99-762: The Rocky Mountain Arsenal was a United States chemical weapons manufacturing center located in the Denver Metropolitan Area in Commerce City , Colorado. The site was completed December 1942, operated by the United States Army throughout the later 20th century and was controversial among local residents until its closure in 1992. Much of the site is now protected as the Rocky Mountain Arsenal National Wildlife Refuge . After
198-502: A 12,000-foot deep injection well for the disposal of wastes. This resulted in subsequent earthquakes in Denver area. In 1975, Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment ordered the Army and Shell to stop the non-permitted discharge of contaminants, to control the contaminated groundwater leaving the site, and to implement a monitoring plan. The Army and Shell took remedial actions to prevent
297-448: A class of hazardous chemical weapons that have been stockpiled by many nations. Unitary agents are effective on their own and do not require mixing with other agents. The most dangerous of these are nerve agents ( GA , GB , GD , and VX ) and vesicant (blister) agents, which include formulations of sulfur mustard such as H, HT, and HD. They all are liquids at normal room temperature, but become gaseous when released. Widely used during
396-527: A cost of $ 62,415,000. Additionally, some of this land was used for a prisoner of war camp (for German combatants ) and later transferred to the city of Denver as Stapleton Airport expanded. A lateral was built off the High Line Canal to supply water to the Arsenal. Weapons manufactured at RMA included both conventional and chemical munitions, including white phosphorus ( M34 grenade ), napalm , mustard gas , lewisite , and chlorine gas. RMA
495-479: A deep injection well that was constructed in 1961. It was drilled to a depth of 12,045 feet (3,671 m). The well was cased and sealed to a depth of 11,975 feet (3,650 m), with the remaining 70 feet (21 m) left as an open hole for the injection of Basin F liquids. For testing purposes, the well was injected with approximately 568,000 US gallons (2150 m³) of city water prior to injecting any waste. The injected fluids had very little potential for reaching
594-807: A limited extent in both the Pacific War and the European Theater. Napalm was widely used by the US during the Korean War . The ground forces in North Korea holding defensive positions were often outnumbered by Chinese and North Koreans, but US Air Force and Navy aviators had control of the air over nearly all of the Korean Peninsula . Hence, the American and other UN aviators used napalm for close air support of
693-649: A part of an incendiary weapon , napalm causes severe burns . During combustion , napalm deoxygenates the available air and generates carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide , so asphyxiation , unconsciousness, and death are also possible. Napalm is lethal even for dug-in enemy personnel, as it flows into foxholes , tunnels, and bunkers , and drainage and irrigation ditches and other improvised troop shelters. Even people in undamaged shelters can be killed by hyperthermia , radiant heat , dehydration , asphyxiation , smoke exposure, or carbon monoxide poisoning . Crews of armored fighting vehicles are also vulnerable, due to
792-599: A statement that confirmed U.K. support for U.S. napalm attacks". Napalm became an intrinsic element of US military action during the Vietnam War as forces made increasing use of it for its tactical and psychological effects. Reportedly about 352,000 tonnes (388,000 short tons; 346,000 long tons) of US napalm bombs were dropped in the region between 1963 and 1973. The US Air Force and US Navy used napalm with great effect against all kinds of targets, such as troops, tanks, buildings, jungles, and even railroad tunnels . The effect
891-460: A study to assess capabilities and costs for protecting civilian populations during related emergencies, and the effectiveness of expedient, in-place shelters . At the end of World War II , the Allies occupied Germany and found large stockpiles of chemical weapons that they did not know how to dispose of or deal with. Ultimately, the Allies disposed large quantities of these chemical weapons into
990-469: A total of 628 casualties. The U.S. Government was highly criticized for exposing American service members to chemical agents while testing the effects of exposure. These tests were often performed without the consent or prior knowledge of the soldiers affected. Australian service personnel were also exposed as a result of the "Brook Island trials" carried out by the British Government to determine
1089-550: A toxic result in their existing state. The majority of the chemical weapon stockpile is unitary and most of it is stored in one-ton bulk containers. Napalm Napalm is an incendiary mixture of a gelling agent and a volatile petrochemical (usually gasoline or diesel fuel ). The name is a portmanteau of two of the constituents of the original thickening and gelling agents: coprecipitated aluminium salts of na phthenic acid and palm itic acid . A team led by chemist Louis Fieser originally developed napalm for
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#17328524686381188-768: A wildlife refuge. In 1992, Congress passed the Rocky Mountain Arsenal National Wildlife Refuge Act (RMANWR Act). Included in the RMANWR Act, areas within RMA that were still contaminated were still owned by the U.S. Army, however, the vast majority of the land that was deemed clean would be managed by the Federal Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS). Tensions arose between the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA),
