly passed a resolution by 210 votes to 32 that stated: "As the largest of the German states, Prussia views its first duty to be an attempt to see whether the creation of a unified German state cannot be achieved." On 26 January 1919, one week after the 1919 German federal election , elections were held for

11808-531: The size of an Air Corps and were basic territorial units of the Luftwaffe following its geographical organization. Their headquarters were as given in the table: In addition, Luftkreis VII was established on 12 October 1937 with its headquarters at Braunschweig, and is shown incorporated into the above-mentioned table Each Luftkreis was led by a Höherer Fliegerkommandeur (Senior Air Commander) in charge of all aviation units within its area. These included, two or three Luftgaukommandos (administrative commands),

11931-406: The so-called Weimar Coalition , which together held 298 of 401 seats. Paul Hirsch became Minister President. His cabinet included four members from the MSPD, two from the Centre, and two from the DDP. Most of the ministries had existed under the monarchy, although the Ministry of Public Welfare was new. Along with the Ministry of the Interior, it developed into one of the largest ministries because of

12054-555: The start of the war the Luftwaffe had four Luftflotten , each responsible for roughly a quarter of Germany. As the war progressed, three more were created as the areas under German rule expanded. Luftflotte 5 was created in 1940 to direct operations in Norway and Denmark . Luftflotte 6 was created on 6 May 1943 from Luftwaffenkommando Ost in Central Russia to direct operations on the central Russian front. The last Luftflotte created

12177-422: The state were largely concentrated in the Ministry of Trade and Commerce. It was the second most powerful state ministry after the Ministry of the Interior and was able to have a considerable impact on domestic and foreign trade beyond Prussia's borders. After the 1932 Prussian coup d'état , which replaced Prussia's legal government by Franz von Papen as Reich Commissioner, the Ministry of Welfare in its old form

12300-402: The third digit of their identifiers replaced with a '1'. For units under Luftwaffengruppenkommando Ostpreußen , the third digit was replaced with a zero. By the end of April 1939, another Luftwaffengruppenkommando was added. All four Luftwaffengruppenkommando were renamed Luftflotte (Air Fleets). Geschwader under each Luftflotte , were re-numbered sequentially. Each Luftflotte received

12423-423: The workers' councils were either dismissed or ignored by Interior Minister Wolfgang Heine (MSPD). When conservative district administrators themselves requested to be dismissed, they were asked to stay on in order to maintain peace and order. On 23 December the government issued an administrative order for the election of a constitutional assembly. Universal, free and secret suffrage for both women and men replaced

12546-522: The workers. In East Prussia all of them sided with the anti-republicans. The putsch attempt collapsed after six days. The Kapp Putsch and ensuing general strike led to a profound break that all but turned Prussia into a model republican state. Otto Braun replaced Hirsch as Minister President. Carl Severing became the new Minister of the Interior. Both were much more assertive than their predecessors in office. Hirsch and Finance Minister Südekum were also politically discredited because they had negotiated with

12669-466: The workforce, while industry and skilled crafts accounted for only 19.6%. The Hohenzollern Lands , where 53.7% of the population lived from the land, was the most heavily agricultural region. By contrast, agriculture was of very little importance in the Rhineland and Westphalia, each with about 13%. The commercial sector was correspondingly strong, at over 56% in Westphalia. Berlin's commercial sector at 46%

12792-430: Was Luftflotte Reich on 5 February 1944 and was to direct operation in Germany. Each Luftflotte in turn was divided into many air districts ( Luftgaue ) and air corps ( Fliegerkorps ). The commander of each Luftflotte was responsible for all fighter as well as support operations within that region. A fighter leader ( Jagdführer ) (Jafü) was responsible for fighter operations within that region and reported to

12915-460: Was 15.6%. Berlin's special urban situation was also reflected in its average income. At 1,566 Reichsmarks in 1928, the average income in Berlin-Brandenburg was more than 30% higher than the Reich average. In agrarian East Prussia, average earnings were only 814 Reichsmarks, more than 30% below the Reich average. Industrial areas such as Westphalia and the Rhineland were roughly in line with

13038-468: Was able to get significant resources allocated to the Luftwaffe, more so than the army ( Heer ) or the navy ( Kriegsmarine ); all three forces existing within the combined Wehrmacht German armed forces of the Reich. This made the Luftwaffe one of the most powerful air forces in Europe during its initial years. Partly due to its ground support role, the Luftwaffe was reorganized in a fashion similar to

13161-507: Was also called Jagdwaffe . The Luftwaffe also had specialist units of varying sizes for testing new aircraft as well as captured Allied machines – these units could be as small as a Staffel , or as large as a Gruppe . It was initially unnumbered and simply called the Lehrdivision (Instruction Division) but in later years several Erprobungskommando units of varying size were created to test specific new aircraft, usually numbered with

13284-507: Was by no means assured in the aftermath of the revolution. In the Rhine Province , the advisory council of the Catholic Centre Party , fearing a dictatorship of the proletariat, called on 4 December 1918 for the formation of a Rhineland- Westphalian republic independent of Prussia. In the Province of Hanover , 100,000 people signed an appeal for territorial autonomy. In Silesia too there were efforts to form an independent state. In

13407-411: Was chairman of the State Council. The Weimar Constitution and the new Prussian Constitution permanently changed the relationship between the Reich and Prussia. Unlike during the empire, the executive branch at the Reich level was completely independent of Prussia's. The same person was no longer both Reich Chancellor and Prussian Minister President. The great importance of state taxes declined in favor of

