210-595: Atlas Shrugged is a 1957 novel by Ayn Rand . It is her longest novel, the fourth and final one published during her lifetime, and the one she considered her magnum opus in the realm of fiction writing. She described the theme of Atlas Shrugged as "the role of man's mind in existence" and it includes elements of science fiction , mystery and romance . The book explores a number of philosophical themes from which Rand would subsequently develop Objectivism , including reason , property rights , individualism , libertarianism , and capitalism , and depicts what Rand saw as
420-402: A dystopian United States in which the most creative industrialists, scientists, and artists respond to a welfare state government by going on strike and retreating to a hidden valley where they build an independent free economy. The novel's hero and leader of the strike, John Galt , describes it as stopping "the motor of the world" by withdrawing the minds of individuals contributing most to
630-402: A "Head of State" instead of a President . The United States appears to be approaching an economic collapse , with widespread shortages, business failures, and decreased productivity. Writer Edward Younkins said, "The story may be simultaneously described as anachronistic and timeless. The pattern of industrial organization appears to be that of the late 1800s—the mood seems to be close to that of
840-555: A "friendly witness" before the United States House Un-American Activities Committee that the 1944 film Song of Russia grossly misrepresented conditions in the Soviet Union , portraying life there as much better and happier than it was. She also wanted to criticize the lauded 1946 film The Best Years of Our Lives for what she interpreted as its negative presentation of the business world but
1050-449: A "romantic suspense novel" that is "at least a borderline case" of science fiction, specifically American libertarian science fiction based on its political themes. The novel's focus on philosophical issues, including ethics and metaphysics , marks it as a philosophical novel . Atlas Shrugged debuted at number 13 on The New York Times Best Seller list three days after its publication. It peaked at number 3 on December 8, 1957, and
1260-752: A 1959 interview with Mike Wallace , when asked where her philosophy came from, she responded: "Out of my own mind, with the sole acknowledgement of a debt to Aristotle, the only philosopher who ever influenced me." In an article for the Claremont Review of Books , political scientist Charles Murray criticized Rand's claim that her only "philosophical debt" was to Aristotle. He asserted her ideas were derivative of previous thinkers such as John Locke and Friedrich Nietzsche . Rand took early inspiration from Nietzsche, and scholars have found indications of this in Rand's private journals. In 1928, she alluded to his idea of
1470-729: A 24-hour particle pollution rating of D in the American Lung Association 's 2017 State of the Air report, which analyzed data from 2013 to 2015. The city was ranked 22nd for ozone, 20th for short-term particle pollution, and 11th for year-round particle pollution. According to the same report, the city experienced a significant reduction in high ozone days since 2001—from nearly 50 days per year to fewer than 10—along with fewer days of high particle pollution since 2000—from about 19 days per year to about 3—and an approximate 30% reduction in annual levels of particle pollution since 2000. Five of
1680-741: A 6-foot (1.8 m) floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign. In her will, Rand named Peikoff as her heir. Rand described her approach to literature as " romantic realism ". She wanted her fiction to present the world "as it could be and should be", rather than as it was. This approach led her to create highly stylized situations and characters. Her fiction typically has protagonists who are heroic individualists, depicted as fit and attractive. Her villains support duty and collectivist moral ideals. Rand often describes them as unattractive, and some have names that suggest negative traits, such as Wesley Mouch in Atlas Shrugged . Rand considered plot
1890-495: A bachelor's degree or higher. 23.9% spoke a language other than English at home, the most common of which was Spanish (10.8%). 15.0% of the populations foreign born, roughly half of whom are naturalized U.S. citizens. 3.7% of the population are veterans. The median household income was $ 52,889 and 22.8% of the population lived in poverty. 49.5% of the population drove alone to work, while 23.2% used public transit, 8.2% carpooled, 7.9% walked, and 7.0% worked from home. The average commute
2100-455: A broad establishing shot description of a scene followed by close-up details, and her descriptions of women characters often take a " male gaze " perspective. The first reviews Rand received were for Night of January 16th . Reviews of the Broadway production were largely positive, but Rand considered even positive reviews to be embarrassing because of significant changes made to her script by
2310-403: A budget of $ 371 million. The Philadelphia Parking Authority is responsible for ensuring adequate parking for city residents, businesses, and visitors. Philadelphia's architectural history dates back to colonial times and includes a wide range of styles. The earliest structures were constructed with logs , but brick structures were common by 1700. During the 18th century, the cityscape
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#17328523672352520-467: A city on the Delaware River to serve as a port and place for government. Hoping that Philadelphia would become more like an English rural town instead of a city, Penn laid out roads on a grid plan to keep houses and businesses spread far apart with areas for gardens and orchards . The city's inhabitants did not follow Penn's plans, however, and instead crowded the present-day Port of Philadelphia on
2730-409: A coincidence of names and common literary devices. Due to the success of Rand's 1943 novel The Fountainhead , she had no trouble attracting a publisher for Atlas Shrugged . This was a contrast to her previous novels, which she had struggled to place. Even before she began writing it, she had been approached by publishers interested in her next novel. However, her contract for The Fountainhead gave
2940-549: A comparison with the antislavery novel Uncle Tom's Cabin , saying that a "skillful polemicist" did not need a refined literary style to have a political impact. Journalist and book reviewer John Chamberlain , writing in the New York Herald Tribune , found Atlas Shrugged satisfying on many levels: as science fiction, as a "philosophical detective story", and as a "profound political parable". Atlas Shrugged has attracted an energetic and committed fan base. Each year,
3150-505: A contest to devise the cleverest put-downs"; one called it "execrable claptrap", while another said it showed "remorseless hectoring and prolixity". In the Saturday Review , Helen Beal Woodward said that the novel was written with "dazzling virtuosity" but was "shot through with hatred". In The New York Times Book Review , Granville Hicks similarly said the book was "written out of hate". The reviewer for Time magazine asked: "Is it
3360-468: A conversation in which Francisco d'Anconia asks Rearden what advice he would give Atlas if "the greater [the Titan's] effort, the heavier the world bore down on his shoulders". With Rearden unable to answer, d'Anconia gives his own advice: "To shrug". The novel is divided into three parts consisting of ten chapters each. Each part is named in honor of one of Aristotle 's laws of logic : "Non-Contradiction" after
3570-494: A critical element of literature, and her stories typically have what biographer Anne Heller described as "tight, elaborate, fast-paced plotting". Romantic triangles are a common plot element in Rand's fiction; in most of her novels and plays, the main female character is romantically involved with at least two men. In school, Rand read works by Fyodor Dostoevsky , Victor Hugo , Edmond Rostand , and Friedrich Schiller , who became her favorites. She considered them to be among
3780-404: A dictatorship similar to Nazism or Stalinist communism , and said that within the novel "a voice can be heard ... commanding: 'To a gas chamber—go! ' ". There were some positive reviews. Richard McLaughlin, reviewing the novel for The American Mercury , described it as a "long overdue" polemic against the welfare state with an "exciting, suspenseful plot", although unnecessarily long. He drew
3990-587: A few months with her relatives learning English before moving to Hollywood , California. In Hollywood a chance meeting with director Cecil B. DeMille led to work as an extra in his film The King of Kings and a subsequent job as a junior screenwriter. While working on The King of Kings , she met the aspiring actor Frank O'Connor ; they married on April 15, 1929. She became a permanent American resident in July 1929 and an American citizen on March 3, 1931. She tried to bring her parents and sisters to
4200-439: A form of agent causation and rejected determinism . Rand also related her aesthetics to metaphysics by defining art as a "selective re-creation of reality according to an artist's metaphysical value-judgments". According to her, art allows philosophical concepts to be presented in a concrete form that can be grasped easily, thereby fulfilling a need of human consciousness. As a writer, the art form Rand focused on most closely
4410-538: A gas chamber—go! ' ". Rand's nonfiction received far fewer reviews than her novels. The tenor of the criticism for her first nonfiction book, For the New Intellectual , was similar to that for Atlas Shrugged . Philosopher Sidney Hook likened her certainty to "the way philosophy is written in the Soviet Union", and author Gore Vidal called her viewpoint "nearly perfect in its immorality". These reviews set
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#17328523672354620-481: A government agency. Wyatt and other important business leaders quit and disappear, leaving their industries to failure. Dagny and Hank realize that Francisco is hurting his copper company intentionally, although they do not understand why. When the government imposes a directive that forbids employees from leaving their jobs and nationalizes all patents, Dagny violates the law by resigning in protest. To gain Hank's compliance,
4830-492: A grid pattern between the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers that is aligned with their courses. The original city plan was designed to allow for easy travel and to keep residences separated by open space that would help prevent the spread of fire. In keeping with the idea of a "Greene Countrie Towne", and inspired by the many types of trees that grew in the region, Penn named many of the east–west streets for local trees. Penn planned
5040-706: A growth in its population in 2007, which continued with incremental annual increases through the present. A migration pattern has been established from New York City to Philadelphia by residents opting for a large city with relative proximity and a lower cost of living . Philadelphia's geographic center is about 40° 0′ 34″ north latitude and 75° 8′ 0″ west longitude. The 40th parallel north passes through neighborhoods in Northeast Philadelphia , North Philadelphia , and West Philadelphia including Fairmount Park . The city encompasses 142.71 square miles (369.62 km ), of which 134.18 square miles (347.52 km )
5250-513: A heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute". She considered Objectivism a systematic philosophy and laid out positions on metaphysics , epistemology , ethics , aesthetics , and political philosophy . In metaphysics, Rand supported philosophical realism and opposed anything she regarded as mysticism or supernaturalism, including all forms of religion. Rand believed in free will as
5460-622: A joint effort between former mayors John F. Street and Michael Nutter . The zoning changes were intended to rectify incorrect zoning maps to facilitate future community development, as the city forecasts an additional 100,000 residents and 40,000 jobs will be added by 2035. The Philadelphia Housing Authority (PHA) is the largest landlord in Pennsylvania. Established in 1937, the PHA is the nation's fourth-largest housing authority, serving about 81,000 people with affordable housing, while employing 1,400 on