1287-448: Is also one of the few sites that had a stockpile of Sarin gas (aka nerve agent GB), an organophosphorus compound . The manufacturing of these weapons continued until 1969. Rocket fuel to support Air Force operations was also manufactured and stored at RMA. Subsequently, through the 1970s until 1985, RMA was used as a demilitarization site to destroy munitions and chemically related items. Coinciding with these activities, from 1946 to 1982,
1386-521: Is an independent organization based in The Hague . The OPCW administers the terms of the CWC to 192 signatories, which represents 98% of the global population. As of June 2016 , 66,368 of 72,525 metric tonnes, (92% of chemical weapon stockpiles), have been verified as destroyed. The OPCW has conducted 6,327 inspections at 235 chemical weapon-related sites and 2,255 industrial sites. These inspections have affected
1485-418: Is dependent upon demographic factors. Baseline rates of congenital anomalies in the study area compared to Colorado as a whole did not show significant differences between populations. No significant increase was observed in congenital anomalies during the clean-up period compared to pre-clean up, although there are no baseline data prior to initial contamination events because data was not yet being collected and
1584-482: Is more easily dispersed, and adheres to its targets. These traits make it both effective and controversial. It has been widely used from the air and from the ground, the largest use having been via airdropped bombs in World War II in the incendiary attacks on Japanese cities in 1945. It was used also for close air support roles in the Korean War , the Vietnam War , and various others. Napalm has also fueled most of
1683-627: Is the most recent arms control agreement with the force of International law . Its full name is the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction . That agreement outlaws the production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons. It is administered by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), which
1782-527: Is the newest signatory, acceding August 7, 2003. This treaty states that chemical and biological weapons are "justly condemned by the general opinion of the civilised world". And while the treaty prohibits the use of chemical and biological weapons, it does not address the production, storage, or transfer of these weapons. Treaties that followed the Geneva Protocol did address those omissions and have been enacted. The 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)
1881-569: The Baltic Sea , including 32 000 tonnes of chemical munitions and chemical warfare agents dumped into the Bornholm Basin , and another 2000 tonnes of chemical weapons in the Gotland Basin . The majority of these chemical munitions were dumped into the sea while contained in simple wooden crates, leading to a rapid proliferation of chemicals. Chemical Weapons being disposed in the ocean during
1980-548: The Chemical Weapons Convention (1993), there is a legally binding, worldwide ban on the production, stockpiling, and use of chemical weapons and their precursors. However, large stockpiles of chemical weapons continue to exist, usually justified as a precaution against possible use by an aggressor. Continued storage of these chemical weapons is a hazard, as many of the weapons are now more than 50 years old, raising risks significantly. Chemical warfare involves using
2079-669: The First Indochina War and the Algerian War . At first, the canisters were simply pushed out the side doors of Ju 52 planes that had been captured in Germany, later mostly B-26 bombers were used. Peruvian forces employed napalm throughout the 1960s against both communist insurgents and the Matsés indigenous group; four prominent Matsés villages were bombed during the 1964 Matsés massacres [ es ] . A variant of napalm
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#17328524686382178-624: The Iran–Iraq War . Iraq used mustard gas and nerve agents against its own civilians in the 1988 Halabja chemical attack . The Cuban intervention in Angola saw limited use of organophosphates . The Syrian government has used sarin , chlorine, and mustard gas in the Syrian civil war – generally against civilians. Terrorist groups have also used chemical weapons, notably in the Tokyo subway sarin attack and
2277-702: The Matsumoto incident . See also chemical terrorism . International law has prohibited the use of chemical weapons since 1899, under the Hague Convention : Article 23 of the Regulations Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land adopted by the First Hague Conference "especially" prohibited employing "poison and poisoned arms". A separate declaration stated that in any war between signatory powers,
2376-928: The National Bison Range in Montana . Chemical weapons A chemical weapon ( CW ) is a specialized munition that uses chemicals formulated to inflict death or harm on humans. According to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), this can be any chemical compound intended as a weapon "or its precursor that can cause death, injury, temporary incapacitation or sensory irritation through its chemical action. Munitions or other delivery devices designed to deliver chemical weapons, whether filled or unfilled, are also considered weapons themselves." Chemical weapons are classified as weapons of mass destruction (WMD), though they are distinct from nuclear weapons , biological weapons , and radiological weapons . All may be used in warfare and are known by
2475-726: The Pacific War . Napalm was often deployed against Japanese fortifications on Saipan , Iwo Jima , the Philippines , and Okinawa , where deeply dug-in Japanese troops refused to surrender. Following a shortage of conventional thermite bombs, General Curtis LeMay , among other high-ranking servicemen, ordered air raids on Japan to start using napalm instead. A 1946 report by the National Defense Research Council claims that 40,000 tons of M69s were dropped on Japan throughout
