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Rosehill Cemetery

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A rural cemetery or garden cemetery is a style of cemetery that became popular in the United States and Europe in the mid-19th century due to the overcrowding and health concerns of urban cemeteries, which tended to be churchyards . Rural cemeteries were typically built 1–5 mi (1.6–8.0 km) outside of the city, far enough to be separated from the city, but close enough for visitors. They often contain elaborate monuments, memorials, and mausoleums in a landscaped park-like setting.

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91-500: Rosehill Cemetery (founded 1859) is an American garden cemetery on the North Side of Chicago , Illinois , and at 350 acres (1.4 km), is the largest cemetery in the City of Chicago. According to legend, the name "Rosehill" resulted from a City Clerk's error – the area was previously called "Roe's Hill", named after nearby farmer Hiram Roe. He refused to sell his land to the city until it

182-426: A Christian could never be reduced to simple "intellectual acknowledgment" of the truth of Christianity. Puritans agreed "that the effectual call of each elect saint of God would always come as an individuated personal encounter with God's promises". The process by which the elect are brought from spiritual death to spiritual life ( regeneration ) was described as conversion . Early on, Puritans did not consider

273-476: A commercial business for the first time, replacing the practice of burying the dead in churchyards or on private farmland. One effect of the law was the development of a large concentration of cemeteries along the border between the New York City boroughs of Queens and Brooklyn , often called the "Cemetery Belt". By the 1860s, rural cemeteries could be found on the outskirts of cities and smaller towns across

364-464: A congregation of "visible saints" (meaning those who had experienced conversion). Members would be required to abide by a church covenant , in which they "pledged to join in the proper worship of God and to nourish each other in the search for further religious truth". Such churches were regarded as complete within themselves, with full authority to determine their own membership, administer their own discipline and ordain their own ministers. Furthermore,

455-575: A diverse religious reform movement in Britain committed to the Continental Reformed tradition. While Puritans did not agree on all doctrinal points, most shared similar views on the nature of God , human sinfulness , and the relationship between God and mankind. They believed that all of their beliefs should be based on the Bible , which they considered to be divinely inspired . The concept of covenant

546-486: A general whose troops helped Ulysses S. Grant avoid surrender in the Battle of Shiloh , Grant's first major engagement of the war. Rosehill Cemetery maintains the distinction of being the largest private burial ground of Union veterans, including 16 generals, in the state of Illinois. To honor those who fought for country and cause, Rosehill officially opened its own Civil War Museum on January 15, 1995. A monument "To Honor All

637-407: A graceful oak roof with "hammer-beam trusses and curved brackets." Civil War buffs have long been attracted to Rosehill, where approximately 350 Union soldiers and sailors and at least three Confederates who gave their lives in service are entombed. It is the final resting place for several members of the 8th Illinois Cavalry , the unit that fired the first shots in the Battle of Gettysburg , and of

728-597: A new English national church. By the late 1630s, Puritans were in alliance with the growing commercial world, with the parliamentary opposition to the royal prerogative , and with the Scottish Presbyterians with whom they had much in common. Consequently, they became a major political force in England and came to power as a result of the First English Civil War (1642–1646). Almost all Puritan clergy left

819-669: A reformed episcopacy , presbyterianism , congregationalism , and Erastianism . The membership of the Assembly was strongly weighted towards the Presbyterians, but Oliver Cromwell was a Puritan and an independent Congregationalist Separatist who imposed his doctrines upon them. The Church of England of the Interregnum (1649–60) was run along Presbyterian lines but never became a national Presbyterian church, such as existed in Scotland. England

910-612: A result, Puritans were among the most literate societies in the world. By the time of the American Revolution there were 40 newspapers in the United States (at a time when there were only two cities—New York and Philadelphia—with as many as 20,000 people in them). The Puritans also set up a college (now Harvard University ) only six years after arriving in Boston. Christianity • Protestantism Puritanism broadly refers to

1001-424: A rural area outside of Quebec City, Canada, upon his first design, the highly acclaimed Green-Wood Cemetery , in what at the time was a rural section of Brooklyn . All three of Douglass' rural, garden cemeteries have been conferred a historic status, by their respective nations. Its architect, Charles Baillargé, took inspiration from Green–Wood Cemetery, as well, for his design of this garden cemetery, in what at