5670-601: A moderately sunny climate with an average of 2,498 hours of sunshine annually. The percentage of sunshine ranges from 47% in December to 61% in June, July, and August. The January daily average temperature is 33.7 °F (0.9 °C). The temperature frequently rises to 50 °F (10 °C) during thaws. July averages 78.7 °F (25.9 °C). Heat waves accompanied by high humidity and heat indices are frequent, with highs reaching or exceeding 90 °F (32 °C) on 30 days of
5880-454: A mysterious figure called John Galt is persuading other business leaders to abandon their companies and disappear as a strike of productive individuals against the looters. The novel ends with the strikers planning to build a new capitalist society based on Galt's philosophy. Atlas Shrugged received largely negative reviews, but achieved enduring popularity and ongoing sales in the following decades. The novel has been cited as an influence on
6090-708: A new television adaptation of Atlas Shrugged . On November 17, 2022, producer Jeremy Boreing announced that conservative media company The Daily Wire optioned the rights to Atlas Shrugged . The company plans to create a series based on the novel for the DailyWire+ video on demand service, in cooperation with the Bonfire Legend movie studio and Aglialoro's Atlas Distribution Company. Ayn Rand Alice O'Connor (born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum ; February 2 [ O.S. January 20], 1905 – March 6, 1982), better known by her pen name Ayn Rand ( / aɪ n / ),
6300-456: A novel? Is it a nightmare? Is it Superman – in the comic strip or the Nietzschean version?" Whittaker Chambers wrote what was later called the novel's most "notorious" review for the conservative magazine National Review , where he called it "remarkably silly" and said it "can be called a novel only by devaluing the term". He predicted that practicing Rand's godless ideology would lead to
6510-435: A novelist and the beginning of her role as a popular philosopher. Rand biographer Anne Heller traces some ideas that would go into Atlas Shrugged back to a never-written novel that Rand outlined when she was a student at Petrograd State University . The futuristic story featured an American heiress luring the most talented men away from a mostly communist Europe. The heiress would have had an assistant called Eddie Willers ,
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6720-549: A number of critical pieces: Russell Kirk called Objectivism an "inverted religion"; Frank Meyer accused Rand of "calculated cruelties" and called her message an "arid subhuman image of man"; and Garry Wills regarded Rand as a "fanatic". In the 21st century, the novel was referred to more positively by some conservatives. In 2005, Republican Congressman Paul Ryan said that Rand was "the reason I got into public service", and he required his staff members to read Atlas Shrugged , although in 2012 he said his supposed devotion to Rand
6930-800: A philosopher or given any serious response. During Rand's lifetime, her work received little attention from academic scholars. In 1967, John Hospers discussed Rand's ethical ideas in the second edition of his textbook, An Introduction to Philosophical Analysis . That same year, Hazel Barnes included a chapter critiquing Objectivism in her book An Existentialist Ethics . When the first full-length academic book about Rand's philosophy appeared in 1971, its author declared writing about Rand "a treacherous undertaking" that could lead to "guilt by association" for taking her seriously. A few articles about Rand's ideas appeared in academic journals before her death in 1982, many of them in The Personalist . One of these
7140-538: A polemical approach and that her work lacks methodological rigor. Her writings have politically influenced some right-libertarians and conservatives . The Objectivist movement circulates her ideas, both to the public and in academic settings. Rand was born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum on February 2, 1905, into a Jewish bourgeois family living in Saint Petersburg in what was then the Russian Empire . She
7350-457: A response to Atlas Shrugged . The story depicts a society that has collapsed due to Objectivism, and significant characters in the game owe their naming to Rand's work, which the game's creator Ken Levine found "really fascinating". In 2013, it was announced that Galt's Gulch, a settlement for libertarian devotees named for John Galt's safe haven, would be established near Santiago in Chile; however,
7560-451: A screenplay could focus on the love story, Rand agreed and reportedly said, "That's all it ever was." Technological progress and intellectual breakthroughs in scientific theory appear in Atlas Shrugged , leading some observers to classify it in the genre of science fiction. Fictional inventions such as Galt's motor, Rearden Metal, and Project X (a sonic weapon) are important to the plot. Science fiction historian John J. Pierce describes it as
7770-457: A screenplay, intent on filming in June 2010. Stephen Polk was set to direct; however, Polk was fired and principal photography began on June 13, 2010, under the direction of Paul Johansson and produced by Harmon Kaslow and Aglialoro. This resulted in Aglialoro's retention of his rights to the property, which were set to expire on June 15, 2010. Filming was completed on July 20, 2010, and the movie
7980-440: A time when society has reached the stage of dictatorship." Rand also depicts public choice theory , such that the language of altruism is used to pass legislation nominally in the public interest (the "Anti-Dog-Eat-Dog Rule" and "The Equalization of Opportunity Bill") but more to the short-term benefit of special interests and government agencies. Rand's heroes continually oppose "parasites", "looters", and "moochers" who demand
8190-850: A time, row houses built elsewhere in the United States were known as "Philadelphia rows". A variety of row houses are found throughout the city, from Federal-style continuous blocks in Old City and Society Hill to Victorian-style homes in North Philadelphia to twin row houses in West Philadelphia . While newer homes have been built recently, much of the housing dates to the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries, which has created problems such as urban decay and vacant lots. Some neighborhoods, including Northern Liberties and Society Hill, have been rehabilitated through gentrification . As of 2014 ,
8400-636: A town in Finland with a Swedish majority. In 1655, a Dutch military campaign led by New Netherland Director-General Peter Stuyvesant took control of the Swedish colony, ending its claim to independence. The Swedish and Finnish people settlers continued to have their own militia , religion, and court, and to enjoy substantial autonomy under the Dutch. An English fleet captured the New Netherland colony in 1664, though
8610-460: A vacation, Hank and Dagny discover an abandoned factory with an incomplete but revolutionary motor that runs on atmospheric static electricity . They begin searching for the inventor, and Dagny hires scientist Quentin Daniels to reconstruct the motor; however, a series of economically harmful directives are issued by Wesley Mouch , a former Rearden lobbyist who betrayed Hank in return for a job leading
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8820-425: A variety of libertarian and conservative thinkers and politicians. After several unsuccessful attempts to adapt the novel for film or television, a film trilogy was released from 2011 to 2014 to negative reviews, and two theatrical adaptations have been staged. Atlas Shrugged is set in a dystopian United States at an unspecified time, in which the country has a "National Legislature" instead of Congress and
9030-523: A week. After the success of her later novels, Rand released a revised version in 1959 that has sold over three million copies. Rand started her next major novel, The Fountainhead , in December 1935, but took a break from it in 1937 to write her novella Anthem . The novella presents a dystopian future world in which totalitarian collectivism has triumphed to such an extent that the word I has been forgotten and replaced with we . Protagonists Equality 7-2521 and Liberty 5-3000 eventually escape
9240-574: A wide range of topics, from literature and music to sexuality and facial hair. Some of her followers mimicked her preferences, wearing clothes to match characters from her novels and buying furniture like hers. Some former NBI students believed the extent of these behaviors was exaggerated, and the problem was concentrated among Rand's closest followers in New York. Throughout the 1960s and 70s, Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through nonfiction and speeches, including annual lectures at
9450-448: Is Rand's longest published book. Random House published the novel on October 10, 1957. The initial print run was 100,000 copies. The first paperback edition was published by New American Library in July 1959, with an initial run of 150,000. A 35th-anniversary edition was published by E. P. Dutton in 1992, with an introduction by Rand's heir, Leonard Peikoff . The novel has been translated into more than 30 languages. The working title of
9660-832: Is about an idealized industrialist named Henry Galt, who is a transcontinental railway owner trying to improve the world and fighting against government and socialism. Raimondo believed the earlier novel influenced Rand's writing in ways she failed to acknowledge, although there was no "word-for-word plagiarism" and The Driver was published four years before Rand emigrated to the United States. Journalist Jeff Walker echoed Raimondo's comparisons in his book The Ayn Rand Cult and listed The Driver as one of several unacknowledged precursors to Atlas Shrugged . In contrast, Chris Matthew Sciabarra said he "could not find any evidence to link Rand to Garrett", and considered Raimondo's claims to be "unsupported". Liberty magazine editor R. W. Bradford said Raimondo made an unconvincing comparison based on
9870-694: Is also disappointed to discover that the Argentine billionaire Francisco d'Anconia , her childhood friend and first love, is risking his family's copper company by constructing the San Sebastián copper mines , even though Mexico will probably nationalize them. Despite the risk, Jim and Boyle invest heavily in a railway for the region while ignoring the Rio Norte Line in Colorado , where entrepreneur Ellis Wyatt has discovered large oil reserves . Mexico nationalizes
10080-584: Is disputed. Rand's views also may have been influenced by the promotion of egoism among the Russian nihilists , including Chernyshevsky and Dmitry Pisarev , although there is no direct evidence that she read them. Rand considered Immanuel Kant her philosophical opposite and "the most evil man in mankind's history"; she believed his epistemology undermined reason and his ethics opposed self-interest. Philosophers George Walsh and Fred Seddon have argued she misinterpreted Kant and exaggerated their differences. She
10290-461: Is highly variable. Some winters have only light snow while others include major snowstorms. The normal seasonal snowfall averages 22.4 in (57 cm), with rare snowfalls in November or April, and rarely any sustained snow cover. Seasonal snowfall accumulation has ranged from trace amounts in 1972–73, to 78.7 inches (200 cm) in the winter of 2009–10. The city's heaviest single-storm snowfall
10500-487: Is home to five Fortune 500 corporate headquarters. Metropolitan Philadelphia ranks as one of the Big Five U.S. venture capital hubs, facilitated by its geographic proximity to both the entrepreneurial and financial ecosystems of New York City and to the federal regulatory environment of Washington, D.C. Greater Philadelphia is also a biotechnology hub. The Philadelphia Stock Exchange , owned by Nasdaq since 2008,