2574-548: The Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare , is an International treaty prohibiting the use of chemical and biological weapons in international armed conflicts. It was signed at Geneva June 17, 1925, and entered into force on February 8, 1928. 133 nations are listed as state parties to the treaty. Ukraine
2673-566: The Rocky Mountain Arsenal Medical Monitoring Program Surveillance for Birth Defects Compendium prepared by Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment and published in February 2010. In this study, baseline birth defects were estimated from the time period 1989–1997, which was the point at which the clean-up began, and inclusion criteria included mother's address at the time of birth being within
2772-511: The US Army and Shell discharged wastes into the unlined basins resulting in the contamination of the South Platte River outside the Arsenal. Farmers in the vicinity complained about the damage to crops due to the water pumped from the shallow alluvial aquifer. In response, the Army constructed an asphalt-lined impoundment for the disposal of wastes in 1956. Further, in 1961, the Army constructed
2871-651: The US Chemical Warfare Service in 1942 in a secret laboratory at Harvard University . Of immediate first interest was its viability as an incendiary device to be used in fire bombing campaigns during World War II ; its potential to be coherently projected into a solid stream that would carry for distance (instead of the bloomy fireball of pure gasoline ) resulted in widespread adoption in infantry and tank/boat mounted flamethrowers as well. Napalm burns at temperatures ranging from 800 to 1,200 °C (1,470 to 2,190 °F). It burns longer than gasoline,
2970-703: The Vietnamese environment, causing disease , stunted growth , and deformities . The stockpiles, which have been maintained for more than 50 years, are now considered obsolete. Public Law 99-145 , contains section 1412, which directs the Department of Defense (DOD) to dispose of the stockpiles. This directive fell upon the DOD with joint cooperation from the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). The Congressional directive has resulted in
3069-697: The World War I , the effects of so-called mustard gas , phosgene gas , and others caused lung searing, blindness, death and maiming. During World War II the Nazi regime used a commercial hydrogen cyanide blood agent trade-named Zyklon B to commit industrialised genocide against Jews and other targeted populations in large gas chambers . The Holocaust resulted in the largest death toll to chemical weapons in history. As of 2016 , CS gas and pepper spray remain in common use for policing and riot control; CS and pepper spray are considered non-lethal weapons . Under
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3168-504: The flamethrowers (tank-, ship-, and infantry-based) used since World War II, giving them much greater range. The development of napalm was precipitated by the use of jellied gasoline mixtures by the Allied forces during World War II . Latex , used in these early forms of incendiary devices, became scarce, since natural rubber was almost impossible to obtain after the Japanese army captured
3267-569: The musculature , where it would continue to burn day after day." On 4 July 1942, the first test occurred on the football field near the Harvard Business School . Tests under operational conditions were carried out at Jefferson Proving Ground on condemned farm buildings and subsequently at Dugway Proving Ground on buildings designed and constructed to represent those to be found in German and Japanese towns . This new mixture of chemicals
3366-478: The toxic properties of chemical substances as weapons. This type of warfare is distinct from nuclear warfare and biological warfare , which together make up NBC, the military initialism for Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical (warfare or weapons). None of these fall under the term conventional weapons , which are primarily effective because of their destructive potential. Chemical warfare does not depend upon explosive force to achieve an objective. It depends upon
3465-539: The 20th century is not unique to the Baltic Sea , and other heavily contaminated areas where disposal occurred are the European, Japanese, Russian, and United States coasts. These chemical weapons dumped in the ocean pose a continual environmental and human health risk, and chemical agents and breakdown products from said agents have been recently been identified in ocean sediment near historical dumping sites. When chemical weapons are dumped or otherwise improperly disposed of,
3564-924: The Allied powers never did, and the Axis used them only very sparingly. The reason for the lack of use by the Nazis, despite the considerable efforts that had gone into developing new varieties, might have been a lack of technical ability or fears that the Allies would retaliate with their own chemical weapons. Those fears were not unfounded: the Allies made comprehensive plans for defensive and retaliatory use of chemical weapons, and stockpiled large quantities. Japanese forces used them more widely, though only against their Asian enemies, as they also feared that using it on Western powers would result in retaliation. Chemical weapons were frequently used against Kuomintang and Chinese communist troops. However,
3663-428: The Army leased RMA facilities to private industries for the production of pesticides . One of the major lessees, Shell Oil Company , along with Julius Hyman and Company and Colorado Fuel and Iron , had manufacturing and processing capabilities on RMA between 1952 and 1982. The military reserved the right to oust these companies and restart chemical weapon production in the event of a national emergency. RMA contained
