139-549: Rik Verbrugghe (born 23 July 1974) is a Belgian former professional road racing cyclist . Verbrugghe was born in Tienen , Flemish Brabant . In 1996, he turned professional, and he has since become a Belgian time trial champion, competed in the 2000 Summer Olympics , won a stage at the Tour de France , three stages at the Giro d'Italia , and the one-day Ardennes classics– La Flèche Wallonne , and
278-586: A federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system . Its institutional organization is complex and is structured on both regional and linguistic grounds. It is divided into three highly autonomous regions : the Flemish Region (Flanders) in the north, the Walloon Region (Wallonia) in the south, and the Brussels-Capital Region in the middle. Brussels is the smallest region but also
417-636: A Muslim army at the Battle of Tours in 732. The Iberian Saracens had incorporated Berber light horse cavalry with the heavy Arab cavalry to create a formidable army that had almost never been defeated. Christian European forces, meanwhile, lacked the powerful tool of the stirrup . In this victory, Charles earned the surname Martel ("the Hammer"). Edward Gibbon , the historian of Rome and its aftermath, called Charles Martel "the paramount prince of his age". Pepin III accepted
556-463: A balanced budget, some tax reforms , a labor-market reform, scheduled nuclear phase-out and instigated legislation allowing more stringent war crime and more lenient soft drug usage prosecution. Restrictions on euthanasia were reduced, and in 2003, Belgium became one of the first countries in the world to legalise same-sex marriage . The government promoted active diplomacy in Africa and opposed
695-828: A decade after the other regions) is included in both the Flemish and French Communities, and the territory of the German-speaking Community lies wholly within the Walloon Region. Conflicts about jurisdiction between the bodies are resolved by the Constitutional Court of Belgium . The structure is intended as a compromise to allow different cultures to live together peacefully. The Federal State's authority includes justice, defense, federal police, social security, nuclear energy, monetary policy and public debt, and other aspects of public finances. State-owned companies include
834-584: A divorce from his wife, which caused repeated conflicts with the pope and his uncles. Charles of Burgundy died in 863, and his kingdom was inherited by Louis II. Lothar II died in 869 with no legitimate heirs, and his kingdom was divided between Charles the Bald and Louis the German in 870 by the Treaty of Meerssen . Meanwhile, Louis the German was involved in disputes with his three sons. Louis II died in 875, and named Carloman ,
973-668: A large semi-independent enclave. The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) was triggered by the Spanish government's policy towards Protestantism , which was becoming popular in the Low Countries. The rebellious northern United Provinces ( Belgica Foederata in Latin , the "Federated Netherlands") eventually separated from the Southern Netherlands ( Belgica Regia , the "Royal Netherlands"). The southern part continued to be ruled successively by
1112-717: A long border with the Slavs and the Avars , who were eventually defeated and their land incorporated into the empire. In southern Italy, the Carolingians' claims to authority were disputed by the Byzantines and the vestiges of the Lombard kingdom in the Principality of Benevento . In its day, it was known by various Latin names; the term "Carolingian Empire" arose later. The term "Carolingian Empire"
1251-486: A military effort that would typically take place through the summer as this would ensure there were enough supplies for the fighting force. Charlemagne passed regulations requiring all mustered fighting men to own and bring their own weapons; the wealthy cavalrymen had to bring their own armour, poor men had to bring spears and shields, and those driving the carts had to have bows and arrows in their possession. In regards to provisions, men were instructed not to eat food until
1390-539: A new government . By 30 March 2011, this set a new world record for the elapsed time without an official government, previously held by war-torn Iraq . Finally, in December 2011 the Di Rupo Government led by Walloon socialist Prime Minister Elio Di Rupo was sworn in. The 2014 federal election (coinciding with the regional elections ) resulted in a further electoral gain for the Flemish nationalist N-VA, although
1529-553: A number of colonies , notably the Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urundi . These colonies gained independence between 1960 and 1962. The second half of the 20th century was marked by rising tensions between the Dutch-speakers and French-speakers, fueled by differences in political culture and the unequal economic development of Flanders and Wallonia. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching state reforms , resulting in
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#17333162271121668-945: A policy of mediation. The Belgians have been strong advocates of European integration . The headquarters of NATO and of several of the institutions of the European Union are located in Belgium. The Belgian Armed Forces had 23,200 active personnel in 2023, including 8,500 in the Land Component , 1,400 in the Naval Component , 4,900 in the Air Component , 1,450 in the Medical Component , and 6,950 in joint service, in addition to 5,900 reserve personnel. In 2019, Belgium's defense budget totaled €4.303 billion ($ 4.921 billion) representing .93% of its GDP. The operational commands of
1807-400: A specific location was reached, and carts should carry three months worth of food and six months worth of weapons and clothing along with tools. Preference was shown towards mobility warfare in place of defence-in-depth infrastructure; captured fortifications were often destroyed so they could not be used to resist Carolingian authority in the future. After 800 and during the reign of Louis
1946-452: A symbolic permanence as well as exclaiming royal authority. Einhard suggested the construction of so-called 'public buildings' was a testament to Charlemagne's greatness and likeness to the emperors of antiquity and this connection was certainly capitalised upon by the imagery of palace decorations. Ingelheim is a particular example of such symbolism and thus the importance of the palace system in more than mere governance. The palace chapel
2085-753: A tenth out of so many thousands are said to have survived." Shortage of horses played a role in preventing Carolingian forces from continuing a campaign against the Avars in Pannonia. The Frankish royal bodyguards, the continuation of the Merovingian institution of the antrustion , were consciously modelled on Late Roman precedents. These guards were organized into schola and entitled scholares , and used armour based on Late Roman and early Byzantine models. Frankish artistic depictions of these bodyguards also mirrored Late Roman traditions. No permanent capital city existed in