13530-493: Was commanded by a Geschwaderkommodore , with the rank of either a Major , lieutenant colonel ( Oberstleutnant ) or colonel ( Oberst ). The unit also had other staff officers with administrative duties such as the adjutant ), technical and operations officers. These were usually (although not always), experienced aircrew still flying on operations. Other specialist staff were navigation , signals and intelligence personnel. A Gruppe (plural Gruppen )

13653-467: Was commanded by a Hauptmann or Oberleutnant . As such it was slightly smaller than a British, Soviet or US squadron. (The assumption that a Staffel was the exact equivalent of a squadron sometimes caused Western Allied leaders to overestimate German air power.) Specialized, independent Gruppen or Staffeln sometimes sat below the level of a Fliegerkorps . A Schwarm (plural Schwärme ; literally "swarm"), consisted of four to six aircraft within

13776-486: Was designated to lead the Luftwaffe: Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, also the cabinet minister for aviation. Göring formed a Luftwaffe High Command ( Oberkommando der Luftwaffe ) for operational management. Within the German air force leadership, the general opinion was that the Luftwaffe was a tactical rather than a strategic air force. Hence, in order to support the various army groups,

13899-423: Was dissolved. At the same time, the Minister of Trade also became the Minister of Economics and Labor. The Ministry of Justice was dissolved in 1935 under the law transferring the administration of justice to the Reich. The constitution stipulated the formation of a State Council to represent the provinces of Prussia. Its members were elected by the provincial parliaments; they could not be parliamentary members at

14022-509: Was established on 26 May. Eastern Upper Silesia went to Poland, although the majority of voters in the plebiscite there had voted to remain in the German Reich. Over 90% of those who voted in the plebiscite in southern East Prussia and parts of West Prussia were in favor of remaining part of Germany. The Saar region was placed under the control of the League of Nations for fifteen years before

14145-536: Was high, but the city's metropolitan character was reflected above all in the share of the trade and transport sector, which was over 28%. Overall there were still considerable economic differences after 1918 between the eastern part of the Free State which tended to be agrarian and the industrial west. In 1925 almost half of the population was employed. Of these, 46.8% were blue collar workers, 17.1% were salaried employees and civil servants, 16.2% were self-employed, 15.4% were contributing family members (those who work in

14268-508: Was mainly Otto Braun and Adolph Hoffmann who set the tone in the provisional government. On 14 November the Prussian House of Lords ( Herrenhaus ) was abolished and the House of Representatives dissolved. The replacement of political elites, however, remained limited during the early years. In many cases the former royal district administrators ( Landräte ) continued to hold office as if there had been no revolution. Complaints against them by

14391-714: Was one of the constituent states of Germany from 1918 to 1947. The successor to the Kingdom of Prussia after the defeat of the German Empire in World War I , it continued to be the dominant state in Germany during the Weimar Republic , as it had been during the empire, even though most of Germany's post-war territorial losses in Europe had come from its lands. It was home to the federal capital Berlin and had 62% of Germany's territory and 61% of its population. Prussia changed from

14514-402: Was responsible for the co-ordinated effort of the three military arms. It was headed by Wilhelm Keitel after he took over from war minister Werner von Blomberg in 1938. Since the head of the Luftwaffe, Göring, was also a cabinet minister, any Luftwaffe operational orders would come from Hitler to him, who would pass them on to Luftwaffe leaders, bypassing the OKW. On 5 February 1944, through

14637-418: Was roughly the size of an RAF wing or United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) group , with about 90 to 120 aircraft under its command. These numbers varied as sub-units were added or removed. Each Geschwader had a particular task (such as fighter, bomber, or transport duties) and were mostly equipped with aircraft appropriate to that task. Other types of aircraft were also sometimes attached. A Geschwader

14760-549: Was significantly higher at 22.3% than in industrial Westphalia, where it was 12.8%. Conversely, the proportion of blue-collar workers in East Prussia was 42.6%, while in Westphalia it was 54.1%. In metropolitan Berlin, the proportion of blue-collar workers at 45.9% was lower than in Westphalia despite Berlin's important industrial sector. The reason was the strength of the city's tertiary sector. Salaried employees and civil servants accounted for 30.5% in Berlin, whereas in Westphalia it

14883-503: Was similarly promoted and put in charge of Luftkreis VI supporting the naval units. Two Luftwaffe officers, Colonel Hugo Sperrle and Major General Karl-Friedrich Schweickhard  [ de ] were put in charge of the remaining two Luftkreise without being promoted. Operationally, the Luftwaffe organization underwent changes in July 1938. Luftkreise were consolidated into three Luftwaffengruppenkommandos (Airforce Group Commands). As

15006-449: Was the basic autonomous unit in the Luftwaffe. It had no exact equivalent in the Allied forces since it was smaller than a USAAF group or an RAF wing, but was also larger than an Allied squadron. In the fighter force, a Gruppe consisted of 40 to 80 aircraft. A Gruppe was usually commanded by a Major or Hauptmann . Each Staffel (plural Staffeln ) usually had nine to 12 aircraft and

15129-407: Was the case with the formation of Greater Berlin in 1920, when 7 cities, 56 rural communities and 29 estate districts were incorporated. Even more extensive and consequential for the formation of large cities were the municipal reforms in the Ruhr region at the end of the 1920s. There were still considerable geographical differences in the extent of urbanization. While in East Prussia more than 60% of

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