3762-482: The Army to evaluate alternative disposal approaches that might be "significantly safer", more cost effective, and which could be completed within the established time frame. The Army was directed to report to Congress on potential alternative technologies by the end of 1993, and to include in that report: "any recommendations that the National Academy of Sciences makes ..." In June 2007, the disposal program achieved
3861-550: The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA), commonly referred to as Superfund . In 1987, the RMA was placed on the National Priorities List (NPL) of Superfund sites. As provided by CERCLA, a Remedial Investigation/Feasibility Study (RI/FS) was conducted to determine the extent of contamination. Since 1985, the mission at RMA has been the remediation of
3960-556: The Industrial age. It was not until the 19th century that the modern conception of chemical warfare emerged, as various scientists and nations proposed the use of asphyxiating or poisonous gases. So alarmed were nations that multiple international treaties, discussed below, were passed – banning chemical weapons. This however did not prevent the extensive use of chemical weapons in World War I . The development of chlorine gas , among others,
4059-534: The Nazis did extensively use poison gas against civilians in the Holocaust . Vast quantities of Zyklon B gas and carbon monoxide were used in the gas chambers of Nazi extermination camps , resulting in the overwhelming majority of some three million deaths. This remains the deadliest use of poison gas in history. The post-war era has seen limited, though devastating, use of chemical weapons. Some 100,000 Iranian troops were casualties of Iraqi chemical weapons during
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4158-599: The No. 1 Weapon in Korea". British Prime Minister Winston Churchill privately criticized the use of napalm in Korea, writing that it was "very cruel", as US/UN forces, he wrote, were "splashing it all over the civilian population", "tortur[ing] great masses of people". He conveyed these sentiments to U.S. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Omar Bradley , who "never published the statement". Publicly, Churchill allowed Bradley "to issue
4257-529: The Rocky Mountain Arsenal, but are contained in basins and containment structures. During the cleanup of the RMA, concern for air pollution from the hazardous materials was raised. The Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment established monitoring systems throughout various locations of the RMA. Throughout the decades of cleanup, the air monitors revealed there was no safety hazard to public health as no arsenal chemicals had been released into
4356-533: The State of Colorado, United States Army, and the chemical industries as they partnered to clean up the site and create the RMANWR. This led the State of Colorado to take legal action over who has legal authority over RMA remediation efforts, payment of natural resource damages (NRDs), and reimbursement of costs expended for cleanup activities (response costs). The Arsenal's location was selected due to its relative distance from
4455-595: The Superfund site status and the dramatic cleanups, many residents in neighborhoods surrounding the RMA voiced concern about ongoing health risks of living within the close vicinity of the site. In September 2017, the state of Colorado filed a lawsuit to sue the United States government for the right to control the contaminated areas of the RMA. Though the cleanup of the site was considered complete in 2010, soil and groundwater monitoring practices occur every five years to ensure
4554-733: The U.S. Army, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and the Colorado Department of Health and Environment in 1996. One of the goals of the MMP was to enhance community assurance that the clean-up was effective, and it included air quality monitoring, cancer surveillance, and birth defects surveillance. Air quality monitoring of the Arsenal began concurrently with the decontamination process in 1997 and surveillance continued until July 2009. The Surveillance for Birth Defects utilized passive observational data from an existing birth defects registry March 1989 – March 2009. The following data were derived from
4653-757: The UN Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW) in 1980. Protocol III of the CCW restricts the use of all incendiary weapons , but a number of countries have not acceded to all of the protocols of the CCW. According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), countries are considered a party to the convention, which entered into force as international law in December 1983, as long as they ratify at least two of
4752-460: The air. Longstanding agricultural and health concerns related to the Rocky Mountain Arsenal have resulted in a complex history of political and legal battles. Heavy volatile contaminants related to Basin F raised concern among the public for the site and the process of the clean-up itself of the Arsenal and a medical monitoring program (MMP) was put in place as part of the Record of Decision (ROD) between
4851-405: The alluvial aquifer is not usable for human consumption. The NRDA found several injuries to wildlife. It was estimated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service that at least 20,000 ducks died in a 10-year span during the 1970s. Mallard carcasses found to have higher levels of Dieldrin . Many mammals and birds were found dead and may have suffered lower reproduction rates or birth defects. Because of