2224-564: Is a country in Northwestern Europe . The country is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to the south, and the North Sea to the west. It covers an area of 30,689 km (11,849 sq mi) and has a population of more than 11.7 million. With 383/km (990/sq mi), Belgium's population density ranks 22nd in
2363-496: Is a modern convention and was not used by its contemporaries. The language of official acts in the empire was Latin . The empire was referred to variously as universum regnum ("the whole kingdom", as opposed to the regional kingdoms), Romanorum sive Francorum imperium ("empire of the Romans and Franks"), Romanum imperium ("Roman empire"), or even imperium christianum ("Christian empire"). Though Charles Martel chose not to take
2502-685: Is a notably difficult task. In his comprehensive Framing the Early Middle Ages, Chris Wickham suggests that there are currently no reliable calculations for the period regarding the populations of early medieval towns. What is likely, however, is that most cities of the empire did not exceed the 20–25,000 speculated for Rome during this period. On an empire-wide level, populations expanded steadily from 750 to 850 AD. Figures ranging from 10 to 20 million have been offered, with estimates being devised based on calculations of empire size and theoretical densities. Recently, however, Timothy Newfield challenges
2641-440: Is around 23% of the total land area, equivalent to 689,300 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, up from 677,400 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 251,200 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 438,200 hectares (ha). For the year 2015, 47% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership , 53% private ownership and 0% with ownership listed as other or unknown. The territory of Belgium
2780-477: Is based on civil law and originates from the Napoleonic code . The Court of Cassation is the court of last resort, with the courts of appeal one level below. Belgium's political institutions are complex; most political power rests on representation of the main cultural communities . Since about 1970, the significant national Belgian political parties have split into distinct components that mainly represent
2919-495: Is divided into three Regions, two of which, the Flemish Region and Walloon Region , are in turn subdivided into provinces ; the third Region, the Brussels Capital Region , is neither a province nor a part of a province. Belgium is a constitutional , popular monarchy and a federal parliamentary democracy . The bicameral federal parliament is composed of a Senate and a Chamber of Representatives . The former
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#17333162271123058-658: Is lowest in January at 3 °C (37.4 °F) and highest in July at 18 °C (64.4 °F). The average precipitation per month varies between 54 mm (2.1 in) for February and April, to 78 mm (3.1 in) for July. Averages for the years 2000 to 2006 show daily temperature minimums of 7 °C (44.6 °F) and maximums of 14 °C (57.2 °F) and monthly rainfall of 74 mm (2.9 in); these are about 1 °C and nearly 10 millimeters above last century's normal values, respectively. Phytogeographically , Belgium
3197-493: Is made up of 50 senators appointed by the parliaments of the communities and regions and 10 co-opted senators . Prior to 2014, most of the Senate's members were directly elected. The Chamber 's 150 representatives are elected under a proportional voting system from 11 electoral districts . Belgium has compulsory voting and thus maintains one of the highest rates of voter turnout in the world. The King (currently Philippe )
3336-639: Is more than double that of Flanders, which boomed after the Second World War. Belgium is a developed country , with an advanced high-income economy . The country is one of the six founding members of the European Union , and its capital, Brussels, is the de facto capital of the European Union itself, hosting the official seats of the European Commission , the Council of the European Union , and
3475-608: Is now the Benelux, the so-called Burgundian Netherlands . "Burgundy" and "Flanders" were the first two common names used for the Burgundian Netherlands which was the predecessor of the Austrian Netherlands, the predecessor of modern Belgium. The union, technically stretching between two kingdoms, gave the area economic and political stability which led to an even greater prosperity and artistic creation. Born in Belgium,
3614-698: Is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom . According to the World Wide Fund for Nature , the territory of Belgium belongs to the terrestrial ecoregions of Atlantic mixed forests and Western European broadleaf forests . Belgium had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 1.36/10, ranking it 163rd globally out of 172 countries. In Belgium forest cover
3753-614: Is the head of state , though with limited prerogatives . He appoints ministers, including a Prime Minister, that have the confidence of the Chamber of Representatives to form the federal government . The Council of Ministers is composed of no more than fifteen members. With the possible exception of the Prime Minister, the Council of Ministers is composed of an equal number of Dutch-speaking members and French-speaking members. The judicial system
3892-529: Is written to have been 'lined with images from the Bible' and the hall of the palace 'decorated with a picture cycle celebrating the deeds of great kings' including rulers of antiquity as well as Carolingian rulers such as Charles Martel and Pippin III. Louis the Pious used the palace system much to the same effect as Charlemagne during his reign as king of Aquitaine, rotating his court between four winter palaces throughout
4031-492: The Belgian Post Group and Belgian Railways . The Federal Government is responsible for the obligations of Belgium and its federalized institutions towards the European Union and NATO. It controls substantial parts of public health, home affairs and foreign affairs. The budget—without the debt—controlled by the federal government amounts to about 50% of the national fiscal income. The federal government employs around 12% of
4170-550: The East Cantons . The Brussels-Capital Region is officially bilingual in French and Dutch, although French is the majority language and lingua franca . Belgium's linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its complex system of governance, made up of six different governments . In 55 BC the region around Belgium was dominated by the Belgae , and became part of
4309-682: The European Council , as well as one of two seats of the European Parliament (the other being Strasbourg ). Belgium is also a founding member of the Eurozone , NATO , OECD , and WTO , and a part of the trilateral Benelux Union and the Schengen Area . Brussels also hosts the headquarters of many major international organizations, such as NATO . According to Julius Caesar , the Belgae were
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4448-715: The Habsburg Emperor Charles ;V was heir of the Burgundians, but also of the royal families of Austria , Castile and Aragon . With the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 he gave the Seventeen Provinces more legitimacy as a stable entity, rather than just a temporary personal union . He also increased the influence of these Netherlands over the Prince-Bishopric of Liège , which continued to exist as