10710-639: Is land and 8.53 square miles (22.09 km ), or 6%, is water. Natural bodies of water include the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, lakes in Franklin Delano Roosevelt Park , and Cobbs , Wissahickon , and Pennypack creeks. The largest artificial body of water is East Park Reservoir in Fairmount Park . The lowest point is sea level and the highest point is in Chestnut Hill , about 446 feet (136 m) above sea level on Summit Street near
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#173285236723510920-446: Is not the tool of the moochers, who claim your product by tears, or the looters who take it from you by force. Money is made possible only by the men who produce." The novel includes elements of mystery , romance , and science fiction . Rand referred to Atlas Shrugged as a mystery novel, "not about the murder of man's body, but about the murder—and rebirth—of man's spirit". Nonetheless, when asked by film producer Albert S. Ruddy if
11130-495: Is often ranked as the nation's best city for professional sports fans. The city has a culturally and philanthropically active LGBTQ+ community . Philadelphia also has played an immensely influential historic and ongoing role in the development and evolution of American music, especially R&B , soul , and rock . As of 2022 , the Philadelphia metropolitan area had a gross metropolitan product of US$ 518.5 billion and
11340-578: Is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the U.S. The two parks, along with the Colonial Revival , Georgian and Federal -style mansions in them, have been listed as one entity on the National Register of Historic Places since 1972. Within the Köppen climate classification , Philadelphia falls under the northern periphery of the humid subtropical climate zone (Köppen Cfa ). Within
11550-431: Is taken from John Galt, the hero of Atlas Shrugged , who argues that "a free mind and a free market are corollaries". In a tribute written on the 20th anniversary of the novel's publication, libertarian philosopher John Hospers praised it as "a supreme achievement, guaranteed of immortality". In 1997, the libertarian Cato Institute held a joint conference with The Atlas Society , an Objectivist organization, to celebrate
11760-595: Is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania and the sixth-most populous city in the United States , with a population of 1,603,797 in the 2020 census . The city is the urban core of the larger Delaware Valley , also known as the Philadelphia metropolitan area, the nation's eighth-largest metropolitan area and seventh-largest combined statistical area with 6.245 million residents and 7.366 million residents, respectively. Philadelphia has played an extensive role in United States history . The city
11970-597: Is the inspiration for the common saying. When she chases after Daniels in a private plane, she crashes and discovers the secret behind the disappearances of business leaders: Galt is leading a strike of "the men of the mind". She has crashed in their hiding place, an isolated valley known as Galt's Gulch. As she recovers from her injuries, the strikers explain their motives, and she learns that the strikers include Francisco and many prominent people, such as her favorite composer, Richard Halley, and infamous pirate Ragnar Danneskjöld . Dagny falls in love with Galt, who asks her to join
12180-433: Is the nation's oldest stock exchange and a global leader in options trading. 30th Street Station , the city's primary rail station, is the third-busiest Amtrak hub in the nation, and the city's multimodal transportation and logistics infrastructure also includes Philadelphia International Airport , a major transatlantic gateway and transcontinental hub; the rapidly-growing PhilaPort seaport ; and Interstate 95 ,
12390-456: The 2020 U.S. Census , there were 1,603,797 people residing in Philadelphia, representing a 1.2% increase from the 2019 census estimate. The racial composition of the city was 39.3% Black alone (42.0% Black alone or in combination), 36.3% White alone (41.9% White alone or in combination), 8.7% Asian alone, 0.4% American Indian and Alaska Native alone, 8.7% some other race, and 6.9% multiracial. 14.9% of residents were Hispanic or Latino. 34.8% had
12600-653: The Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises . Despite philosophical differences with them, Rand strongly endorsed the writings of both men, and they expressed admiration for her. Mises once called her "the most courageous man in America", a compliment that particularly pleased her because he said "man" instead of "woman". Rand became friends with libertarian writer Isabel Paterson . Rand questioned her about American history and politics during their many meetings, and gave Paterson ideas for her only non-fiction book, The God of
12810-813: The Battle of Brandywine in Chadds Ford Township , on September 11, 1777, during the Philadelphia campaign , the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia was defenseless and the city prepared for what was perceived to be an inevitable British attack. Because bells could easily be recast into munitions, the Liberty Bell , then known as the Pennsylvania State Bell, and bells from two Philadelphia churches, Christ Church and St. Peter's Church , were hastily taken down and transported by heavily guarded wagon train out of
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#173285236723513020-612: The British Army , which was then the world's most powerful military force. Since the Declaration's July 4, 1776, adoption, its signing has been cited globally and repeatedly by various peoples of the world seeking independence and liberty. It also has been, since its adoption, the basis for annual celebration by Americans; in 1938, this celebration of the Declaration was formalized as Independence Day , one of only eleven designated U.S. federal holidays . After George Washington 's defeat at
13230-594: The Delaware River watershed , western Long Island , and the Lower Hudson Valley . Most Lenape were pushed out of the region during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, exacerbated by losses from intertribal conflicts. Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox , and conflict with Europeans. The Iroquois occasionally fought the Lenape. Surviving Lenape moved west into
13440-667: The Eastern Mediterranean during the Greek and Roman periods, including modern Alaşehir , mentioned as the site of an early Christian congregation in the Book of Revelation . As a Quaker , Penn had experienced religious persecution and wanted his colony to be a place where anyone could worship freely. This tolerance, which exceeded that of other colonies, led to better relations with the local native tribes and fostered Philadelphia's rapid growth into America's most important city. Penn planned
13650-592: The Ford Hall Forum . In answers to audience questions, she took controversial stances on political and social issues. These included supporting abortion rights, opposing the Vietnam War and the military draft (but condemning many draft dodgers as "bums"), supporting Israel in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 against a coalition of Arab nations as "civilized men fighting savages", claiming European colonists had
13860-566: The Great Migration from the South . By the 20th century, Philadelphia had an entrenched Republican political machine and a complacent population. In 1910, a general strike shut down the entire city. In 1917, following outrage over the election-year murder of a Philadelphia police officer, led to the shrinking of the City Council from two houses to just one. In July 1919, Philadelphia
14070-590: The Liberty Bell , and hosting the Second Continental Congress during which the nation's 56 founders formed the Continental Army and elected George Washington as its commander in 1775, and unanimously adopted the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. For nine months, from September 1777 to June 1778, the city fell under British occupation during the war's Philadelphia campaign . In 1787,
14280-520: The Russian Civil War . After graduating high school there in June 1921, she returned with her family to Petrograd (as Saint Petersburg was then named), where they faced desperate conditions, occasionally nearly starving. When Russian universities were opened to women after the revolution, Rand was among the first to enroll at Petrograd State University . At 16, she began her studies in the department of social pedagogy , majoring in history. She
14490-544: The Second Continental Congress , which adopted the Declaration of Independence in what was then called the Pennsylvania State House and was later renamed Independence Hall. Historian Joseph Ellis , in 2007, described the Declaration of Independence, written predominantly by Thomas Jefferson , as "the most potent and consequential words in American history," and its adoption represented a declaration of war against
14700-475: The Trewartha climate classification , Philadelphia has a temperate maritime climate ( Do ) limited to the north by the continental climate ( Dc ). Summers are typically hot and muggy. Fall and spring are generally mild, and winter is moderately cold. The plant life hardiness zones are 7a and 7b, reflecting an average annual extreme minimum temperature between 0 and 10 °F (−18 and −12 °C). Snowfall
14910-653: The U.S. Constitution was ratified in Philadelphia at the Philadelphia Convention . Philadelphia remained the nation's largest city until 1790, and it served as the nation's first capital from May 10, 1775, until December 12, 1776, and on four subsequent occasions until 1800, when construction of the new national capital in Washington, D.C. was completed. Philadelphia maintains extensive contemporary influence in business and industry , culture , sports , and music . With 17 four-year universities and colleges in
15120-442: The law of noncontradiction ; "Either-Or", which is a reference to the law of excluded middle ; and "A Is A" in reference to the law of identity . Each chapter also has a title; Atlas Shrugged is the only one of Rand's novels to use chapter titles. The story of Atlas Shrugged dramatically expresses Rand's ethical egoism , her advocacy of " rational selfishness ", whereby all of the principal virtues and vices are applications of
15330-448: The world's 54th-largest urban park . Philadelphia is known for its arts, culture , cuisine , and colonial and Revolutionary-era history; in 2016, it attracted 42 million domestic tourists who spent $ 6.8 billion, representing $ 11 billion in economic impact to the city and its surrounding Pennsylvania counties. With five professional sports teams and one of the nation's most loyal and passionate fan bases, Philadelphia
15540-497: The " superman " in notes for an unwritten novel whose protagonist was inspired by the murderer William Edward Hickman . There are other indications of Nietzsche's influence in passages from the first edition of We the Living (which Rand later revised), and in her overall writing style. By the time she wrote The Fountainhead , Rand had turned against Nietzsche's ideas, and the extent of his influence on her even during her early years
15750-439: The "top rank" of Romantic writers because of their focus on moral themes and their skill at constructing plots. Hugo was an important influence on her writing, especially her approach to plotting. In the introduction she wrote for an English-language edition of his novel Ninety-Three , Rand called him "the greatest novelist in world literature". Although Rand disliked most Russian literature, her depictions of her heroes show
15960-401: The ' sin ' of creating value". Accordingly, throughout Atlas Shrugged , numerous characters are frustrated by this sanction, as when Hank Rearden appears duty-bound to support his family, despite their hostility toward him; later, the principle is stated by Dan Conway : "I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed. If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain." John Galt further explains
16170-576: The 100 best novels of the 20th century found Atlas rated No. 1, although it was not included on the list chosen by the Modern Library board of authors and scholars. The 2018 PBS Great American Read television series found Atlas Shrugged rated number 20 out of 100 novels, based on a YouGov survey "asking Americans to name their most-loved novel". Rand's impact on contemporary American libertarian thought has been considerable. The title of one libertarian magazine, Reason : Free Minds, Free Markets ,