4950-458: The arsenal, although the study was made more difficult by the large demographic changes in the area and was also confounded by smoking and obesity rates. Additionally, studies performed at Colorado State University found no increased risk of Arsenic , Mercury , or neurotoxicity in communities within 15 miles of the RMA. Many projects have attempted to clean contaminated groundwater at the Arsenal. For example, DIMP (diisopropyl methyl phosphonate)
5049-521: The attack on Pearl Harbor and the United States' entry into World War II, the U.S. Army began looking for land to create a chemical manufacturing center. Located just north of Denver, in Commerce City and close to the Stapleton Airport , the U.S. Army purchased 20,000 acres (81 km). The location was ideal, not only because of the proximity to the airport, but because of the geographic features of
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#17328524686385148-517: The case of Rocky Mountain Arsenal, total indirect cost was not estimated at all. In 1986, it was discovered that the absence of human activity had made the area an involuntary park when a winter communal roost of bald eagles , then an endangered species , was discovered on site. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service inventoried more than 330 species of wildlife that inhabit the Arsenal including deer , coyotes , white pelicans , and owls . The Rocky Mountain Arsenal National Wildlife Refuge Act
5247-405: The chemical 1,4-dioxane has been found in some samples of drinking water. There is no appropriate standard by the EPA, but the state of Colorado has a standard treatment protocol for this chemical. As part of the clean up of the RMA, much of the soil, up to 10 feet below the surface was removed from the site. This soil is contained in hazardous waste landfills. Contaminated areas of soil remain in
5346-526: The chemical agents are quickly distributed over a wide range. The long term impacts of this wide-scale distribution are unknown, but known to be negative. In the Vietnam War of 1955–1975, a chemical weapon called agent orange was widely used by United States forces . The United States utilized agent orange as a type of 'tactical herbicide', aiming to destroy Vietnamese foliage and plant life to ease military access. This usage of agent orange has left lasting impacts that are still observable today in
5445-399: The cleanup was considered complete, and the remaining portions of land were transferred to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, bringing the total to 15,000 acres (61 km). Two sites were retained by the Army: the South Plants location due to historical use, and the North Plant location, which is now a landfill containing the remains of various buildings used in the plants. On May 21, 2011,
5544-443: The coasts (and presumably not likely to be attacked), a sufficient labor force to work at the site, weather that was conducive to outdoor work, and the appropriate soil needed for the project. It was also helpful that the location was close to Stapleton airfield, a major transportation hub. In 1942, the US Army acquired 19,915 acres (80.59 km) of land on which to manufacture weapons in support of World War II military activities at
5643-478: The contamination that includes the installation of the groundwater barrier system which treated approximately 1 billion gallons of water every year. The deep injection well was closed in 1985 and Basin F was closed in 1988 According to National Resource Damage Assessment, although the contamination has been reduced by the treatment efforts, the water in and around the arsenal may never be fully clean. A volume of approximately 52,500 acre-feet (65 million cubic metres) of
5742-416: The cost of removal pesticides from the groundwater and soil at the Rocky Mountain Arsenal by approximately $ 2 billion. Also, they noted that if all groundwater were to be cleared for human consumption, the cost would be $ 500 million annually. Estimating exact direct and indirect impact of the contamination is very challenging as the cleaning and monitoring costs are complex. Further, there have been damages to
5841-465: The effects of the clean-up remain. Restrictions on well water use, residential development, consumption of fish and game from the arsenal, and agricultural use of the arsenal will exist in perpetuity until further scientific research is completed at the site. Many of the surrounding neighborhoods have been provided with potable tap water from other areas of Adams county because of the potential effects of contaminated groundwater from wells. Trace amounts of
5940-408: The five protocols. Approximately 25 years after the General Assembly adopted it, it was reported that the US signed it on 21 January 2009, Barack Obama 's first full day in office as president. Its ratification is subject to a reservation that says that the treaty can be ignored if it would save civilian lives. The UN has also acknowledged that the US had ratified the CCW in March 1995, 13 years after
6039-448: The freezing point to −13 °F (−25.0 °C). Higher temperatures are a bigger concern because the possibility of an explosion increases as the temperatures rise. A fire at one of these facilities would endanger the surrounding community as well as the personnel at the installations. Perhaps more so for the community having much less access to protective equipment and specialized training. The Oak Ridge National Laboratory conducted
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#17328524686386138-422: The geographical study area. Other demographics of the mother were gathered as well. Birth defects included in the analysis were: "total congenital anomalies, major congenital anomalies, heart defects, muscle and skeletal defects, and kidney and bladder defects," and these categories were inconsistent in reporting accuracy. Statistically significant findings (p<0.01) of this study included demographic differences in