4587-524: The Holy Roman Empire . The lordships and bishoprics along the "March" (frontier) between the two great kingdoms maintained important connections between each other. For example, the county of Flanders expanded over the Scheldt into the empire, and during several periods was ruled by the same lords as the county of Hainaut . In the 13th and 14th centuries, the cloth industry and commerce boomed especially in
4726-689: The Loire and the Rhine , where Aachen , which Charlemagne chose as his primary residence, was located. In the south it crossed the Pyrenees and bordered the Emirate of Córdoba and, after 824, the Kingdom of Pamplona ; to the north it bordered the kingdom of the Danes ; to the west it had a short land border with Brittany , which was later reduced to a tributary; and to the east it had
4865-507: The Lombard Kingdom in 774 and annexed it into his own domain by declaring himself 'King of the Lombards'. He later led a failed campaign into Spain in 778, ending with the Battle of Roncevaux Pass , which is considered Charlemagne's greatest defeat. He then extended his domain into Bavaria after forcing Tassilo III, Duke of Bavaria , to renounce any claim to his title in 794. His son, Pepin,
5004-785: The Michel Government . It was the first time N-VA was part of the federal cabinet, while the French-speaking side was represented only by the MR, which achieved a minority of the public votes in Wallonia. In May 2019 federal elections in the Flemish-speaking northern region of Flanders far-right Vlaams Belang party made major gains. In the French-speaking southern area of Wallonia the Socialists were strong. The moderate Flemish nationalist party
5143-412: The Netherlands ( 450 km ). Its total surface, including water area, is 30,689 km (11,849 sq mi). Before 2018, its total area was believed to be 30,528 km (11,787 sq mi). However, when the country's statistics were measured in 2018, a new calculation method was used. Unlike previous calculations, this one included the area from the coast to the low-water line, revealing
5282-670: The Roman Empire . In the Middle Ages , the region was part of the Carolingian Empire , and much of it was later part of the Holy Roman Empire , and subsequently the Burgundian Netherlands . Belgium's central location has kept it relatively prosperous and connected both commercially and politically to its bigger neighbours. The country as it exists today was established following the 1830 Belgian Revolution , when it seceded from
5421-401: The Spanish ( Spanish Netherlands ) and the Austrian House of Habsburgs ( Austrian Netherlands ) and comprised most of modern Belgium. This was the theatre of several more protracted conflicts during much of the 17th and 18th centuries involving France, including the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678), the Nine Years' War (1688–1697), the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), and part of
5560-429: The United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1814, after the abdication of Napoleon. In 1830, the Belgian Revolution led to the re-separation of the Southern Provinces from the Netherlands and to the establishment of a Catholic and bourgeois, officially French-speaking and neutral, independent Belgium under a provisional government and a national congress . Since
5699-417: The United Kingdom of the Netherlands , which had incorporated the Southern Netherlands (which comprised most of modern-day Belgium) after the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Belgium has been called "the Battlefield of Europe", a reputation reinforced in the 20th century by both world wars . Belgium was an early participant in the Industrial Revolution , and during the course of the 20th century, possessed
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5838-399: The War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748). Following the campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars , the Low Countries – including territories that were never nominally under Habsburg rule, such as the Prince-Bishopric of Liège – were annexed by the French First Republic , ending Austrian rule in the region. A reunification of the Low Countries as
5977-425: The Western Roman Empire , the Roman provinces of Belgica and Germania were inhabited by a mix of a Romanized population and Germanic -speaking Franks who came to dominate the military and political class. During the 5th century, the area came under the rule of the Frankish Merovingian kings, who initially established a kingdom ruling over the Romanized population in what is now northern France, and then conquered
6116-402: The war against the Islamic State , and in eastern Europe for the NATO presence there. Carolingian Empire The Carolingian Empire (800–887) was a Frankish -dominated empire in Western and Central Europe during the Early Middle Ages . It was ruled by the Carolingian dynasty , which had ruled as kings of the Franks since 751 and as kings of the Lombards in Italy from 774. In 800,
6255-422: The 19th century were the Catholic Party and the Liberal Party , with the Belgian Labour Party emerging towards the end of the 19th century. French was originally the official language used by the nobility and the bourgeoisie , especially after the rejection of the Dutch monarchy. French progressively lost its dominance as Dutch began to recover its status. This recognition became official in 1898, and in 1967,
6394-486: The 790s when construction picked up at Aachen Charlemagne's court became more centred compared with the 770s where court so often found itself located in tents during campaigning. Though Aachen was certainly not intended to be a sedentary capital it was built in the political heartland of Charlemagne's realm to act as a meeting place for aristocrats and churchmen so that patronage might be distributed, assemblies held, laws written, and even where scholarly churchmen gathered for
6533-474: The Ardennes are more rugged and rocky with caves and small gorges . Extending westward into France, this area is eastwardly connected to the Eifel in Germany by the High Fens plateau, on which the Signal de Botrange forms the country's highest point at 694 m (2,277 ft). The climate is maritime temperate with significant precipitation in all seasons ( Köppen climate classification : Cfb ), like most of northwest Europe. The average temperature
6672-505: The Bald into the will was marked by the resistance of his eldest sons. Whilst this was part of the reason for strife amongst Louis' sons, some suggest that it was the appointment of Bernard of Septimania as chamberlain which caused discontent with Lothar, as he was stripped of his co-Emperorship in 829 and was banished to Italy (although it is not known why; The Astronomer simply states that Louis 'dismissed his son Lothar to go back to Italy' ) and Bernard assumed his place as second in command to
6811-428: The Belgian state to assume responsibility for the government of the colony, henceforth called the Belgian Congo . A Belgian commission in 1919 estimated that Congo's population was half what it was in 1879. Germany invaded Belgium in August 1914 as part of the Schlieffen Plan to attack France , and much of the Western Front fighting of World War I occurred in western parts of the country. The opening months of