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1092-434: A specific conversion experience normative or necessary, but many gained assurance of salvation from such experiences. Over time, however, Puritan theologians developed a framework for authentic religious experience based on their own experiences as well as those of their parishioners. Eventually, Puritans came to regard a specific conversion experience as an essential mark of one's election. The Puritan conversion experience

1183-482: A uniform reform of the established church was called for to create a godly nation, while others advocated separation from, or the end of, any established state church entirely in favour of autonomous gathered churches , called-out from the world. These Separatist and Independents became more prominent in the 1640s, when the supporters of a presbyterian polity in the Westminster Assembly were unable to forge

1274-617: Is entombed near the ceiling in the west part of the Mausoleum. Other notables include Aaron Montgomery Ward , his business rival Richard Warren Sears , and John G. Shedd , philanthropist and president of Marshall Field & Company . The mausoleum has been expanded several times. Built in 1899, the Horatio N. May Chapel was designed by architect Joseph Lyman Silsbee . It is designed in a blend of Gothic and Romanesque styles, with an exterior of granite and an interior appointed with mosaic floors and

1365-452: Is that around 2,400 Puritan clergy left the Church in the " Great Ejection " of 1662. At this point, the term " Dissenter " came to include "Puritan", but more accurately described those (clergy or lay) who "dissented" from the 1662 Book of Common Prayer . The Dissenters divided themselves from all other Christians in the Church of England and established their own Separatist congregations in

1456-644: The Book of Common Prayer , traditional clerical vestments , and episcopal polity . Many English Protestants — especially those former Marian exiles returning to England to work as clergy and bishops — considered the settlement merely the first step in reforming England's church. The years of exile during the Marian Restoration had exposed them to the practices of the Continental Reformed churches . The most impatient clergy began introducing reforms within their local parishes. The initial conflict between Puritans and

1547-467: The Brownists , would split from the established church and become known as Separatists. Other Separatists embraced more radical positions on separation of church and state and believer's baptism , becoming early Baptists . Based on Biblical portrayals of Adam and Eve , Puritans believed that marriage was rooted in procreation, love, and, most importantly, salvation. Husbands were the spiritual heads of

1638-540: The Civil War and cemeteries often had the stench of decomposing corpses. After several yellow fever epidemics, many cities began to relocate cemeteries outside city limits, as it was believed to be more hygienic. As early as 1711, the architect Sir Christopher Wren advocated for the creation of burial grounds on the outskirts of town, "inclosed with a strong Brick Wall, and having a walk round, and two cross walks, decently planted with Yew-trees". An early influence on

1729-526: The Reformation of the Church of England but remained within it, advocating for further reform; they disagreed among themselves about how much further reformation was possible or even necessary. Others, who were later termed " Nonconformists ", " Separatists ", or "separating Puritans", thought the Church of England was so corrupt that true Christians should separate from it altogether. In its widest historical sense,

1820-504: The Romantic aesthetic taste for pastoral beauty, Mount Auburn was developed as a "domesticated landscape" popularized by 19th century English landscape design. Its plan included retention of natural features like ponds and mature forests with added roads and paths that followed the natural contours of the land, as well as the planting of hundreds of native and exotic trees and plants. United States Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story delivered

1911-514: The evangelical Protestants of the 18th century. While evangelical views on conversion were heavily influenced by Puritan theology, the Puritans believed that assurance of one's salvation was "rare, late and the fruit of struggle in the experience of believers", whereas evangelicals believed that assurance was normative for all the truly converted. While most Puritans were members of the Church of England, they were critical of its worship practices. In

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2002-515: The lawn cemetery . Presently, many of these historic cemeteries are designated landmarks and are cared for by non-profit organizations. David Bates Douglass , a military and civilian engineer, working in the capacity as a consulting architect, designed the landscape layout of Albany Rural Cemetery , 1845–1846. He modeled his design of the Albany Rural Cemetery, as well as his subsequent and final one, Mount Hermon Cemetery (1848), in

2093-414: The prelatical party) were conservatives who supported retaining bishops if those leaders supported reform and agreed to share power with local churches. They also supported the idea of having a Book of Common Prayer , but they were against demanding strict conformity or having too much ceremony. In addition, these Puritans called for a renewal of preaching, pastoral care and Christian discipline within