16380-490: The 1980s. Historic areas such as Old City and Society Hill were renovated during the reformist mayoral era of the 1950s through the 1980s, making both areas among the most desirable Center City neighborhoods. Immigrants from around the world began to enter the U.S. through Philadelphia as their gateway, leading to a reversal of the city's population decline between 1950 and 2000, during which it lost about 25 percent of its residents. Philadelphia eventually began experiencing
16590-743: The 1990s. Several academic book series about important authors cover Rand and her works, as do popular study guides like CliffsNotes and SparkNotes . In The Literary Encyclopedia entry for Rand written in 2001, John David Lewis declared that "Rand wrote the most intellectually challenging fiction of her generation." In 2019, Lisa Duggan described Rand's fiction as popular and influential on many readers, despite being easy to criticize for "her cartoonish characters and melodramatic plots, her rigid moralizing, her middle- to lowbrow aesthetic preferences ... and philosophical strivings". Ayn Rand Institute Other Rand called her philosophy "Objectivism", describing its essence as "the concept of man as
16800-649: The 2 square miles (5.2 km ) of Center City to the roughly 134 square miles (350 km ) of Philadelphia County . In the latter half of the 19th century and leading into the 20th century, immigrants from Russia, Eastern Europe, and Italy, and African Americans from the southern U.S. settled in the city. Philadelphia was represented by the Washington Grays in the American Civil War . The African-American population of Philadelphia increased from 31,699 to 219,559 between 1880 and 1930, largely stemming from
17010-401: The 40th anniversary of the publication of Atlas Shrugged . At this event, Howard Dickman of Reader's Digest stated that the novel had "turned millions of readers on to the ideas of liberty" and said that the book had the important message of the readers' "profound right to be happy". Rand's former business partner and lover Nathaniel Branden expressed differing views of Atlas Shrugged . He
17220-706: The Ayn Rand Institute donates 400,000 copies of works by Rand, including Atlas Shrugged , to high school students. According to a 1991 survey done for the Library of Congress and the Book of the Month Club , Atlas Shrugged was ranked second among the books that made the most difference in the lives of 17 out of 2,032 Book-of-the-Month club members who responded, between the Bible and M. Scott Peck 's The Road Less Traveled . Modern Library 's 1998 nonscientific online poll of
17430-470: The Broadway production. Her first novel, the semi-autobiographical We the Living , was published in 1936. Set in Soviet Russia , it focuses on the struggle between the individual and the state. Initial sales were slow, and the American publisher let it go out of print, although European editions continued to sell. She adapted the story as a stage play , but the Broadway production closed in less than
17640-501: The Delaware River and subdivided and resold their lots. Before Penn left Philadelphia for the final time, he issued the Charter of 1701 establishing it as a city. Though poor at first, Philadelphia became an important trading center with tolerable living conditions by the 1750s. Benjamin Franklin , a leading citizen, helped improve city services and founded new ones that were among the first in
17850-489: The Living , and reviewers' opinions were mixed. Lorine Pruette 's positive review in The New York Times , which called the author "a writer of great power" who wrote "brilliantly, beautifully and bitterly", was one that Rand greatly appreciated. There were other positive reviews, but Rand dismissed most of them for either misunderstanding her message or for being in unimportant publications. Some negative reviews said
18060-536: The Machine . Rand's first major success as a writer came in 1943 with The Fountainhead , a novel about an uncompromising architect named Howard Roark and his struggle against what Rand described as "second-handers" who attempt to live through others, placing others above themselves. Twelve publishers rejected it before Bobbs-Merrill Company accepted it at the insistence of editor Archibald Ogden, who threatened to quit if his employer did not publish it. While completing
18270-570: The Polish actress Pola Negri ; it became her first published work. She decided her professional surname for writing would be Rand , and she adopted the first name Ayn (pronounced / aɪ n / ). In late 1925, Rand was granted a visa to visit relatives in Chicago. She arrived in New York City on February 19, 1926. Intent on staying in the United States to become a screenwriter, she lived for
18480-529: The Rio Norte Line, becoming the first major customer for the product. After Hank refuses to sell the metal to the State Science Institute, a government research foundation run by Dr. Robert Stadler , the Institute publishes a report condemning the metal without identifying problems with it. As a result, many significant organizations boycott the line. Although Stadler agrees with Dagny's complaints about
18690-753: The Second Continental Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation on November 15, 1777, and the city later served as the meeting place for the Constitutional Convention , which ratified the Constitution in Independence Hall in Philadelphia on September 17, 1787. Philadelphia served as capital of the United States for much of the colonial and early post-colonial periods, including for a decade, from 1790 to 1800, while Washington, D.C. ,
18900-522: The United States after Midtown Manhattan in New York City. Philadelphia's neighborhoods are divided into six large sections that surround Center City: North Philadelphia , Northeast Philadelphia , South Philadelphia , Southwest Philadelphia , West Philadelphia , and Northwest Philadelphia . The city's geographic boundaries have been largely unchanged since these neighborhoods were consolidated in 1854. However, each of these large areas contains numerous neighborhoods, some of whose boundaries derive from
19110-620: The United States, but they could not obtain permission to emigrate. Rand's first literary success was the sale of her screenplay Red Pawn to Universal Studios in 1932, although it was never produced. Her courtroom drama Night of January 16th , first staged in Hollywood in 1934, reopened successfully on Broadway in 1935. Each night, a jury was selected from members of the audience; based on its vote, one of two different endings would be performed. Rand and O'Connor moved to New York City in December 1934 so she could handle revisions for
19320-524: The United States, the novel has been cited as an influence by right-wing politicians such Siv Jensen in Norway, as well as Ayelet Shaked in Israel. References to Atlas Shrugged have appeared in a variety of other popular entertainments. In the first season of the drama series Mad Men , Bert Cooper urges Don Draper to read the book, and Don's sales pitch tactic to a client indicates he has been influenced by
19530-582: The advocacy of reason to be the single most significant aspect of her philosophy. Commentators, including Hazel Barnes , Nathaniel Branden, and Albert Ellis , have criticized Rand's focus on the importance of reason. Barnes and Ellis said Rand was too dismissive of emotion and failed to recognize its importance in human life. Branden said Rand's emphasis on reason led her to denigrate emotions and create unrealistic expectations of how consistently rational human beings should be. In ethics, Rand argued for rational and ethical egoism (rational self-interest), as
19740-891: The affair hidden from Rand. As her relationship with Nathaniel Branden deteriorated, Rand had her husband be present for difficult conversations between her and Branden. In 1968, Rand learned about Branden's relationship with Scott. Though her romantic involvement with Nathaniel Branden was already over, Rand ended her relationship with both Brandens, and the NBI closed. She published an article in The Objectivist repudiating Nathaniel Branden for dishonesty and "irrational behavior in his private life". In subsequent years, Rand and several more of her closest associates parted company. Rand had surgery for lung cancer in 1974 after decades of heavy smoking. In 1976, she retired from her newsletter and, despite her lifelong objections to any government run program,
19950-580: The beginning of her role as a popular philosopher. In 1958, Nathaniel Branden established the Nathaniel Branden Lectures, later incorporated as the Nathaniel Branden Institute (NBI), to promote Rand's philosophy through public lectures. He and Rand co-founded The Objectivist Newsletter (later renamed The Objectivist ) in 1962 to circulate articles about her ideas; she later republished some of these articles in book form. Rand
20160-459: The benefits of the heroes' labor. Edward Younkins describes Atlas Shrugged as "an apocalyptic vision of the last stages of conflict between two classes of humanity—the looters and the non-looters. The looters are proponents of high taxation, big labor, government ownership, government spending, government planning, regulation, and redistribution." "Looters" are Rand's depiction of bureaucrats and government officials, who confiscate others' earnings by
20370-465: The book on their respective radio and television programs. In January 2009, conservative writer Stephen Moore wrote an article in The Wall Street Journal titled " Atlas Shrugged From Fiction to Fact in 52 Years", and two months later Republican Congressman John Campbell said, "People are starting to feel like we're living through the scenario that happened in Atlas Shrugged ." Outside of
20580-464: The boroughs, townships, and other communities that constituted Pennsylvania County before their inclusion within the city. The City Planning Commission , tasked with guiding growth and development of the city, has divided the city into 18 planning districts as part of the Philadelphia2035 physical development plan. Much of the city's 1980 zoning code was overhauled from 2007 to 2012 as part of
20790-575: The city for its outlying railroad commuting towns and newer housing. The resulting reduction in Philadelphia's tax base and the resources of local government caused the city to struggle through a long period of adjustment, and it approached bankruptcy by the late 1980s. In 1985, the MOVE Bombing of the Cobbs Creek neighborhood by city helicopters occurred, killing 11 and destroying 61 homes. Revitalization and gentrification of neighborhoods began in
21000-517: The city's 17th century founding through the present, Philadelphia has been the birthplace or home to an extensive number of prominent and influential Americans . Prior to the arrival of Europeans in the early 17th century, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon . They were also called the Delaware Indians, and their historical territory was along
21210-456: The city's director of public safety, but political pressure still prevented long-term success in fighting crime and corruption. In 1940, non-Hispanic whites constituted 86.8% of the city's population. In 1950, the population peaked at more than two million residents, then began to decline with the restructuring of industry that led to the loss of many middle-class union jobs. In addition, suburbanization enticed many affluent residents to depart
21420-399: The city's tallest building. The Comcast Technology Center was completed in 2018, reaching a height of 1,121 ft (342 m), as the tallest building in the United States outside of Manhattan and Chicago. For much of Philadelphia's history, the typical home has been the row house . The row house was introduced to the United States via Philadelphia in the early 19th century and, for