6950-414: The Carolingian court throughout reigns of many Carolingian rulers. Stuart Airlie has suggested that there were over 150 palaces throughout the Carolingian World which would provide the setting for court activity. Palaces were not merely locations of administrative government but also stood as important symbols. Under Charlemagne their excellence was a translation of the treasure built up from conquest into
7089-428: The Communities and Regions were created in 1980, Flemish politicians decided to merge both. Thus the Flemings just have one single institutional body of parliament and government is empowered for all except federal and specific municipal matters. The overlapping boundaries of the Regions and Communities have created two notable peculiarities: the territory of the Brussels-Capital Region (which came into existence nearly
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#17333162271127228-490: The County of Flanders and it became one of the richest areas in Europe. This prosperity played a role in conflicts between Flanders and the king of France . Famously, Flemish militias scored a surprise victory at the Battle of the Golden Spurs against a strong force of mounted knights in 1302, but France soon regained control of the rebellious province. In the 15th century, the Duke of Burgundy in France took control of Flanders, and from there proceeded to unite much of what
7367-548: The European Union, for which Belgium hosts major administrations and institutions, including the European Commission , the Council of the European Union and the extraordinary and committee sessions of the European Parliament . In the early 1990s, Belgium saw several large corruption scandals notably surrounding Marc Dutroux , Andre Cools , the Dioxin Affair , Agusta Scandal and the murder of Karel van Noppen . Belgium shares borders with France ( 620 km ), Germany ( 162/167 km ), Luxembourg ( 148 km ), and
7506-463: The Fat's Kingdom, and Francia and Neustria were granted to Carloman of Aquitaine who also conquered Lower Burgundy. Carloman died in a hunting accident in 884 after a tumultuous and ineffective reign, and his lands were inherited by Charles the Fat, effectively recreating the empire of Charlemagne. Charles, suffering what is believed to be epilepsy, could not secure the kingdom against Viking raiders, and after buying their withdrawal from Paris in 886
7645-491: The Flemings refused to do so and succeeded progressively in making Dutch an equal language in the education system. Following World War II, Belgian politics became increasingly dominated by the autonomy of its two main linguistic communities. Intercommunal tensions rose and the constitution was amended to minimize the potential for conflict. Based on the four language areas defined in 1962–63 (the Dutch, bilingual, French and German language areas), consecutive revisions of
7784-525: The Frankish king Charlemagne was crowned emperor in Rome by Pope Leo III in an effort to transfer the status of Roman Empire from the Byzantine Empire to Western Europe. The Carolingian Empire is sometimes considered the first phase in the history of the Holy Roman Empire . After a civil war (840–843) following the death of Emperor Louis the Pious , the empire was divided into autonomous kingdoms, with one king still recognised as emperor, but with little authority outside his own kingdom. The unity of
7923-458: The German against his brother Lothar and his uncle Charles the Bald in 858. Lothar reconciled with his brother and uncle shortly after. Charles was so unpopular that he could not raise an army to fight the invasion and instead fled to Burgundy. He was only saved when the bishops refused to crown Louis the German king. In 860, Charles the Bald invaded Charles of Burgundy's kingdom but was repulsed. Lothar II ceded lands to Louis II in 862 for support of
8062-417: The Kingdom of Italy to Charles. Another partition in 832 completely excluded Pepin and Louis the German, making Lothar and Charles the sole benefactors of the kingdom, which precipitated Pepin and Louis the German revolting in the same year, followed by Lothar in 833, and together they imprisoned Louis the Pious and Charles. Lothar brought Pope Gregory IV from Rome under the guise of mediation, but his true role
8201-400: The Latin name of a large Roman province covering most of Northern Gaul, including the Belgae and Treveri. However, areas closer to the lower Rhine frontier, including the eastern part of modern Belgium, subsequently became part of the frontier province of Germania Inferior , which continued to interact with their neighbours outside the empire. At the time when central government collapsed in
8340-458: The N-VA remained the largest party in parliament. In July 2019 prime minister Charles Michel was selected to hold the post of President of the European Council . His successor Sophie Wilmès was Belgium's first female prime minister. She led the caretaker government since October 2019. The Flemish Liberal party politician Alexander De Croo became new prime minister in October 2020. The parties had agreed on federal government 16 months after
8479-411: The Pious finally died in 840, Lothar claimed the entire empire irrespective of the partitions. As a result, Charles and Louis the German went to war against Lothar. After losing the Battle of Fontenay , Lothar fled to his capital at Aachen and raised a new army, which was inferior to that of the younger brothers. In the Oaths of Strasbourg , in 842, Charles and Louis agreed to declare Lothar unfit for
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#17333162271128618-588: The Pious' reign lacked security; he often had to struggle to maintain control of the Empire. As soon as he heard of the death of Charlemagne, he hurried to Aachen, where he exiled many of Charlemagne's trusted advisors, such as Wala. Wala and his siblings were children of the youngest son of Charles Martel, and so were a threat as a potential alternative ruling family. Monastic exile was a tactic Louis used heavily in his early reign to strengthen his position and remove potential rivals. In 817 his nephew, King Bernard of Italy, rebelled against him due to discontent with being
8757-427: The Pious, efforts of expansion dwindled. Tim Reuter has shown that many military efforts during Louis' reign were largely defensive and in response to external threats. It had long been held that Carolingian military success was based on the use of a cavalry force created by Charles Martel in the 730s. However, it is clear that no such "cavalry revolution" took place in the Carolingian period leading up to and during
8896-426: The Regions' and Communities' Governments is the broadest of all the Federating units of all the Federations all over the world. Because of its location at the crossroads of Western Europe , Belgium has historically been the route of invading armies from its larger neighbors. With virtually defenseless borders, Belgium has traditionally sought to avoid domination by the more powerful nations which surround it through