2184-431: The revised Book of Common Prayer . The Puritan movement of Jacobean times became distinctive by adaptation and compromise, with the emergence of "semi-separatism", "moderate puritanism", the writings of William Bradshaw (who adopted the term "Puritan" for himself), and the beginnings of Congregationalism . Most Puritans of this period were non-separating and remained within the Church of England; Separatists who left

2275-413: The vestments controversy , church authorities attempted and failed to enforce the use of clerical vestments. While never a mass movement, the Puritans had the support and protection of powerful patrons in the aristocracy. In the 1570s, the primary dispute between Puritans and the authorities was over the appropriate form of church government. Many Puritans believed that the Church of England should follow

2366-513: The 1660s and 1670s. An estimated 1,800 of the ejected clergy continued in some fashion as ministers of religion, according to Richard Baxter . The government initially attempted to suppress these schismatic organisations by using the Clarendon Code . There followed a period in which schemes of "comprehension" were proposed, under which Presbyterians could be brought back into the Church of England, but nothing resulted from them. The Whigs opposed

2457-605: The 17th century, Sunday worship in the established church took the form of the Morning Prayer service in the Book of Common Prayer . This may include a sermon, but Holy Communion or the Lord's Supper was only occasionally observed. Officially, lay people were only required to receive communion three times a year, but most people only received communion once a year at Easter. Puritans were concerned about biblical errors and Catholic remnants within

2548-663: The Catholic veneration of virginity (associated with the Virgin Mary), citing Edward Taylor and John Cotton . One Puritan settlement in western Massachusetts banished a husband because he refused to fulfill his sexual duties to his wife. Puritanism had a historical importance over a period of a century, followed by fifty years of development in New England. It changed character and emphasis nearly decade by decade over that time. The Elizabethan Religious Settlement of 1559 established

2639-667: The Church of England after the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and the Act of Uniformity 1662 . Many continued to practise their faith in nonconformist denominations, especially in Congregationalist and Presbyterian churches. The nature of the Puritan movement in England changed radically. In New England, it retained its character for a longer period . Puritanism was never a formally defined religious division within Protestantism, and

2730-402: The Church of England altogether were numerically much fewer. The Puritan movement in England was riven over decades by emigration and inconsistent interpretations of Scripture, as well as some political differences that surfaced at that time. The Fifth Monarchy Men , a radical millenarian wing of Puritanism, aided by strident, popular clergy like Vavasor Powell , agitated from the right wing of

2821-476: The Church of England as a Protestant church and brought the English Reformation to a close. During the reign of Elizabeth I (r. 1558–1603), the Church of England was widely considered a Reformed church, and Calvinists held the best bishoprics and deaneries . Nevertheless, it preserved certain characteristics of medieval Catholicism , such as cathedrals, church choirs , a formal liturgy contained in

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2912-436: The Church of England for allowing unrepentant sinners to receive communion. Puritans wanted better spiritual preparation (such as clergy home visits and testing people on their knowledge of the catechism) for communion and better church discipline to ensure that the unworthy were kept from the sacrament. Puritans did not believe confirmation was necessary and thought candidates were poorly prepared since bishops did not have

3003-581: The Church of England had not been fully reformed and should become more Protestant. Puritanism played a significant role in English and early American history, especially in the Protectorate in Great Britain, and the earlier settlement of New England . Puritans were dissatisfied with the limited extent of the English Reformation and with the Church of England's toleration of certain practices associated with

3094-409: The Church of England. Like the episcopalians, the presbyterians agreed that there should be a national church but one structured on the model of the Church of Scotland . They wanted to replace bishops with a system of elective and representative governing bodies of clergy and laity (local sessions , presbyteries , synods , and ultimately a national general assembly ). During the Interregnum ,

3185-730: The Civil War period, such as when an axe was taken to the organ of Worcester Cathedral in 1642. While the Puritans were united in their goal of furthering the English Reformation, they were always divided over issues of ecclesiology and church polity, specifically questions relating to the manner of organizing congregations, how individual congregations should relate with one another and whether established national churches were scriptural. On these questions, Puritans divided between supporters of episcopal polity , presbyterian polity and congregational polity . The episcopalians (known as