21630-511: The city's total park space, including municipal, state, and federal parks in the city, amounts to 11,211 acres (17.5 sq mi). Philadelphia's largest park is Fairmount Park , which includes the Philadelphia Zoo and encompasses 2,052 acres (3.2 sq mi) of the total parkland. Fairmount Park's adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park contains 2,042 acres (3.2 sq mi). Fairmount Park, when combined with Wissahickon Valley Park,
21840-403: The city, Philadelphia is one of the nation's leading centers for higher education and academic research . The city is a national cultural center, hosting more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other city in the nation. Fairmount Park , when combined with adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the same watershed , is 2,052 acres (830 ha), representing one of the nation's largest and
22050-676: The city. The Liberty Bell was taken to Zion German Reformed Church in Northampton Town, which is present-day Allentown , where it was hidden under the church's floor boards for nine months from September 1777 until the British Army's departure from Philadelphia in June 1778. Two Revolutionary War battles, the Siege of Fort Mifflin , fought between September 26 and November 16, 1777, and the Battle of Germantown , fought on October 4, 1777, took place within Philadelphia's city limits. In Philadelphia,
22260-679: The collectivistic society and rediscover the word I . It was published in England in 1938, but Rand could not find an American publisher at that time. As with We the Living , Rand's later success allowed her to get a revised version published in 1946, and this sold over 3.5 million copies. During the 1940s, Rand became politically active. She and her husband were full-time volunteers for Republican Wendell Willkie 's 1940 presidential campaign. This work put her in contact with other intellectuals sympathetic to free-market capitalism. She became friends with journalist Henry Hazlitt , who introduced her to
22470-590: The colonies made it a natural center for America's revolutionaries . By the 1750s, Philadelphia surpassed Boston as the largest city and busiest port in British America , and the second-largest city in the entire British Empire after London . In 1774, as resentment of British colonial practices and support for independence was burgeoning in the colonies, Philadelphia hosted the First Continental Congress . From 1775 to 1781, Philadelphia hosted
22680-466: The colony. Penn made a treaty of friendship with Lenape chief Tammany under an elm tree at Shackamaxon , in what is now the city's Fishtown neighborhood. Penn named the city Philadelphia, which is Greek for "brotherly love", derived from the Ancient Greek terms φίλος phílos (beloved, dear) and ἀδελφός adelphós (brother, brotherly). There were a number of cities named Philadelphia in
22890-402: The country, and the first Black Episcopal Church . The free Black community also established many schools for its children with the help of Quakers . Large-scale construction projects for new roads, canals , and railroads made Philadelphia the first major industrial city in the United States. Throughout the 19th century, Philadelphia hosted a variety of industries and businesses; the largest
23100-486: The creation of five public parks in the city which were renamed in 1824. Centre Square was renamed Penn Square ; Northeast Square was renamed Franklin Square ; Southeast Square was renamed Washington Square ; Southwest Square was renamed Rittenhouse Square ; and Northwest Square was renamed Logan Circle/Square . Center City had an estimated 183,240 residents as of 2015 , making it the second-most populated downtown area in
23310-462: The creative minds of the world went on strike? ... That would make a good novel". After the conversation ended, Rand's husband Frank O'Connor , who had overheard, affirmed to Rand, "That would make a good novel." Rand then began Atlas Shrugged to depict the morality of rational self-interest, by exploring the consequences of a strike by intellectuals refusing to supply their inventions, art, business leadership, scientific research, or new ideas to
23520-499: The depression-era 1930s. Both the social customs and the level of technology remind one of the 1950s". Many early 20th-century technologies are available, but later technologies such as jet planes and computers are largely absent. There is very little mention of historical people or events, not even major events such as World War II . Aside from the United States, most countries are referred to as "People's States" that are implied to be either socialist or communist . Dagny Taggart ,
23730-423: The development of the atomic bomb , including her interviews of J. Robert Oppenheimer , which influenced the character Robert Stadler and the novel's depiction of the development of "Project X". Rand's descriptions of Galt's Gulch were based on the town of Ouray, Colorado , which Rand and her husband visited in 1951 when they were relocating from Los Angeles to New York. Other details of the novel were affected by
23940-439: The earliest academic critiques of her ideas, said she failed in her attempt to solve the is–ought problem. Critics have called her definitions of egoism and altruism biased and inconsistent with normal usage. Critics from religious traditions oppose her atheism and her rejection of altruism. Rand's political philosophy emphasized individual rights , including property rights . She considered laissez-faire capitalism
24150-447: The early 1960s he wrote a satirical one-act play titled Mozart Was a Red that spoofed Rand (as the character Carson Sand) and the novel (as Sand's book The Brow of Zeus ). In the years immediately following the novel's publication, many American conservatives , such as William F. Buckley Jr. , strongly disapproved of Rand and her Objectivist message. In addition to the strongly critical review by Whittaker Chambers , Buckley published
24360-407: The efforts of men who are better than you." Murray Rothbard , another Austrian School economist, wrote a letter to Rand in 1958 in which he praised the book as "an infinite treasure house" and "not merely the greatest novel ever written, [but] one of the very greatest books ever written, fiction or nonfiction". Rothbard soon distanced himself from Rand due to various disagreements in philosophy, and in
24570-410: The estimated $ 20 million invested by Aglialoro and others. The poor box office and critical reception made Aglialoro reconsider his plans for the rest of the trilogy, but other investors convinced him to continue. On February 2, 2012, Kaslow and Aglialoro announced they had raised $ 16 million to fund Atlas Shrugged: Part II . Principal photography began on April 2, 2012; the producers hoped to release
24780-514: The experiences and comments of her friends. For example, her portrayal of leftist intellectuals (such as the characters Balph Eubank and Simon Pritchett) was influenced by the college experiences of Nathaniel and Barbara Branden, and Alan Greenspan provided information on the economics of the steel industry. American libertarian writer Justin Raimondo described similarities between Atlas Shrugged and Garet Garrett 's 1922 novel The Driver , which
24990-439: The failures of governmental coercion. Of Rand's works of fiction, it contains her most extensive statement of her philosophical system. The book depicts a dystopian United States in which publicly traded companies suffer under increasingly burdensome laws and regulations. Railroad executive Dagny Taggart and her lover, steel magnate Hank Rearden, struggle against "looters" who want to exploit their productivity. They discover that
25200-424: The film before the 2012 United States presidential election . Because the cast for the first film had not been contracted for the entire trilogy, different actors were cast for all the roles. Samantha Mathis played Dagny, with Jason Beghe as Hank and Esai Morales as Francisco d'Anconia. The film was released on October 12, 2012, without a special screening for critics. It earned $ 1.7 million on 1012 screens for
25410-548: The film rights to Warner Bros. and returned to Hollywood to write the screenplay. Producer Hal B. Wallis then hired her as a screenwriter and script-doctor for screenplays including Love Letters and You Came Along . Rand became involved with the anti-Communist Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals and American Writers Association . In 1947, during the Second Red Scare , she testified as
25620-671: The final script. When Fred Silverman became president of NBC in 1979, the project was scrapped. Rand, a former Hollywood screenwriter herself, began writing her own screenplay, but died in 1982 with only one-third of it finished. Her heir, Leonard Peikoff , sold an option to Michael Jaffe and Ed Snider . Peikoff would not approve the script they wrote, and the deal fell through. In 1992, investor John Aglialoro paid Peikoff over $ 1 million for an option with full creative control. Two new scripts – one by screenwriter Benedict Fitzgerald and another by Peikoff's wife, Cynthia Peikoff – were deemed inadequate, and Aglialoro refunded early investors in
25830-600: The first modern International Style skyscraper in the United States, the PSFS Building , designed by George Howe and William Lescaze . The 548 ft (167 m) City Hall remained the tallest building in the city until 1987 when One Liberty Place was completed. Numerous glass and granite skyscrapers were built in Center City beginning in the late 1980s. In 2007, the Comcast Center surpassed One Liberty Place to become
26040-530: The first official World's fair in the U.S. Immigrants, mostly from Ireland and Germany, settled in Philadelphia and the surrounding districts. These immigrants were largely responsible for the first general strike in North America in 1835, in which workers in the city won the ten-hour workday. The city was a destination for thousands of Irish immigrants fleeing the Great Famine in the 1840s; housing for them
26250-471: The first option to its publisher, Bobbs-Merrill Company . After reviewing a partial manuscript, they asked her to discuss cuts and other changes. She refused, and Bobbs-Merrill rejected the book. Hiram Hayden, an editor she liked who had left Bobbs-Merrill, asked her to consider his new employer, Random House . In an early discussion about the difficulties of publishing a controversial novel, Random House president Bennett Cerf proposed that Rand should submit
26460-459: The government blackmails him with threats to publicize his affair with Dagny. After a major disaster in one of Taggart Transcontinental's tunnels, Dagny returns to work. On her return, she receives notice that Quentin Daniels is also quitting in protest, and she rushes across the country to convince him to stay. On her way to Daniels, Dagny meets a hobo with a story that reveals the motor was invented and abandoned by an engineer named John Galt, who
26670-423: The guiding moral principle. She said the individual should "exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself". Rand referred to egoism as "the virtue of selfishness" in her book of that title . In it, she presented her solution to the is–ought problem by describing a meta-ethical theory that based morality in the needs of "man's survival qua man", which requires
26880-418: The hard-earned wealth of the productive, and Rand contends that the outcome of any individual's life is purely a function of their ability, and that any individual could overcome adverse circumstances, given ability and intelligence. The concept "sanction of the victim" is defined by Leonard Peikoff as "the willingness of the good to suffer at the hands of the evil , to accept the role of sacrificial victim for
27090-512: The implicit threat of force ("at the point of a gun"). Some officials execute government policy, such as those who confiscate one state's seed grain to feed the starving citizens of another; others exploit those policies, such as the railroad regulator who illegally sells the railroad's supplies for his own profit. Both use force to take property from the people who produced or earned it. "Moochers" are Rand's depiction of those unable to produce value themselves, who demand others' earnings on behalf of