9035-447: The Romans, whose imperial ventures between the Rhine and the Elbe lasted fewer than twenty years before being cut short by the disaster at Teutoburg Forest (9 AD), Charlemagne defeated the Germanic resistance and extended his realm to the Elbe more lastingly, influencing events almost to the Russian Steppes. Charlemagne's reign was one of near-constant warfare, participating in annual campaigns, many led personally. He defeated
9174-461: The army (e.g. Seneschal Andorf against the Bretons in 786). Possibly associated with the chaplain and the royal chapel was the office of the chancellor, head of the chancery, a non-permanent writing office. The charters produced were rudimentary and mostly to do with land deeds. There are 262 surviving from Charles’ reign as opposed to 40 from Pepin ’s and 350 from Louis the Pious . There are 3 main offices which enforced Carolingian authority in
9313-399: The cabinet to the king, as no progress in constitutional reforms had been made. In December 2008, Leterme once more offered his resignation after a crisis surrounding the sale of Fortis to BNP Paribas . At this juncture, his resignation was accepted and Christian Democratic and Flemish Herman Van Rompuy was sworn in as Prime Minister on 30 December 2008. After Herman Van Rompuy
9452-399: The case of the eastern kingdom , an illegitimate Carolingian. The illegitimate line continued to rule in the east until 911, while in the western kingdom the legitimate Carolingian dynasty was restored in 898 and ruled until 987 with an interruption from 922 to 936. The population of the empire was roughly between 10 and 20 million people. Its heartland was Francia , the land between
9591-731: The civil servants. Communities exercise their authority only within linguistically determined geographical boundaries, originally oriented towards the individuals of a Community's language: culture (including audiovisual media), education and the use of the relevant language. Extensions to personal matters less directly connected with language comprise health policy (curative and preventive medicine) and assistance to individuals (protection of youth, social welfare, aid to families, immigrant assistance services, and so on.). Regions have authority in fields that can be broadly associated with their territory. These include economy, employment, agriculture, water policy, housing, public works, energy, transport,
9730-415: The country in May 1940 , and 40,690 Belgians, over half of them Jews, were killed during the subsequent occupation and the Holocaust . From September 1944 to February 1945 the Allies liberated Belgium. After World War II , a general strike forced King Leopold III to abdicate in 1951 in favour of his son, Prince Baudouin , since many Belgians thought he had collaborated with Germany during
9869-409: The country to be 160 km (62 sq mi) larger in surface area than previously thought. Its land area alone is 30,494 square kilometers. It lies between latitudes 49°30' and 51°30' N, and longitudes 2°33' and 6°24' E. Belgium has three main geographical regions; the coastal plain in the northwest and the central plateau both belong to the Anglo-Belgian Basin, and the Ardennes uplands in
10008-407: The country's constitution in 1970, 1980, 1988 and 1993 established a unique form of a federal state with segregated political power into three levels: The constitutional language areas determine the official languages in their municipalities, as well as the geographical limits of the empowered institutions for specific matters. Although this would allow for seven parliaments and governments when
10147-580: The death of Charlemagne, the Empire was divided among various members of the Carolingian dynasty . These included King Charles the Younger , son of Charlemagne, who received Neustria ; King Louis the Pious , who received Aquitaine ; and King Pepin , who received Italy. Pepin died with an illegitimate son, Bernard , in 810, and Charles died without heirs in 811. Although Bernard succeeded Pepin as king of Italy, Louis
10286-870: The death of Charles the Bald, was under attack in the north and west by the Vikings and was facing internal struggles from Italy to the Baltic, from Hungary in the east to Aquitaine in the west. Charles the Bald died in 877 crossing the Pass of Mont Cenis , and was succeeded by his son, Louis the Stammerer as king of the Western Franks, but the title of emperor lapsed. Louis the Stammerer was physically weak and died two years later, his realm being divided between his eldest two sons: Louis III gaining Neustria and Francia , and Carloman gaining Aquitaine and Burgundy . The Kingdom of Italy
10425-596: The dynastic struggle and resultant civil war, as his epithet states, he was highly interested in matters of religion. One of the first things he did was 'ruling the people by law and with the wealth of his piety', namely by restoring churches. "The Astronomer" stated that, during his kingship of Aquitaine, he 'built up the study of reading and singing, and also the understanding of divine and worldly letters, more quickly than one would believe.' He also made significant effort to restore many monasteries that had disappeared prior to his reign, as well as sponsoring new ones. Louis
10564-495: The eldest son of Louis the German, his heir. Charles the Bald, supported by the pope, was crowned both king of Italy and emperor. The following year, Louis the German died. Charles tried to annex his realm too, but was defeated decisively at Andernach , and the Kingdom of the eastern Franks was divided between Louis the Younger , Carloman of Bavaria and Charles the Fat . The empire, after
10703-633: The elections. Following a usage which can be traced back to the Burgundian and Habsburg courts, in the 19th century it was necessary to speak French to belong to the governing upper class, and those who could only speak Dutch were effectively second-class citizens. Late that century, and continuing into the 20th century, Flemish movements evolved to counter this situation. While the people in Southern Belgium spoke French or dialects of French, and most Brusselers adopted French as their first language,
10842-428: The emperor. With Bernard's influence over not only the emperor, but the empress as well, further discord was sowed amongst prominent nobility. Pepin, Louis' second son, too, was disgruntled; he had been implicated in a failed military campaign in 827, and he was tired of his father's overbearing involvement in the ruling of Aquitaine. As such, the angry nobility supported Pepin, civil war broke out during Lent in 830, and
10981-509: The empire and the hereditary right of the Carolingians continued to be acknowledged. In 884, Charles the Fat reunited all the Carolingian kingdoms for the last time, but he was deposed by the Frankish nobility in 887 and died in 888 and the empire immediately split up. With the only remaining legitimate male of the dynasty a child, the nobility elected regional kings from outside the dynasty or, in
11120-503: The empire, the itinerant court being a typical characteristic of all Western European kingdoms at this time. Some palaces can, however, be distinguished as locations of central administration. In the first year of his reign, Charlemagne went to Aachen ( French : Aix-la-Chapelle ; Italian : Aquisgrana ). He began to build a palace there in the 780s with original plans being thought up perhaps as soon as 768. The palace chapel, constructed in 796, later became Aachen Cathedral . During