3276-537: The Courageous Volunteer Firefighters of Chicago" was erected in Rosehill Cemetery in 1864. The monument, designed by Leonard Volk , features a vigilant fireman standing atop a tall column. A fire hose is wrapped around the base. Four old-style hydrants make up the corners of the memorial. The granite marker at the base contains the names of all firefighters killed in the line of duty. Rosehill

3367-517: The New England colonies (around 700,000 by 1790) was almost entirely due to the high birth rate and lower death rate per year. They had formed families more rapidly than did the southern colonies. Puritan hegemony lasted for at least a century. That century can be broken down into three parts: the generation of John Cotton and Richard Mather , 1630–62 from the founding to the Restoration, years of virtual independence and nearly autonomous development;

3458-439: The Puritans "liberated men from the treadmill of indulgences and penances , but cast them on the iron couch of introspection". It was expected that conversion would be followed by sanctification —"the progressive growth in the saint's ability to better perceive and seek God's will, and thus to lead a holy life". Some Puritans attempted to find assurance of their faith by keeping detailed records of their behavior and looking for

3549-452: The Puritans stressed "that Christ comes down to us in the sacrament by His Word and Spirit, offering Himself as our spiritual food and drink". They criticised the prayer book service for being too similar to the Catholic mass. For example, the requirement that people kneel to receive communion implied adoration of the Eucharist , a practice linked to transubstantiation. Puritans also criticised

3640-503: The Roman Catholic Church. They formed and identified with various religious groups advocating greater purity of worship and doctrine , as well as personal and corporate piety . Puritans adopted a covenant theology , and in that sense they were Calvinists (as were many of their earlier opponents). In church polity, Puritans were divided between supporters of episcopal , presbyterian , and congregational polities. Some believed

3731-681: The Rural Cemetery movement was the New Burying Ground in New Haven, Connecticut (later named Grove Street Cemetery ). The New Burying Ground was established in 1796, and was the first example in the U.S. of a non-sectarian cemetery outside of church and city control in a park-like setting. In 1804, the first rural cemetery, the Père Lachaise Cemetery , opened in Paris . The new design took

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3822-844: The South Cemetery ( Südfriedhof ) in Kiel dates from 1869, the Riensberger Friedhof in Bremen dates from 1875, the 1881 Zentralfriedhof Friedrichsfelde in Berlin, the 1881 Südfriedhof in Leipzig , and the Ohlsdorf Cemetery in Hamburg . The Ohlsdorf was transformed from a treeless, sandy plain into 92 acres of sculpted, wooded landscape by its first director, architect Wilhelm Cordes. In 2016 it stands as

3913-716: The U.S. such as Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia , and Green-wood Cemetery in Brooklyn . Many were accompanied by dedication addresses similar to Storys', which linked the cemeteries to the mission of creating a Christian republic . In 1847, the New York State Legislature passed the Rural Cemetery Act which authorized commercial burial grounds in New York . The law led to the burial of human remains becoming

4004-500: The United States was not descended from all of the original colonists, since many returned to England shortly after arriving on the continent, but it produced more than 16 million descendants. This so-called "Great Migration" is not so named because of sheer numbers, which were much less than the number of English citizens who immigrated to Virginia and the Caribbean during this time, many as indentured servants. The rapid growth of

4095-491: The authorities included instances of nonconformity, such as omitting parts of the liturgy to allow more time for the sermon and singing of metrical psalms . Some Puritans refused to bow on hearing the name of Jesus, or to make the sign of the cross in baptism, or to use wedding rings or the organ. Yet, the main complaint Puritans had was the requirement that clergy wear the white surplice and clerical cap . Puritan clergymen preferred to wear black academic attire . During

4186-536: The cemetery out of the control of the church, using an attractive park built on a grand scale, architectural design and careful planting inspired by the English garden movement. The first rural cemetery in the United States was Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts , founded by Dr. Jacob Bigelow and Henry Dearborn of The Massachusetts Horticultural Society in 1831. The City of Boston became concerned about

4277-750: The church government to be God's agency in social life. The Puritans in the Colonies wanted their children to be able to read and interpret the Bible themselves, rather than have to rely on the clergy for interpretation. In 1635, they established the Boston Latin School to educate their sons, the first and oldest formal education institution in the English-speaking New World. They also set up what were called dame schools for their daughters, and in other cases taught their daughters at home how to read. As