6237-422: The ground troops. Napalm was used most notably at the beginning of the Battle of Outpost Harry . Eighth Army chemical officer Donald Bode reported that, on an "average good day", UN pilots used 260,000 liters (70,000 US gal; 58,000 imp gal) of napalm, with approximately 230,000 liters (60,000 US gal; 50,000 imp gal) of this thrown by US forces. The New York Herald Tribune hailed "Napalm,
6336-409: The intense heat conducted through the armor. Even in the case of a near miss, the heat can be enough to disable a vehicle. One firebomb released from a low-flying plane can damage an area of 2,100 square meters (2,500 sq yd). International law does not specifically prohibit the use of napalm or other incendiaries against military targets, but use against civilian populations was banned by
6435-599: The likely consequences of chemical warfare in tropical conditions; little was known of such possibilities at that time. Some chemical agents are designed to produce mind-altering changes, rendering the victim unable to perform their assigned mission. These are classified as incapacitating agents, and lethality is not a factor of their effectiveness. Binary munitions contain two, unmixed and isolated chemicals that do not react to produce lethal effects until mixed. This usually happens just prior to battlefield use. In contrast, unitary weapons are lethal chemical munitions that produce
6534-417: The list of actions dealing with groundwater contamination listed by Mears and Heise include: Direct economic totals add up to approximately $ 111 million and this estimation does not include operation and maintenance costs. In addition, there were actions completed by Future Farmers of America (FFA) between 1991 and 1993 that cost approximately $ 151.2 million. A more recent article in 2004 by Pimentel, estimated
6633-405: The mid-1980s, wildlife, including endangered species, moved into the space and the land became a protected wildlife refuge. The environmental movement began in the United States in the 1960-1970s. The U.S. Congress responded to the movement in 1980 with the creation of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), most commonly referred to as a Superfund. CERCLA
6732-414: The milestone of reaching 45% destruction of the chemical weapon stockpile. The Chemical Materials Agency (CMA) releases regular updates to the public regarding the status of the disposal program. On July 7, 2023, the program completed destruction of all declared chemical weapons. Chemical weapons are said to "make deliberate use of the toxic properties of chemical substances to inflict death". At
6831-551: The military acronym NBC (for nuclear, biological, and chemical warfare). Weapons of mass destruction are distinct from conventional weapons , which are primarily effective due to their explosive , kinetic , or incendiary potential. Chemical weapons can be widely dispersed in gas, liquid and solid forms, and may easily afflict others than the intended targets. Nerve gas , tear gas , and pepper spray are three modern examples of chemical weapons. Lethal unitary chemical agents and munitions are extremely volatile and they constitute
6930-411: The most contaminated areas in the United States. Rocky Mountain Arsenal, among other post-military sites, was a top priority, establishing RMA as a superfund site. This was further exacerbated when the U.S. Army discovered an endangered species, the bald eagle. After the bald eagles were captured, tested, and found to be healthy, the National Wildlife Federation worked with policymakers to transition RMA to
7029-467: The mothers as follows: median age 24, compared to 27 years of age in Colorado as a whole, higher percent of mothers who were white/Hispanic and black, mean education level of 11.8 years compared to 13.1 years in Colorado as a whole, fewer mothers who were married, and fewer prenatal visits on average. These potential confounders are not clearly addressed in this report and may complicate the analysis as well as raise concern for disparities in exposure risk that
7128-621: The official visitor center for the refuge was opened with an exhibit about the site's history, ranging from the homesteading era to its current status. Congruent with the outline of the June 1996 USFWS Comprehensive Management Plan, RMA will be available for public use through both community outreach and educational programs (as provided by the Visitor Access Plan and the USFWS). This public availability will be implemented while simultaneously supporting
7227-517: The parties would abstain from using projectiles "the object of which is the diffusion of asphyxiating or deleterious gases". The Washington Naval Treaty , signed February 6, 1922, also known as the Five-Power Treaty, aimed at banning chemical warfare but did not succeed because France rejected it. The subsequent failure to include chemical warfare has contributed to the resultant increase in stockpiles. The Geneva Protocol , officially known as
7326-401: The population was very different at that time. In summary, there is no current evidence of health effects. The Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment found no increased risk of birth defects in infants. A separate study of cancer incidence by the Colorado Department of Health did not find convincing evidence of increased cancer risk in people living in residential areas surrounding
7425-539: The present Chemical Stockpile Disposal Program. Historically, chemical munitions have been disposed of by land burial, open burning, and ocean dumping (referred to as Operation CHASE ). However, in 1969, the National Research Council (NRC) recommended that ocean dumping be discontinued. The Army then began a study of disposal technologies, including the assessment of incineration as well as chemical neutralization methods. In 1982, that study culminated in