11259-675: The environment, town and country planning, nature conservation, credit and foreign trade. They supervise the provinces, municipalities and intercommunal utility companies. In several fields, the different levels each have their own say on specifics. With education, for instance, the autonomy of the Communities neither includes decisions about the compulsory aspect nor allows for setting minimum requirements for awarding qualifications, which remain federal matters. Each level of government can be involved in scientific research and international relations associated with its powers. The treaty-making power of
11398-526: The expectations of his new title. The political reforms wrought in Aachen were to have an immense impact on the political definition of Western Europe for the rest of the Middle Ages. The Carolingian improvements on the old Merovingian mechanisms of governance have been lauded by historians for the increased central control , efficient bureaucracy, accountability, and cultural renaissance . The Carolingian Empire
11537-496: The extent of the impact of these findings on the empire's populations is difficult to discern. Studies of ethnicity in the Carolingian Empire have been largely limited. However, it is accepted that the empire was inhabited by major ethnic groups such as Franks, Alemanni, Bavarians, Thuringians, Frisians, Lombards, Goths, Romans, Celts, Basques and Slavs. Ethnicity was just one of many systems of identification in this period and
11676-767: The four components are subordinate to the Staff Department for Operations and Training of the Ministry of Defense , which is headed by the Assistant Chief of Staff Operations and Training , and to the Chief of Defense . The Belgian military consists of volunteers (conscription was abolished in 1995), and citizens of other EU states, Iceland, Norway, Switzerland, or Lichtenstein are also able to join. Belgium has troops deployed in several African countries as part of UN or EU missions, in Iraq for
11815-535: The government, and on 26 April 2010 King Albert officially accepted the resignation. The Parliamentary elections in Belgium on 13 June 2010 saw the Flemish nationalist N-VA become the largest party in Flanders, and the Socialist Party PS the largest party in Wallonia. Until December 2011, Belgium was governed by Leterme's caretaker government awaiting the end of the deadlocked negotiations for formation of
11954-624: The idea of demographic expansion, criticising scholars for relying on the impact of recurring pandemics in the preceding period of 541-750 AD and ignoring the frequency of famines in Carolingian Europe. A study using climate proxies such as the Greenland Ice core sample 'GISP2' has indicated that there may have been relatively favourable conditions for the empire's early years, although several harsh winters appear afterwards. Whilst demographic implications are observable in contemporary sources,
12093-564: The imperial throne. This marked the east–west division of the Empire between Louis and Charles until the Verdun Treaty. Considered a milestone in European history, the Oaths of Strasbourg symbolize the birth of both France and Germany. The partition of Carolingian Empire was finally settled in 843 by and between Louis the Pious' three sons in the Treaty of Verdun . Lothar received the imperial title,
12232-554: The incumbent coalition (composed of Flemish and French-speaking Social Democrats, Liberals, and Christian Democrats) maintains a solid majority in Parliament and in all electoral constituencies. On 22 July 2014, King Philippe nominated Charles Michel (MR) and Kris Peeters (CD&V) to lead the formation of a new federal cabinet composed of the Flemish parties N-VA, CD&V, Open Vld and the French-speaking MR, which resulted in
12371-525: The inhabitants of the northernmost part of Gaul . They lived in a region stretching from Paris to the Rhine , which is much bigger than modern Belgium. However, he also specifically used the Latin word " Belgium " to refer to a politically dominant part of that region, which is now in northernmost France. In contrast, modern Belgium, together with neighbouring parts of the Netherlands and Germany, corresponds to
12510-463: The installation of Leopold I as king on 21 July 1831, now celebrated as Belgium's National Day , Belgium has been a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy , with a laicist constitution based on the Napoleonic code . Although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 (with plural voting until 1919) and for women in 1949. The main political parties of
12649-467: The invasion of Iraq . It is the only country that does not have age restrictions on euthanasia. Verhofstadt's coalition fared badly in the June 2007 elections . For more than a year, the country experienced a political crisis . This crisis was such that many observers speculated on a possible partition of Belgium . From 21 December 2007 until 20 March 2008 the temporary Verhofstadt III Government
12788-426: The king but many offices became hereditary. They were also sometimes corrupt although many were exemplary e.g. Count Eric of Friuli. Provincial governors eventually evolved who supervised several counts. The Missi Dominici ( Latin : dominical emissaries ). Originally appointed ad hoc, a reform in 802 led to the office of missus dominicus becoming a permanent one. The Missi Dominici were sent out in pairs. One
12927-857: The kingship of Italy, and the territory between the Rhine and Rhone Rivers, collectively called the Central Frankish Realm . Louis was guaranteed the kingship of all lands to the east of the Rhine and to the north and east of Italy, which was called the Eastern Frankish Realm which was the precursor to modern Germany. Charles received all lands west of the Rhone, which was called the Western Frankish Realm . Lothar retired Italy to his eldest son Louis II in 844, making him co-emperor in 850. Lothar died in 855, dividing his kingdom into three parts:
13066-559: The lands of the most northerly Belgae – the Morini , Menapii , Nervii , Germani Cisrhenani , and Aduatuci . Caesar found these peoples particularly warlike and economically undeveloped, and described them as kinsmen of the Germanic tribes east of the Rhine. The area around Arlon in southern Belgium was a part of the country of the powerful Treveri , to whom some of them paid tribute. After Caesar's conquests, Gallia Belgica first came to be
13205-420: The last years of his reign were plagued by civil war. Shortly after Easter, his sons attacked Louis' empire and dethroned him in favour of Lothar. The Astronomer stated Louis spent the summer in the custody of his son, 'an emperor in name only'. The following year Louis attacked his sons' kingdoms by drafting new plans for succession. Louis gave Neustria to Pepin, stripped Lothar of his Imperial title and granted