27300-589: The influence of the Russian Symbolists and other nineteenth-century Russian writing, most notably the 1863 novel What Is to Be Done? by Nikolay Chernyshevsky . Scholars of Russian literature see in Chernyshevsky's character Rakhmetov, an "ascetic revolutionist", the template for Rand's literary heroes and heroines. Rand's experience of the Russian Revolution and early Communist Russia influenced
27510-431: The initiation of force should lead to support of anarchism, rather than limited government. Except for Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas and classical liberals , Rand was sharply critical of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her. Acknowledging Aristotle as her greatest influence, Rand remarked that in the history of philosophy she could only recommend "three A's"—Aristotle, Aquinas, and Ayn Rand. In
27720-604: The intersection of Germantown Avenue and Bethlehem Pike at: 40.07815 N, 75.20747 W. Philadelphia is located on the Atlantic Seaboard Fall Line that separates the Atlantic Plain from the Piedmont . The Schuylkill River's rapids at East Falls were inundated by completion of the dam at Fairmount Water Works . The city is the seat of its own county . The city is bordered by six adjacent counties: Montgomery to
27930-490: The kinds of people we meet in everyday life, uttering everyday dialogue and pursuing everyday values. But she also rejected the notion that characters should be symbolic rather than realistic." Rand herself stated, "My characters are never symbols, they are merely men in sharper focus than the audience can see with unaided sight. ... My characters are persons in whom certain human attributes are focused more sharply and consistently than in average human beings." In addition to
28140-551: The last occurrence of such a temperature being July 21, 2019. The lowest officially recorded temperature was −11 °F (−24 °C) on February 9, 1934. Temperatures at or below 0 °F (−18 °C) are rare, with the last such occurrence being January 19, 1994 . The record low maximum is 5 °F (−15 °C) on February 10, 1899, and December 30, 1880. The record high minimum is 83 °F (28 °C) on July 23, 2011, and July 24, 2010. See or edit raw graph data . Philadelphia County received an ozone grade of F and
28350-540: The late 1970s and continues into the 21st century with much of the development occurring in the Center City and University City neighborhoods. But this expanded a shortage of affordable housing in the city. After many manufacturers and businesses left Philadelphia or shut down, the city started attracting service businesses and began to market itself more aggressively as a tourist destination. Contemporary glass-and-granite skyscrapers were built in Center City beginning in
28560-457: The manuscript drafts of her new novel, Atlas Shrugged . In 1954, her close relationship with Nathaniel Branden turned into a romantic affair. They informed both their spouses, who briefly objected, until Rand "sp[u]n out a deductive chain from which you just couldn't escape", in Barbara Branden's words, resulting in her and O'Connor's assent. Historian Jennifer Burns concludes that O'Connor
28770-429: The manuscript to multiple publishers simultaneously and ask how they would respond to its ideas, so she could evaluate who might best promote her work. Rand was impressed by the bold suggestion and by her overall conversations with them. After speaking with a few other publishers from about a dozen who were interested, Rand decided multiple submissions were not needed; she offered the manuscript to Random House. Upon reading
28980-411: The material provided by man's senses". Rand rejected all claims of non-perceptual knowledge, including " 'instinct,' 'intuition,' 'revelation,' or any form of 'just knowing ' ". In her Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology , Rand presented a theory of concept formation and rejected the analytic–synthetic dichotomy . She believed epistemology was a foundational branch of philosophy and considered
29190-545: The mines and railroad line, but the mines are discovered to be worthless. To recoup the railroad's losses, Jim influences the National Alliance of Railroads to prohibit competition in prosperous areas such as Colorado. Wyatt demands that Dagny supply adequate rails to his wells before the ruling takes effect. In Philadelphia , self-made steel magnate Hank Rearden develops Rearden Metal, an alloy lighter and stronger than conventional steel. Dagny opts to use Rearden Metal in
29400-657: The name of Dagny's assistant in Atlas Shrugged . To depict the industrial setting of Atlas Shrugged , Rand conducted research on the American railroad and steel industries. She toured and inspected a number of industrial facilities, such as the Kaiser Steel plant, visited facilities of the New York Central Railroad , and briefly operated a locomotive on the Twentieth Century Limited . Rand also used her previous research for an uncompleted screenplay about
29610-402: The nation's wealth and achievements. The novel contains an exposition of Objectivism in a lengthy monologue delivered by Galt. Despite many negative reviews, Atlas Shrugged became an international bestseller, but the reaction of intellectuals to the novel discouraged and depressed Rand. Atlas Shrugged was her last completed work of fiction, marking the end of her career as a novelist and
29820-927: The nation, including a fire company , library , and hospital . A number of philosophical societies were formed, which were centers of the city's intellectual life, including the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture (1785), the Pennsylvania Society for the Encouragement of Manufactures and the Useful Arts (1787), the Academy of Natural Sciences (1812), and the Franklin Institute (1824). These societies developed and financed new industries that attracted skilled and knowledgeable immigrants from Europe. Philadelphia's importance and central location in
30030-465: The needy, but resent the talented upon whom they depend, and appeal to "moral right" while enabling the "lawful" seizure by governments. The character Francisco d'Anconia indicates the role of "looters" and "moochers" in relation to money: "So you think that money is the root of all evil? ... Have you ever asked what is the root of money? Money is a tool of exchange, which can't exist unless there are goods produced and men able to produce them. ... Money
30240-449: The northwest; Bucks to the north and northeast; Burlington County, New Jersey to the east; Camden County, New Jersey to the southeast; Gloucester County, New Jersey to the south; and Delaware County to the southwest. Philadelphia was created in the 17th century, following the plan by William Penn 's surveyor Thomas Holme . Center City is structured with long, straight streets running nearly due east–west and north–south, forming
30450-473: The novel Atlas Shrugged . Afterward, until her death in 1982, she turned to non-fiction to promote her philosophy, publishing her own periodicals and releasing several collections of essays. Rand advocated reason and rejected faith and religion. She supported rational and ethical egoism as opposed to altruism and hedonism . In politics, she condemned the initiation of force as immoral and supported laissez-faire capitalism , which she defined as
30660-445: The novel slowed considerably in 1953, when Rand began working on Galt's lengthy radio address. She spent more than two years completing the speech, finishing it on October 13, 1955. The remaining chapters proceeded more quickly, and by November 1956 Rand was ready to submit the almost-completed manuscript to publishers. Atlas Shrugged was Rand's last completed work of fiction. It marked a turning point in her life—the end of her career as
30870-552: The novel that she tentatively titled The Strike . By the summer of 1950, she had written 18 chapters; by September 1951, she had written 21 chapters and was working on the last of the novel's three sections. As Rand completed new chapters, she read them to a circle of young admirers who had begun gathering at her home to discuss philosophy. This group included Nathaniel Branden , his wife Barbara Branden , Barbara's cousin Leonard Peikoff , and economist Alan Greenspan . Progress on
31080-427: The novel was The Strike , but Rand thought this title would reveal the mystery element of the novel prematurely. She was pleased when her husband suggested Atlas Shrugged , previously the title of a single chapter, for the book. The title is a reference to Atlas , a Titan in Greek mythology, who is described in the novel as "the giant who holds the world on his shoulders". The significance of this reference appears in
31290-458: The novel was too long; others called the characters unsympathetic and Rand's style "offensively pedestrian". Atlas Shrugged was widely reviewed, and many of the reviews were strongly negative. Atlas Shrugged received positive reviews from a few publications, but Rand scholar Mimi Reisel Gladstein later wrote that "reviewers seemed to vie with each other in a contest to devise the cleverest put-downs", with reviews including comments that it
31500-467: The novel's publication, he said it offered "a cogent analysis of the evils that plague our society, a substantiated rejection of the ideology of our self-styled 'intellectuals' and a pitiless unmasking of the insincerity of the policies adopted by governments and political parties ... You have the courage to tell the masses what no politician told them: you are inferior and all the improvements in your conditions which you simply take for granted you owe to
31710-400: The novel's theme and Rand's Objectivism . The authorities capture Galt and unsuccessfully attempt to persuade him to lead the restoration of the country's economy. Jim then decides to torture Galt, but becomes delirious after witnessing how the authorities are too incompetent to even fix the torture device. Dagny rescues Galt, the government collapses, and the novel closes as Galt announces that
31920-489: The novel, Rand was prescribed Benzedrine , an amphetamine , to fight fatigue. The drug helped her to work long hours to meet her deadline for delivering the novel, but afterwards she was so exhausted that her doctor ordered two weeks' rest. Her use of the drug for approximately three decades may have contributed to mood swings and outbursts described by some of her later associates. The success of The Fountainhead brought Rand fame and financial security. In 1943, she sold
32130-524: The only moral social system because in her view it was the only system based on protecting those rights. Rand opposed collectivism and statism , which she considered to include many specific forms of government, such as communism , fascism , socialism , theocracy , and the welfare state . Her preferred form of government was a constitutional republic that is limited to the protection of individual rights. Although her political views are often classified as conservative or libertarian , Rand preferred
32340-418: The opening weekend, which at that time ranked as the 109th worst opening for a film in wide release . Critical response was highly negative; Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 4% rating based on 23 reviews, with an average score of 3.2 out of 10. The film's final box office total was $ 3.3 million. The third part in the series, Atlas Shrugged Part III: Who Is John Galt? , was released on September 12, 2014. Dagny
32550-488: The operating vice-president of Taggart Transcontinental Railroad, keeps the company going amid a sustained economic depression . As economic conditions worsen and government enforces statist controls on successful businesses, people repeat the cryptic phrase "Who is John Galt ?" which means: "Don't ask questions nobody can answer." Her brother Jim , the railroad's president, seems to make irrational decisions, such as buying from Orren Boyle's unreliable Associated Steel. Dagny
32760-563: The pattern for reaction to her ideas among liberal critics. Her subsequent books got progressively less review attention. Academic consideration of Rand as a literary figure during her life was limited. Mimi Reisel Gladstein could not find any scholarly articles about Rand's novels when she began researching her in 1973, and only three such articles appeared during the rest of the 1970s. Since her death, scholars of English and American literature have continued largely to ignore her work, although attention to her literary work has increased since