4368-541: The country. These cemeteries were decorated with tall obelisks, spectacular mausoleums, and magnificent sculptures. By 1861, the rural cemetery movement began to decline partly due to the high cost of maintaining large landscapes but also due to the development of public parks. Many landscape designers, including Frederick Law Olmsted who designed Central Park in New York City , borrowed ideas from rural cemeteries. As more public parks opened, fewer people went to cemeteries for leisure and relaxation activities. Due to

4459-575: The court religious policies and argued that the Dissenters should be allowed to worship separately from the established Church. This position ultimately prevailed when the Toleration Act was passed in the wake of the Glorious Revolution in 1689. This permitted the licensing of Dissenting ministers and the building of chapels. The term " Nonconformist " generally replaced the term "Dissenter" from

4550-466: The cross made possible the covenant of grace, by which those selected by God could be saved. Puritans believed in unconditional election and irresistible grace —God's grace was given freely without condition to the elect and could not be refused. Covenant theology made individual salvation deeply personal. It held that God's predestination was not "impersonal and mechanical" but was a "covenant of grace" that one entered into by faith . Therefore, being

4641-425: The dedication address on September 24, 1831. Mount Auburn also began the practice of allowing the purchase of family plots large enough to allow the burial of several generations of a single family. Mount Auburn quickly grew as a popular site for both burials and public recreation, attracting locals as well as tourists from across the country and Europe. Mount Auburn inspired dozens of other rural cemeteries across

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4732-518: The doctrines of the Church of England , mother Church of the Anglican Communion . In the 17th century, the word Puritan was a term applied not to just one group but to many. Historians still debate a precise definition of Puritanism. Originally, Puritan was a pejorative term characterizing certain Protestant groups as extremist. Thomas Fuller , in his Church History , dates the first use of

4823-465: The early 19th century, urban burial grounds were generally sectarian and located on small plots and churchyards within cities. With the rapid increase in urban populations due to the Industrial Revolution , urban cemeteries became unhealthily overcrowded with graves stacked upon each other, or emptied and reused for newer burials. The practice of embalming did not become popular until after

4914-410: The effect of baptism was disputed. Puritans objected to the prayer book's assertion of baptismal regeneration . In Puritan theology, infant baptism was understood in terms of covenant theology—baptism replaced circumcision as a sign of the covenant and marked a child's admission into the visible church . It could not be assumed that baptism produces regeneration. The Westminster Confession states that

5005-806: The evidence of salvation in their lives. Puritan clergy wrote many spiritual guides to help their parishioners pursue personal piety and sanctification. These included Arthur Dent's The Plain Man's Pathway to Heaven (1601), Richard Rogers's Seven Treatises (1603), Henry Scudder's Christian's Daily Walk (1627) and Richard Sibbes's The Bruised Reed and Smoking Flax (1630). Too much emphasis on one's good works could be criticized for being too close to Arminianism , and too much emphasis on subjective religious experience could be criticized as Antinomianism . Many Puritans relied on both personal religious experience and self-examination to assess their spiritual condition. Puritanism's experiential piety would be inherited by

5096-574: The example of Reformed churches in other parts of Europe and adopt presbyterian polity , under which government by bishops would be replaced with government by elders . But all attempts to enact further reforms through Parliament were blocked by the Queen. Despite such setbacks, Puritan leaders such as John Field and Thomas Cartwright continued to promote presbyterianism through the formation of unofficial clerical conferences that allowed Puritan clergymen to organise and network. This covert Puritan network

5187-608: The generation of Increase Mather , 1662–89 from the Restoration and the Halfway Covenant to the Glorious Revolution, years of struggle with the British crown; and the generation of Cotton Mather , 1689–1728 from the overthrow of Edmund Andros (in which Cotton Mather played a part) and the new charter, mediated by Increase Mather, to the death of Cotton Mather. Puritan leaders were political thinkers and writers who considered