13344-542: The localities: The Comes ( Latin : count ). Appointed by Charles to administer a county . The Carolingian Empire (except Bavaria) was divided up into between 110 and 600 counties, each divided into centenae which were under the control of a vicar. At first, they were royal agents sent out by Charles but after c. 802 they were important local magnates. They were responsible for justice, enforcing capitularies, levying soldiers, receiving tolls and dues and maintaining roads and bridges. They could technically be dismissed by
13483-500: The missatica system and the itinerant household. Outside this was the regna where Frankish administration rested upon the counts, and outside this was the marcher areas where ruled powerful governors. These marcher lordships were present in Brittany , Spain, and Bavaria . Charles also created two sub-kingdoms in Aquitaine and Italy, ruled by his sons Louis and Pepin respectively. Bavaria
13622-533: The most densely populated and the richest by GDP per capita . Belgium is also home to two main linguistic communities: the Flemish Community ( Dutch -speaking), which constitutes about 60 percent of the population, and the French Community ( French -speaking), which constitutes about 40 percent of the population. A small German-speaking Community , making up around one percent of the population, exists in
13761-399: The nobility – some suggest it opened him up to 'clerical domination'. Nonetheless, in 817 Louis had established three new Carolingian kingships for his sons from his first marriage: Lothar was made King of Italy and co-Emperor, Pepin was made King of Aquitaine, and Louis the German was made King of Bavaria . His attempts in 823 to bring his fourth son (from his second marriage), Charles
13900-429: The nomination as king by Pope Zachary in about 741. Charlemagne's rule began in 768 at Pepin's death. He proceeded to take control of the kingdom following his brother Carloman's death, as the two brothers co-inherited their father's kingdom. Charlemagne was crowned Roman Emperor in the year 800. The Carolingian Empire during the reign of Charlemagne covered most of Western Europe, as the Roman Empire once had. Unlike
14039-473: The other Frankish kingdoms. During the 8th century, the empire of the Franks came to be ruled by the Carolingian dynasty , whose centre of power included the area which is now eastern Belgium. Over the centuries, it was divided up in many ways, but the Treaty of Verdun in 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three kingdoms whose borders had a lasting impact on medieval political boundaries. Most of modern Belgium
14178-533: The overall and two stages of the Critérium International . In 2008 he announced his retirement, and subsequent role as team director at Quick Step during the 2009 and 2010 seasons. In 2011 he became team director at BMC Racing Team . Belgium – in Europe (light green & dark grey) – in the European Union (light green) Belgium , officially the Kingdom of Belgium ,
14317-823: The parliament accepted a Dutch version of the Constitution . The Berlin Conference of 1885 ceded control of the Congo Free State to King Leopold II as his private possession. From around 1900 there was growing international concern for the extreme and savage treatment of the Congolese population under Leopold II , for whom the Congo was primarily a source of revenue from ivory and rubber production. Many Congolese were killed by Leopold's agents for failing to meet production quotas for ivory and rubber. In 1908, this outcry led
14456-504: The political and linguistic interests of these communities. The major parties in each community, though close to the political center, belong to three main groups: Christian Democrats , Liberals , and Social Democrats . Further notable parties came into being well after the middle of last century, mainly to represent linguistic , nationalist, or environmental interests, and recently smaller ones of some specific liberal nature. A string of Christian Democrat coalition governments from 1958
14595-428: The purposes of learning. Aachen was also a centre for information and gossip being pulled in from across the Empire by courtiers and churchmen alike. Of course, despite being the centre of Charlemagne's government, until his later years, his court moved often and made use of other palaces at Frankfurt, Ingelheim and Nijmegen. The use of such structures would signal the beginnings of the palace system of government used by
14734-399: The region. During his reign as Emperor he used Aachen, Ingelheim, Frankfurt, and Mainz which were almost always the locations for general assemblies held 'two or three [times] a year in the period 896–28...' and while he was not an immobile ruler, his reign has certainly been described as more static. In this way the palace system can also been seen as a tool of continuity in governance. After
14873-416: The reign of Charlemagne. This is because the stirrup was not known to the Franks until the late eighth century and soldiers on horseback would therefore have used swords and lances for striking and not charging. Carolingian military success rested primarily on siege technologies and excellent logistics. However, large numbers of horses were used by the Frankish military during the age of Charlemagne. This
15012-497: The silver coinage of the realm, controlling its composition and value. The name of the emperor, not of the minter, appeared on the coins. Charlemagne worked to suppress mints in northern Germany on the Baltic Sea . The Frankish kingdom was subdivided by Charlemagne into three separate areas to make administration easier. These were the inner "core" of the kingdom ( Austrasia , Neustria , and Burgundy ) which were supervised directly by
15151-529: The sons of powerful men, holding ‘benefices’ and forming a contingent in the royal army. They also went on ad hoc missions. Around 780 Charlemagne reformed the local system of administering justice and created the scabini , professional experts on the law. Every count had the help of seven of these scabini, who were supposed to know every national law so that all men could be judged according to it. Judges were also banned from taking bribes and were supposed to use sworn inquests to establish facts. In 802, all law
15290-523: The southeast to the Hercynian orogenic belt . The Paris Basin reaches a small fourth area at Belgium's southernmost tip, Belgian Lorraine . The coastal plain consists mainly of sand dunes and polders . Further inland lies a smooth, slowly rising landscape irrigated by numerous waterways, with fertile valleys and the northeastern sandy plain of the Campine ( Kempen ). The thickly forested hills and plateaus of
15429-527: The splintering of the Empire the palace system continued to be used by succeeding Carolingian rulers with Charles the Bald centring his power at Compiègne where the palace chapel was dedicated to the Virgin Mary in 877, something remarked on as a sign of continuity with Aachen's Mother of God chapel. For Louis the German, Frankfurt has been deemed his own 'neo-Aachen' and Charles the Fat's palace at Sélestat in Alsace
15568-423: The territory already held by Louis remained his, the territory of the former Kingdom of Burgundy was granted to his third son Charles of Burgundy , and the remaining territory for which there was no traditional name was granted to his second son Lothar II , whose realm was named Lotharingia . Louis II, dissatisfied with having received no additional territory upon his father's death, allied with his uncle Louis