32970-451: The plot's more obvious statements about the significance of industrialists to society, and the sharp contrast to Marxism and the labor theory of value , this explicit conflict is used by Rand to draw wider philosophical conclusions, both implicit in the plot and via the characters' own statements. Atlas Shrugged caricatures fascism , socialism , communism , and any state intervention in society as allowing unproductive people to "leech"
33180-411: The portion Rand submitted, Cerf declared it a "great book" and offered Rand a contract. It was the first time Rand had worked with a publisher whose executives seemed enthusiastic about one of her books. When the completed manuscript exceeded 600,000 words, Cerf asked Rand to make cuts, but backed off when she compared the idea to cutting the Bible . With 1168 pages in the first edition, Atlas Shrugged
33390-593: The portrayal of her villains. Beyond We the Living , which is set in Russia, this influence can be seen in the ideas and rhetoric of Ellsworth Toohey in The Fountainhead , and in the destruction of the economy in Atlas Shrugged . Rand's descriptive style echoes her early career writing scenarios and scripts for movies; her novels have many narrative descriptions that resemble early Hollywood movie scenarios. They often follow common film editing conventions, such as having
33600-402: The potential psychological impact of the novel, stating that Galt's recommendation to respond to wrongdoing with "contempt and moral condemnation" clashes with the view of psychologists who say this only causes the wrongdoing to repeat itself. The Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises admired the unapologetic elitism he saw in Rand's work. In a letter to Rand written a few months after
33810-474: The principle, such as "Evil is impotent and has no power but that which we let it extort from us" and "I saw that evil was impotent ... and the only weapon of its triumph was the willingness of the good to serve it". Rand's view of the ideal government is expressed by John Galt: "The political system we will build is contained in a single moral premise: no man may obtain any values from others by resorting to physical force", whereas "no rights can exist without
34020-429: The producer. Although Rand believed that We the Living was not widely reviewed, over 200 publications published approximately 125 different reviews. Overall, they were more positive than those she received for her later work. Anthem received little review attention, both for its first publication in England and for subsequent re-issues. Rand's first bestseller, The Fountainhead , received far fewer reviews than We
34230-563: The project collapsed amid accusations of fraud. In the United States, Atlas Shrugged was a finalist for the National Book Award for Fiction in 1958 but lost to The Wapshot Chronicle by John Cheever . In 1983, it was one of the first two books given the Prometheus Awards ' Hall of Fame Award for libertarian science fiction , alongside The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress by Robert Heinlein . A film adaptation of Atlas Shrugged
34440-546: The project. In 1999, under Aglialoro's sponsorship, Ruddy negotiated a deal with Turner Network Television (TNT) for a four-hour miniseries; however, the project was killed after TNT merged with AOL Time Warner . After the TNT deal fell through, Howard and Karen Baldwin obtained the rights while running Philip Anschutz 's Crusader Entertainment . The Baldwins left Crusader to form Baldwin Entertainment Group in 2004 and took
34650-623: The publication of The Fountainhead , Rand received many letters from readers, some of whom the book had influenced profoundly. In 1951, Rand moved from Los Angeles to New York City, where she gathered a group of these admirers who met at Rand's apartment on weekends to discuss philosophy. The group included future chair of the Federal Reserve Alan Greenspan , a young psychology student named Nathan Blumenthal (later Nathaniel Branden ) and his wife Barbara , and Barbara's cousin Leonard Peikoff . Later, Rand began allowing them to read
34860-444: The rest of the world. Rand began the first draft of the novel on September 2, 1946. She initially thought it would be easy to write and completed quickly, but as she considered the complexity of the philosophical issues she wanted to address, she realized it would take longer. After ending a contract to write screenplays for Hal Wallis and finishing her obligations for the film adaptation of The Fountainhead , Rand worked full-time on
35070-450: The right to invade and take land inhabited by American Indians , and calling homosexuality "immoral" and "disgusting", despite advocating the repeal of all laws concerning it. She endorsed several Republican candidates for president of the United States, most strongly Barry Goldwater in 1964 . In 1964, Nathaniel Branden began an affair with the young actress Patrecia Scott , whom he later married. Nathaniel and Barbara Branden kept
35280-480: The right to translate one's rights into reality—to think, to work and to keep the results—which means: the right of property". Galt himself lives a life of laissez-faire capitalism. In the world of Atlas Shrugged, society stagnates when independent productive agencies are socially demonized for their accomplishments. This is in agreement with an excerpt from a 1964 interview with Playboy magazine, in which Rand states: "The action in Atlas Shrugged takes place at
35490-498: The rights to Atlas Shrugged with them. Michael Burns of Lions Gate Entertainment approached the Baldwins to fund and distribute Atlas Shrugged . Although it was ultimately never produced, a draft screenplay was written by James V. Hart , and then rewritten by Randall Wallace . Atlas Shrugged was made into a film trilogy, released between 2011 and 2014 to negative reviews. In May 2010, Brian Patrick O'Toole and Aglialoro wrote
35700-442: The role of reason as man's basic tool of survival (or a failure to apply it): rationality, honesty, justice, independence, integrity, productiveness, and pride. Rand's characters often personify her view of the archetypes of various schools of philosophy for living and working in the world. Robert James Bidinotto wrote, "Rand rejected the literary convention that depth and plausibility demand characters who are naturalistic replicas of
35910-745: The second half of the 19th century. His contemporaries included John McArthur Jr. , Addison Hutton , Wilson Eyre , the Wilson Brothers , and Horace Trumbauer . In 1871, construction began on the Second Empire -style Philadelphia City Hall . The Philadelphia Historical Commission was created in 1955 to preserve the cultural and architectural history of the city. The commission maintains the Philadelphia Register of Historic Places , adding historic buildings, structures, sites, objects and districts as it sees fit. In 1932, Philadelphia became home to
36120-592: The situation did not change substantially until 1682, when the area was included in William Penn 's charter for Pennsylvania. In 1681, in partial repayment of a debt, Charles II of England granted Penn a charter for what would become the Pennsylvania colony . Despite the royal charter, Penn bought the land from the local Lenape in an effort to establish good terms with the Native Americans and ensure peace for
36330-467: The spine of the north–south highway system along the U.S. East Coast . Philadelphia is a city of many firsts, including the nation's first library (1731), hospital (1751), medical school (1765), national capital (1774), university (by some accounts) (1779), central bank (1781), stock exchange (1790), zoo (1874), and business school (1881). Philadelphia contains 67 National Historic Landmarks , including Independence Hall . From
36540-409: The strike plot. Less positive mentions of the novel occur in episodes of the animated comedies Futurama , where it appears among the library of books flushed down to the sewers to be read only by grotesque mutants, and South Park , where a newly literate character gives up on reading after experiencing Atlas Shrugged . The critically acclaimed 2007 video game BioShock is widely considered to be
36750-412: The strike. Reluctant to abandon her railroad, Dagny leaves Galt's Gulch, but finds the government has devolved into dictatorship. Francisco finishes sabotaging his mines and quits. After he helps stop an armed takeover of Hank's steel mill, Francisco convinces Hank to join the strike. Galt follows Dagny to New York, where he hacks into a national radio broadcast to deliver a three-hour speech that explains
36960-489: The strikers can rejoin the world. Rand's stated goal for writing the novel was "to show how desperately the world needs prime movers and how viciously it treats them" and to portray "what happens to the world without them". The core idea for the book came to her during a 1943 telephone conversation with her friend Isabel Paterson , who asserted that Rand owed it to her readers to write fiction about her philosophy. Rand disagreed and replied, "What if I went on strike? What if all
37170-493: The surrounding Delaware Valley in the early 17th century. The first settlements were founded by Dutch colonists , who built Fort Nassau on the Delaware River in 1623 in what is now Brooklawn, New Jersey . The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony. In 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina , located in present-day Wilmington, Delaware , and quickly spread out in
37380-729: The system based on recognizing individual rights , including private property rights. Although she opposed libertarianism , which she viewed as anarchism , Rand is often associated with the modern libertarian movement in the United States . In art, she promoted romantic realism . She was sharply critical of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her, with a few exceptions. Rand's books have sold over 37 million copies. Her fiction received mixed reviews from literary critics, with reviews becoming more negative for her later work. Although academic interest in her ideas has grown since her death, academic philosophers have generally ignored or rejected Rand's philosophy, arguing that she has
37590-522: The ten largest combined statistical areas (CSAs) were ranked higher for ozone: Los Angeles (1st), New York City (9th), Houston (12th), Dallas (13th), and San Jose, California (18th). Many smaller CSAs were also ranked higher for ozone, including Sacramento (8th), Las Vegas (10th), Denver (11th), El Paso (16th), and Salt Lake City (20th). Only two of those same ten CSAs, San Jose and Los Angeles, were ranked higher than Philadelphia for both year-round and short-term particle pollution. As of
37800-688: The term "radical for capitalism". She worked with conservatives on political projects but disagreed with them over issues such as religion and ethics. Rand rejected anarchism as a naive theory based in subjectivism that would lead to collectivism in practice, and denounced libertarianism, which she associated with anarchism. Several critics, including Nozick, have said her attempt to justify individual rights based on egoism fails. Others, like libertarian philosopher Michael Huemer , have gone further, saying that her support of egoism and her support of individual rights are inconsistent positions. Some critics, like Roy Childs , have said that her opposition to
38010-473: The unscientific tone of the report, he refuses to override it. To protect Taggart Transcontinental from the boycott, Dagny decides to build the Rio Norte Line as an independent company named the John Galt Line. Hank is unhappy with his manipulative wife Lillian, but feels obliged to stay with her. He is attracted to Dagny, and when he joins her for the inauguration of the John Galt Line, they become lovers. On