5278-559: The grace of baptism is only effective for those who are among the elect, and its effects lie dormant until one experiences conversion later in life. Puritans wanted to do away with godparents , who made baptismal vows on behalf of infants, and give that responsibility to the child's father. Puritans also objected to priests making the sign of the cross in baptism. Private baptisms were opposed because Puritans believed that preaching should always accompany sacraments. Some Puritan clergy even refused to baptise dying infants because that implied

5369-496: The health hazards caused by decomposing corpses in cemeteries in the middle of the city. A citizens' group led by Bigelow pulled together residents to discuss the design and location of a cemetery outside city limits. The search for a site took six years and land was eventually purchased on a farm known as Sweet Auburn along the Charles River about four miles from Boston. Coinciding with the growing popularity of horticulture and

5460-638: The largest rural cemetery in the world, and has been the largest cemetery in Europe since its opening in 1875. As of 1911, rural cemeteries were still unusual in Germany. Other examples include the Waldfriedhof Dahlem in Berlin, 1931. Puritans#Behavioral regulations The Puritans were English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries who sought to rid the Church of England of what they considered to be Roman Catholic practices, maintaining that

5551-405: The liturgy to allow more time for preaching. Puritan churchgoers attended two sermons on Sundays and as many weekday sermons and lectures they could find, often traveling for miles. Puritans were distinct for their adherence to Sabbatarianism . Puritans taught that there were two sacraments : baptism and the Lord's Supper. Puritans agreed with the church's practice of infant baptism . However,

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5642-598: The middle of the 18th century. Some Puritans left for New England , particularly from 1629 to 1640 (the Eleven Years' Tyranny under King Charles I ), supporting the founding of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and other settlements among the northern colonies. The large-scale Puritan migration to New England ceased by 1641, with around 21,000 persons having moved across the Atlantic. This English-speaking population in

5733-540: The movement, even as sectarian groups like the Ranters , Levellers , and Quakers pulled from the left. The fragmentation created a collapse of the centre and, ultimately, sealed a political failure, while depositing an enduring spiritual legacy that would remain and grow in English-speaking Christianity. The Westminster Assembly was called in 1643, assembling clergy of the Church of England. The Assembly

5824-472: The nineteenth century. Images of hope and immortality were popular in rural cemeteries in contrast to the puritanical pessimism depicted in earlier cemeteries. Statues and memorials included depictions of angels and cherubs as well as botanical motifs such as ivy representing memory, oak leaves for immortality, poppies for sleep and acorns for life. From their inception, the new cemeteries were intended as civic institutions designed for public use. Before

5915-474: The north western edge of Rosehill Cemetery. The park land, which was once part of the cemetery, features 20.585 acres of restored woodland, native plants, boardwalks, a 4.5 acre pond, a multipurpose trail around the park with elevated overlooks, educational and interpretive signage for easy identification of plantings, fishing stations and wildlife viewing opportunities. Garden cemetery The rural cemetery movement mirrored changing attitudes toward death in

6006-666: The old City Cemetery, originally located in what is now Lincoln Park were relocated to Rosehill Cemetery. Dedicated in 1914, Rosehill Mausoleum was designed by architect Sidney Lovell . It is the largest mausoleum in Chicago and has two levels, the lower level being partially underground. The interior is constructed almost entirely of marble. The floors are Italian Carrara marble . There are many small family-owned rooms with heavy bronze gates. Some of these private rooms feature stained glass windows designed by Louis Comfort Tiffany among other artists. Richard B. Ogilvie , Governor of Illinois,

6097-420: The prayer book. Puritans objected to bowing at the name of Jesus, the requirement that priests wear the surplice , and the use of written, set prayers in place of improvised prayers. The sermon was central to Puritan piety. It was not only a means of religious education; Puritans believed it was the most common way that God prepared a sinner's heart for conversion. On Sundays, Puritan ministers often shortened

6188-473: The presbyterians had limited success at reorganizing the Church of England. The Westminster Assembly proposed the creation of a presbyterian system, but the Long Parliament left implementation to local authorities. As a result, the Church of England never developed a complete presbyterian hierarchy. Congregationalists or Independents believed in the autonomy of the local church, which ideally would be

6279-473: The sacrament contributed to salvation. Puritans rejected both Roman Catholic ( transubstantiation ) and Lutheran ( sacramental union ) teachings that Christ is physically present in the bread and wine of the Lord's Supper. Instead, Puritans embraced the Reformed doctrine of real spiritual presence , believing that in the Lord's Supper the faithful receive Christ spiritually. In agreement with Thomas Cranmer ,