7524-650: The remediation effort and the USFWS activities. In April 2007 Dick's Sporting Goods Park , a soccer-specific stadium , was opened on part of the former Rocky Mountain Arsenal land that was transferred to Commerce City. The new venue hosts the Colorado Rapids of Major League Soccer . A small herd of wild bison was introduced to the refuge in March 2007 as part of the USFWS Bison Project. The animals were transferred from
7623-510: The rubber plantations in Malaya , Indonesia , Vietnam , and Thailand . This shortage of natural rubber prompted chemists at US companies such as DuPont and Standard Oil of New Jersey , and researchers at Harvard University , to develop factory-made alternatives: artificial rubber for all uses, including vehicle tires, tank tracks, gaskets, hoses, medical supplies and rain clothing. A team of chemists led by Louis Fieser at Harvard University
7722-530: The rural areas due to contamination resulting in livestock losses, and crop losses. In addition, contamination affects public health and nature (honeybee poisonings, pesticide resistance in pests, destruction of natural predators, wild birds, microbes) negatively. There are many studies that try to estimate the total costs due to contamination of pesticides in U.S. as well as in other countries; however, indirect costs are difficult to estimate, but likely several times than total direct environmental and social costs. In
7821-540: The selection of incineration technology, which is now incorporated into what is known as the baseline system. Construction of the Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System (JACADS) began in 1985. This was to be a full-scale prototype facility using the baseline system. The prototype was a success but there were still many concerns about CONUS operations. To address growing public concern over incineration, Congress, in 1992, directed
7920-410: The site, it was less likely to be attacked. The Rocky Mountain Arsenal manufactured chemical weapons including mustard gas , napalm , white phosphorus , lewisite , chlorine gas , and sarin . In the early 1960s, the U.S. Army began to lease out its facilities to private companies to manufacture pesticides. In the early 1980s the site was selected as a Superfund site and the cleanup process began. In
8019-445: The site. The primary contaminants include organochloride pesticides, organophosphate pesticides, carbamate insecticides, organic solvents and feedstock chemicals used as raw products or intermediates in the manufacturing process (e.g., chlorinated benzenes), heavy metals, chemical warfare material and their related breakdown products and biological warfare agent such as TX. Additionally, ordnance (including incendiary munitions)
8118-477: The sovereign territory of 86 States Parties since April 1997. Worldwide, 4,732 industrial facilities are subject to inspection under provisions of the CWC. In 1985, the United States Congress passed legislation requiring the disposal of the stockpile chemical agents and munitions consisting of over 3 million chemical weapons, adding up to 31,000 tons of chemical weapons needing to be disposed of. This
8217-447: The start of World War II it was widely reported in newspapers that "entire regions of Europe" would be turned into "lifeless wastelands". However, chemical weapons were not used to the extent predicted by the press. An unintended chemical weapon release occurred at the port of Bari . A German attack on the evening of December 2, 1943, damaged U.S. vessels in the harbour and the resultant release from their hulls of mustard gas inflicted
8316-459: The surface or usable groundwater supply since the injection point had 11,900 feet (3,600 m) of rock above it and was sealed at the opening. The Army discontinued use of the well in February 1966 because the fluid injection triggered a series of earthquakes in the area. The well remained unused until 1985 when the Army permanently sealed the disposal well. In 1984, the Army began a systematic investigation of site contamination in accordance with
8415-594: The transfer of some arsenal land for road expansion around the perimeter of the arsenal and 915 acres (3.70 km) to be sold for development and annexation by Commerce City. Already since 1995, the buildings became the seat of the National Eagle Repository , an office of the Fish and Wildlife Service that receives the bodies of all dead golden and bald eagles in the nation and provides feathers and other parts to Native Americans for cultural uses. In September 2010,
8514-490: The two forms that have been weaponized and are ready for their intended use. The U.S. stockpile consisted of 39% of these weapon ready munitions. The final of the three forms is raw agent housed in bulk containers. The remaining 61% of the US stockpile was stored in this manner. Whereas these chemicals exist in liquid form at normal room temperature, the sulfur mustards H and HD freeze in temperatures below 55 °F (12.8 °C). Mixing lewisite with distilled mustard lowers
8613-472: The types of organisms present in the soil, making it difficult to assess and predict safety. Spills of persistent agents, such as sulfur mustards , can remain harmful for decades. There are three basic configurations in which these agents are stored. The first are self-contained munitions like projectiles, cartridges, mines, and rockets; these can contain propellant or explosive components. The next form are aircraft-delivered munitions. Together they constitute