38220-606: The upper Ohio River basin. Following the American Revolutionary War and subsequent formation of an independent United States, the Lenape began moving further west. In the 1860s, the United States government sent most remaining Lenape in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory in present-day Oklahoma and surrounding territories as part of the Indian removal policy. Europeans first entered Philadelphia and
38430-409: The use of a rational mind. She condemned ethical altruism as incompatible with the requirements of human life and happiness, and held the initiation of force was evil and irrational, writing in Atlas Shrugged that "Force and mind are opposites". Rand's ethics and politics are the most criticized areas of her philosophy. Several authors, including Robert Nozick and William F. O'Neill in two of
38640-567: The valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their war against Maryland colonists. In 1648, the Dutch built Fort Beversreede on the west bank of the Delaware, south of the Schuylkill River near the present-day Eastwick section of Philadelphia, to reassert their dominion over the area. The Swedes responded by building Fort Nya Korsholm , or New Korsholm , named after
38850-491: The year. The average window for freezing temperatures is November 6 to April 2, allowing a growing season of 217 days. Early fall and late winter are generally dry, with February having the lowest average precipitation at 2.75 inches (70 mm). The dewpoint in the summer averages between 59.1 and 64.5 °F (15 and 18 °C). The highest recorded temperature was 106 °F (41 °C) on August 7, 1918. Temperatures at or above 100 °F (38 °C) are not common, with
39060-506: Was "On the Randian Argument" by libertarian philosopher Robert Nozick, who criticized her meta-ethical arguments. In the same journal, other philosophers argued that Nozick misstated Rand's case. In an article responding to Nozick, Douglas Den Uyl and Douglas B. Rasmussen defended her positions, but described her style as "literary, hyperbolic and emotional". Philadelphia Philadelphia , colloquially referred to as Philly ,
39270-487: Was "an urban legend". In 2006, Clarence Thomas , an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States , cited Atlas Shrugged as among his favorite novels. Following the financial crisis of 2007–2008 , conservative commentators suggested the book as a warning against a socialistic reaction to the crisis. Several conservative commentators, such as Neal Boortz , Glenn Beck , and Rush Limbaugh , offered praise of
39480-449: Was "written out of hate" and showed "remorseless hectoring and prolixity". Whittaker Chambers wrote what was later called the novel's most "notorious" review for the conservative magazine National Review . He accused Rand of supporting a godless system (which he related to that of the Soviets ), claiming, "From almost any page of Atlas Shrugged , a voice can be heard ... commanding: 'To
39690-536: Was 30.7 in (78 cm), which occurred in January 1996. Precipitation is generally spread throughout the year, with eight to eleven wet days per month, at an average annual rate of 44.1 inches (1,120 mm), but historically ranging from 29.31 in (744 mm) in 1922 to 64.33 in (1,634 mm) in 2011. The most rain recorded in one day occurred on July 28, 2013, when 8.02 in (204 mm) fell at Philadelphia International Airport . Philadelphia has
39900-406: Was a Russian-born American author and philosopher. She is known for her fiction and for developing a philosophical system she named Objectivism . Born and educated in Russia, she moved to the United States in 1926. After two early novels that were initially unsuccessful and two Broadway plays, Rand achieved fame with her 1943 novel The Fountainhead . In 1957, she published her best-selling work,
40110-567: Was also critical of Plato and viewed his differences with Aristotle on questions of metaphysics and epistemology as the primary conflict in the history of philosophy. Rand's relationship with contemporary philosophers was mostly antagonistic. She was not an academic and did not participate in academic discourse. She was dismissive of critics and wrote about ideas she disagreed with in a polemical manner without in-depth analysis. Academic philosophers in turn viewed her negatively and dismissed her as an unimportant figure who should not be considered
40320-466: Was being constructed and prepared to serve as the new national capital. In 1793, the largest yellow fever epidemic in U.S. history killed approximately 4,000 to 5,000 people in Philadelphia, or about ten percent of the city's population at the time. The capital of the United States was moved to Washington, D.C. in 1800 upon completion of the White House and U.S. Capitol buildings. The state capital
40530-506: Was developed south of South Street and later occupied by succeeding immigrants. They established a network of Catholic churches and schools and dominated the Catholic clergy for decades. Anti- Irish , anti-Catholic nativist riots erupted in Philadelphia in 1844. The rise in population of the surrounding districts helped lead to the Act of Consolidation of 1854 , which extended the city limits from
40740-427: Was dominated by Georgian architecture , including Independence Hall and Christ Church . In the first decades of the 19th century, Federal and Greek Revival architecture were the dominant styles produced by Philadelphia architects such as Benjamin Latrobe , William Strickland , John Haviland , John Notman , Thomas Walter , and Samuel Sloan . Frank Furness is considered Philadelphia's greatest architect of
40950-418: Was enrolled in and subsequently claimed Social Security and Medicare with the aid of a social worker. Her activities in the Objectivist movement declined, especially after her husband died on November 9, 1979. One of her final projects was a never-completed television adaptation of Atlas Shrugged . On March 6, 1982, Rand died of heart failure at her home in New York City. Her funeral included
41160-433: Was founded in 1682 by William Penn , an English Quaker and advocate of religious freedom , and served as the capital of the Pennsylvania Colony during the British colonial era . The city went on to play a historic and vital role during the American Revolution and Revolutionary War , serving as the central meeting place for the nation's founding fathers , hosting the First Continental Congress in 1774, preserving
41370-445: Was in " development hell " for nearly 40 years. In 1972, Albert S. Ruddy approached Rand to produce a cinematic adaptation. Rand insisted on having final script approval, which Ruddy refused to give her, thus preventing a deal. In 1978, Henry and Michael Jaffe negotiated a deal for an eight-hour Atlas Shrugged television miniseries on NBC . Screenwriter Stirling Silliphant wrote the adaptation and obtained approval from Rand on
41580-412: Was initially quite favorable to it, and even after he and Rand ended their relationship, he still referred to it in an interview as "the greatest novel that has ever been written", although he found "a few things one can quarrel with in the book". In 1984, he argued that Atlas Shrugged "encourages emotional repression and self-disowning" and that Rand's works contained contradictory messages. He criticized
41790-451: Was likely "the hardest hit" emotionally by the affair. Published in 1957, Atlas Shrugged is considered Rand's magnum opus . She described the novel's theme as "the role of the mind in man's existence—and, as a corollary, the demonstration of a new moral philosophy: the morality of rational self-interest". It advocates the core tenets of Rand's philosophy of Objectivism and expresses her concept of human achievement. The plot involves
42000-441: Was literature. In works such as The Romantic Manifesto and The Art of Fiction , she described Romanticism as the approach that most accurately reflects the existence of human free will. In epistemology, Rand considered all knowledge to be based on forming higher levels of understanding from sense perception, the validity of which she considered axiomatic . She described reason as "the faculty that identifies and integrates
42210-439: Was moved from Philadelphia to Lancaster in 1799, then ultimately to Harrisburg in 1812. Philadelphia remained the nation's largest city until the late 18th century. It also was the nation's financial and cultural center until ultimately being eclipsed in total population by New York City in 1790. In 1816, the city's free Black community founded the African Methodist Episcopal Church , the first independent Black denomination in
42420-427: Was not allowed to do so. When asked after the hearings about her feelings on the investigations' effectiveness, Rand described the process as "futile". After several delays, the film version of The Fountainhead was released in 1949. Although it used Rand's screenplay with minimal alterations, she "disliked the movie from beginning to end" and complained about its editing, the acting and other elements. Following
42630-466: Was on the list for 22 consecutive weeks. By 1984, its sales had exceeded five million copies. Sales of Atlas Shrugged increased following the financial crisis of 2007–2008 . The novel's sales in 2009 exceeded 500,000 copies, and it sold 445,000 copies in 2011. As of 2022, the novel had sold 10 million copies. Atlas Shrugged was generally disliked by critics. Rand scholar Mimi Reisel Gladstein later wrote that "reviewers seemed to vie with each other in
42840-412: Was one of many bourgeois students purged from the university shortly before graduating. After complaints from a group of visiting foreign scientists, many purged students, including Rand, were reinstated. She graduated from the renamed Leningrad State University in October 1924. She then studied for a year at the State Technicum for Screen Arts in Leningrad. For an assignment, Rand wrote an essay about
43050-406: Was one of more than 36 industrial cities nationally to suffer a race riot during Red Summer in post- World War I unrest as recent immigrants competed with Blacks for jobs. In the 1920s, the public flouting of Prohibition laws, organized crime , mob violence, and corrupt police involvement in illegal activities led to the appointment of Brig. Gen. Smedley Butler of the U.S. Marine Corps as
43260-481: Was played by Laura Regan , with Rob Morrow as Hank, Kristoffer Polaha as John Galt, and Joaquim de Almeida as Francisco. The movie opened on 242 screens and grossed $ 461,179 on its opening weekend; the final box office total was $ 851,690. It was reviewed unfavorably by critics, holding a 0% at Rotten Tomatoes based on 10 reviews, with an average score of 1.8 out of 10. In 2015, The New York Times reported that Ruddy had come to an agreement with Aglialoro to make
43470-403: Was released on April 15, 2011. Taylor Schilling played Dagny Taggart and Grant Bowler played Hank Rearden. The film was met with a generally negative reception from professional critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 12% based on 52 reviews, with an average score of 3.8 out of 10. The film had under $ 5 million in total box office receipts, considerably less than
43680-414: Was the textile industry . Major corporations in the 19th and early 20th centuries included the Baldwin Locomotive Works , William Cramp & Sons Shipbuilding Company , and the Pennsylvania Railroad . Established in 1870, the Philadelphia Conveyancers' Association was chartered by the state in 1871. Along with the U.S. Centennial in 1876, the city's industry was celebrated in the Centennial Exposition ,
43890-403: Was the eldest of three daughters of Zinovy Zakharovich Rosenbaum, a pharmacist, and Anna Borisovna ( née Kaplan ). She was 12 when the October Revolution and the rule of the Bolsheviks under Vladimir Lenin disrupted her family's lives. Her father's pharmacy was nationalized, and the family fled to Yevpatoria in Crimea, which was initially under the control of the White Army during
44100-420: Was unimpressed by many of the NBI students and held them to strict standards, sometimes reacting coldly or angrily to those who disagreed with her. Critics, including some former NBI students and Branden himself, later said the NBI culture was one of intellectual conformity and excessive reverence for Rand. Some described the NBI or the Objectivist movement as a cult or religion. Rand expressed opinions on
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