6370-471: The sacraments would only be administered to those in the church covenant. Most congregational Puritans remained within the Church of England, hoping to reform it according to their own views. The New England Congregationalists were also adamant that they were not separating from the Church of England. However, some Puritans equated the Church of England with the Roman Catholic Church, and therefore considered it no Christian church at all. These groups, such as

6461-409: The scale of death caused by the American Civil War (almost 2% the U.S. population died in the war), the U.S. government outsourced many burials to privately owned rural cemeteries. Since family plot owners could do as they wished with their lots, rural cemeteries that began as orderly and scenic ended up as cluttered and unkempt. Rural cemeteries began to fade out of popularity and were replaced by

6552-427: The teachings of four prominent Puritan leaders, including Laurence Chaderton , but largely sided with his bishops. He was well informed on theological matters by his education and Scottish upbringing, and he dealt shortly with the peevish legacy of Elizabethan Puritanism, pursuing an eirenic religious policy, in which he was arbiter. Many of James's episcopal appointments were Calvinists, notably James Montague , who

6643-563: The term Puritan includes both groups. Puritans should not be confused with other radical Protestant groups of the 16th and 17th centuries, such as Quakers , Seekers , and Familists , who believed that individuals could be directly guided by the Holy Spirit . The latter denominations give precedence to direct revelation over the Bible . In current English, puritan often means "against pleasure". In such usage, hedonism and puritanism are antonyms . William Shakespeare described

6734-623: The term Puritan itself was rarely used after the turn of the 18th century. The Congregationalist Churches , widely considered to be a part of the Reformed tradition of Christianity, are descended from the Puritans. Moreover, Puritan beliefs are enshrined in the Savoy Declaration , the confession of faith held by the Congregationalist churches. Some Puritan ideals, including the formal rejection of Roman Catholicism, were incorporated into

6825-477: The time to examine them properly. The marriage service was criticised for using a wedding ring (which implied that marriage was a sacrament) and having the groom vow to his bride "with my body I thee worship", which Puritans considered blasphemous . In the funeral service, the priest committed the body to the ground "in sure and certain hope of resurrection to eternal life, through our Lord Jesus Christ." Puritans objected to this phrase because they did not believe it

6916-677: The time was the rural outskirts of the city of Québec. The development of the American movement paralleled the creation of the landscaped cemeteries in England , with Mount Auburn inspiring the design of London 's first non-denominational cemetery at Abney Park (1840), one of the Magnificent Seven cemeteries . Among the first of the Parkfriedhof established in German-speaking Europe,

7007-512: The vain, pompous killjoy Malvolio in Twelfth Night as "a kind of Puritan". H. L. Mencken defined Puritanism as "the haunting fear that someone, somewhere, may be happy." Puritans embraced sexuality but placed it in the context of marriage. Peter Gay writes that the Puritans' standard reputation for "dour prudery" was a "misreading that went unquestioned in the nineteenth century". He said they were in favour of married sexuality, and opposed

7098-543: The widespread development of public parks , the rural cemetery provided a place for the general public to enjoy outdoor recreation amidst art and sculpture previously available only for the wealthy. The popularity of rural cemeteries decreased toward the end of the 19th century due to the high cost of maintenance, development of true public parks and perceived disorderliness of appearance arising from independent ownership of family burial plots and different grave markers. Lawn cemeteries became instead an attractive design. In

7189-509: The word to 1564. Archbishop Matthew Parker of that time used it and precisian with a sense similar to the modern stickler . Puritans, then, were distinguished for being "more intensely protestant than their protestant neighbors or even the Church of England". As a term of abuse, Puritan was not used by Puritans themselves. Those referred to as Puritan called themselves terms such as "the godly", "saints", "professors", or "God's children". "Non-separating Puritans" were dissatisfied with

7280-664: Was able to agree to the Westminster Confession of Faith doctrinally, a consistent Reformed theological position. The Directory of Public Worship was made official in 1645, and the larger framework (now called the Westminster Standards ) was adopted by the Church of Scotland . In England, the Standards were contested by Independents up to 1660. The Westminster Divines , on the other hand, were divided over questions of church polity and split into factions supporting