8712-667: The unique properties of the chemical agent weaponized . A lethal agent is designed to injure, incapacitate, or kill an opposing force, or deny unhindered use of a particular area of terrain. Defoliants are used to quickly kill vegetation and deny its use for cover and concealment. Chemical warfare can also be used against agriculture and livestock to promote hunger and starvation. Chemical payloads can be delivered by remote controlled container release, aircraft, or rocket. Protection against chemical weapons includes proper equipment, training, and decontamination measures. Simple chemical weapons were used sporadically throughout antiquity and into
8811-618: The war, damaging 64 cities and causing more deaths than the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . German fortifications and transportation hubs were targeted with napalm during both Operation Overlord and the Battle of the Bulge , sometimes in conjunction with artillery. During the Allied siege of La Rochelle , napalm was dropped on the outskirts of the Royan pocket , inadvertently killing French civilians. The Royal Air Force (RAF) used napalm to
8910-577: Was a tax imposed on chemical and petroleum industries. CERCLA also gave the Federal government the authority to respond to the release of life-threatening hazardous materials. After 42 years of chemical manufacturing, in 1984, the United States Army began to inspect the level of contamination at Rocky Mountain Arsenal (RMA). The site was placed on the National Priorities List (NPL), a list of
9009-506: Was first approved for use on the front lines in 1943. The first use of napalm in combat was in August 1943 during the Allied invasion of Sicily , when American troops, using napalm-fueled flamethrowers , burned down a wheat field where German forces were believed to be hiding. Napalm incendiary bombs were first used the following year, although the exact date and battle are disputed. Two-thirds of napalm bombs produced during WWII were used in
9108-526: Was manufactured and tested, and asbestos and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were used at RMA. Today, it is considered a hazardous waste site according to the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment. The contamination of the underlying alluvial aquifer occurred due to the discharge of waste into unlined basins. The following data were derived from the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission. From 1943 to 1956,
9207-531: Was not always purely physical as napalm had psychological effects on the enemy as well. During the Greek Civil War , after the capture of Mount Vitsi during Operation Pyrsos , the Hellenic Air Force bombed Mount Grammos —a stronghold for the opposing Democratic Army of Greece —with US-supplied napalm. The French Air Force regularly used napalm for close air support of ground operations in both
9306-401: Was one of the main contaminants in the area. One monitoring project has demonstrated incremental improvements over time, and specifically measured 640 parts per billion (ppb) in 1987 and 55 ppb in 1989, while a different off-post monitoring well measured 138 ppb in 1985, 105 ppb in 1987, 14 ppb in 1988, and 6.7 ppb in 1989. While it is difficult to capture the societal cost to clean up the site,
9405-658: Was ordered because a timely and safe disposal of chemical weapons is far safer than chemical weapon storage. Between the years of 1982 and 1992, the United States army reported approximately 1,500 leaking chemical weapons munitions, and in 1993 a 100-gallon chemical spill was reported at the Tooele Army Depot in Utah consisting of mustard agents . Chemical decomposition in soil is affected by many factors, such as temperature , acidity , alkalinity , meteorological conditions, and
9504-459: Was passed in October 1992 and signed by President George H. W. Bush . It stipulates that the majority of the site will become a National Wildlife Refuge under the jurisdiction of the Fish and Wildlife Service when the environmental restoration is completed. The act also provides that to the extent possible, parts of the arsenal are to be managed as a refuge in the interim. Finally, the act provides for
9603-844: Was produced in Rhodesia for a type of ordnance known as Frantan from 1968–1978 and was used by the Rhodesian Air Force during the Rhodesian Bush War . At around the same time, the South African Air Force targeted guerrilla bases in Angola with napalm during the South African Border War . In 2018, Turkey was accused of using napalm in Operation Olive Branch against Kurdish nationalist groups. When used as
9702-438: Was the first to develop synthetic napalm during 1942. "The production of napalm was first entrusted to Nuodex Products, and by the middle of April 1942 they had developed a brown, dry powder that was not sticky by itself, but when mixed with gasoline turned into an extremely sticky and flammable substance." One of Fieser's colleagues suggested adding phosphorus to the mix which increased the "ability to penetrate deeply [...] into
9801-929: Was used by both sides to try to break the stalemate of trench warfare . Though largely ineffective over the long run, it decidedly changed the nature of the war. In most cases the gases used did not kill, but instead horribly maimed, injured, or disfigured casualties. Estimates for military gas casualties range from 500k to 1.3 million, with a few thousand additional civilian casualties as collateral damage or production accidents. The interwar period saw occasional use of chemical weapons, mainly by multiple European colonial forces to put down rebellions. The Italians also used poison gas during their 1936 invasion of Ethiopia . In Nazi Germany, much research went into developing new chemical weapons, such as potent nerve agents . However, chemical weapons saw little battlefield use in World War II. Both sides were prepared to use such weapons, but
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