7371-603: Was an influential courtier. Puritans still opposed much of the Roman Catholic summation in the Church of England, notably the Book of Common Prayer , but also the use of non-secular vestments (cap and gown) during services, the sign of the Cross in baptism, and kneeling to receive Holy Communion. Some of the bishops under both Elizabeth and James tried to suppress Puritanism, though other bishops were more tolerant. In many places, individual ministers were able to omit disliked portions of

7462-426: Was commonly described as occurring in discrete phases. It began with a preparatory phase designed to produce contrition for sin through introspection, Bible study and listening to preaching . This was followed by humiliation, when the sinner realized that he or she was helpless to break free from sin and that their good works could never earn forgiveness. It was after reaching this point—the realization that salvation

7553-617: Was discovered and dismantled during the Marprelate controversy of the 1580s. For the remainder of Elizabeth's reign, Puritans ceased to agitate for further reform. The accession of James I to the English throne brought the Millenary Petition , a Puritan manifesto of 1603 for reform of the English church, but James wanted a religious settlement along different lines. He called the Hampton Court Conference in 1604, and heard

7644-533: Was extremely important to Puritans, and covenant theology was central to their beliefs. With roots in the writings of Reformed theologians John Calvin and Heinrich Bullinger , covenant theology was further developed by Puritan theologians Dudley Fenner , William Perkins , John Preston , Richard Sibbes , William Ames and, most fully by Ames's Dutch student, Johannes Cocceius . Covenant theology asserts that when God created Adam and Eve he promised them eternal life in return for perfect obedience; this promise

7735-605: Was featured in the film Next of Kin (1989). The funeral scene in Backdraft (1991) takes place at the Volunteer Firefighter's Monument at Rosehill, but was actually filmed elsewhere using a replica of this monument. Lulu Fellowes (the girl in the glass box) also appeared in the film U.S. Marshals (1998). In 2015, the Chicago Park District Park No. 568 – West Ridge Nature Preserve was established along

7826-520: Was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in 1975. Like its sister cemetery Graceland , Rosehill is the burial place of many well-known Chicagoans. The cemetery contains many monuments that are notable for their beauty and eccentricity, such as that of Lulu Fellows. The cemetery is also the final resting place of 61 victims of the Iroquois Theatre fire , in which over 600 people died. Several graves, gravestones and monuments from

7917-622: Was not the theocratic state which leading Puritans had called for as "godly rule". At the time of the English Restoration in 1660, the Savoy Conference was called to determine a new religious settlement for England and Wales. Under the Act of Uniformity 1662 , the Church of England was restored to its pre- Civil War constitution with only minor changes, and the Puritans found themselves sidelined. A traditional estimate of historian Calamy

8008-442: Was possible only because of divine mercy —that the person would experience justification , when the righteousness of Christ is imputed to the elect and their minds and hearts are regenerated. For some Puritans, this was a dramatic experience and they referred to it as being born again . Confirming that such a conversion had actually happened often required prolonged and continual introspection. Historian Perry Miller wrote that

8099-627: Was promised that the cemetery be named in his honor. It is located in the north east section of the Lincoln Square community area. Rosehill's Joliet-limestone entrance gate (added in 1864) was designed by William W. Boyington , the architect of the Chicago Water Tower and the Old University of Chicago , who is buried in Rosehill. The Rosehill Cemetery Administration Building and Entry Gate

8190-645: Was termed the covenant of works . After the fall of man , human nature was corrupted by original sin and unable to fulfill the covenant of works, since each person inevitably violated God's law as expressed in the Ten Commandments . As sinners, every person deserved damnation . Puritans shared with other Calvinists a belief in double predestination , that some people (the elect ) were destined by God to receive grace and salvation while others were destined for Hell . No one, however, could merit salvation. According to covenant theology, Christ's sacrifice on

8281-500: Was true for everyone. They suggested it be rewritten as "we commit his body [etc.] believing a resurrection of the just and unjust, some to joy, and some to punishment." Puritans eliminated choral music and musical instruments in their religious services because these were associated with Roman Catholicism; however, singing the Psalms was considered appropriate (see Exclusive psalmody ). Church organs were commonly damaged or destroyed in

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