15707-579: The title of king (as his son Pepin III would) or emperor (as his grandson Charlemagne ), he was the absolute ruler of virtually all of today's continental Western Europe north of the Pyrenees . Only the remaining Saxon realms, which he partly conquered, Lombardy , and the Marca Hispanica south of the Pyrenees were significant additions to the Frankish realms after his death. Martel cemented his place in history with his defense of Christian Europe against
15846-448: The transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement between 1970 and 1993. Despite the reforms, tensions have persisted: there is particularly significant separatist sentiment among the Flemish ; language laws such as the municipalities with language facilities have been the source of much controversy; and the government formation period following the 2010 federal election set a world record at 589 days. Unemployment in Wallonia
15985-407: The vassal of Lothar, Louis' eldest son. The rebellion was quickly put down by Louis, and by 818 Bernard of Italy was captured and punished - the punishment of death was commuted to blinding. However, the trauma of the procedure ending up killing him two days later. Italy was brought back into Imperial control. In 822 Louis' show of penance for Bernard's death greatly reduced his prestige as Emperor to
16124-704: The war were known as the Rape of Belgium due to German excesses. Belgium assumed control of the German colonies of Ruanda-Urundi (modern-day Rwanda and Burundi ) during the war, and in 1924 the League of Nations mandated them to Belgium. In the aftermath of the First World War, Belgium annexed the Prussian districts of Eupen and Malmedy in 1925, thereby causing the presence of a German-speaking minority. German forces again invaded
16263-676: The war. The Belgian Congo gained independence in 1960 during the Congo Crisis ; Ruanda-Urundi followed with its independence two years later. Belgium joined NATO as a founding member and formed the Benelux group of nations with the Netherlands and Luxembourg. Belgium became one of the six founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951 and of the European Atomic Energy Community and European Economic Community , established in 1957. The latter has now become
16402-421: The works of Carolingian historians such as Matthew Innes, Rosamond McKitterick, and Stuart Airlie suggest that the use of palaces were important in the evolution of Carolingian governance and Janet Nelson has argued that "palaces are places from which power emanates and is exercised..." and the importance of palaces to Carolingian administration, learning, and legitimacy has been widely argued. The royal household
16541-558: The world and 6th in Europe . Belgium is part of an area known as the Low Countries , historically a somewhat larger region than the Benelux group of states, as it also included parts of northern France. The capital and largest metropolitan region is Brussels ; other major cities are Antwerp , Ghent , Charleroi , Liège , Bruges , Namur , and Leuven . Belgium is a sovereign state and
16680-464: Was a way to show social status and political agency. Many regional and ethnic identities were maintained and would later become significant in a political role. Regarding laws, ethnic identity helped decide which codes applied to which populations, however these systems were not definitive representations of ethnicity as these systems were somewhat fluid. Evidence from Carolingian estate surveys and polyptychs appears to suggest that female life expectancy
16819-462: Was also under the command of an autonomous governor, Gerold , until his death in 796. While Charles still had overall authority in these areas they were fairly autonomous with their own chancery and minting facilities. The annual meeting, the Placitum Generalis or Marchfield, was held every year (between March and May) at a place appointed by the king. It was called for three reasons: to gather
16958-496: Was an attempt to organize the kingdom, church, and nobility around him, however, its efficacy was directly dependent upon the efficiency, loyalty and support of his subjects. Almost every year between the accession of Charles Martel and the conclusion of the wars with the Saxons Frankish forces went on campaign or expedition, often into enemy territory. Charlemagne would, for many years, gather an assembly around Easter and launch
17097-408: Was an ecclesiastic and one secular. Their status as high officials was thought to safeguard them from the temptation of taking bribes. They made four journeys a year in their local missaticum , each lasting a month, and were responsible for making the royal will and capitularies known, judging cases and occasionally raising armies. The Vassi Dominici . These were the king’s vassals and were usually
17236-440: Was an itinerant body (until c. 802) which moved around the kingdom making sure good government was upheld in the localities. The most important positions were the chaplain (who was responsible for all ecclesiastical affairs in the kingdom), and the count of the palace ( Count palatine ) who had supreme control over the household. It also included more minor officials e.g. chamberlain, seneschal, and marshal. The household sometimes led
17375-525: Was because horses provided a quick, long-distance method of transporting troops , which was critical to building and maintaining such a large empire. The importance of horses to the Carolingian military is revealed through the Revised version of the Royal Frankish Annals. The annals mention that whilst Charlemagne was on campaign in 791 "there broke out such a pestilence among the horses [...] that barely
17514-554: Was broken in 1999 after the first dioxin crisis , a major food contamination scandal. A "rainbow coalition" emerged from six parties: the Flemish and the French-speaking Liberals, Social Democrats and Greens. Later, a " purple coalition " of Liberals and Social Democrats formed after the Greens lost most of their seats in the 2003 election . The government led by Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt from 1999 to 2007 achieved
17653-534: Was designated the first permanent President of the European Council on 19 November 2009, he offered the resignation of his government to King Albert II on 25 November 2009. A few hours later, the new government under Prime Minister Yves Leterme was sworn in. On 22 April 2010, Leterme again offered the resignation of his cabinet to the king after one of the coalition partners, the OpenVLD , withdrew from
17792-459: Was designed specifically to imitate Aachen. The palace system as an idea for Carolingian central administration and governance has been challenged by historian F. L. Ganshof, who argued that the palaces of the Carolingians "contained nothing resembling the specialised services and departments available at the same period to the Byzantine emperor or the caliph of Baghdad." However, further reading in
17931-457: Was elected King of Western Francia (France), Ranulf II became King of Aquitaine , Italy went to Count Berengar of Friuli , Upper Burgundy to Rudolph I , and Lower Burgundy to Louis the Blind , the son of Boso of Arles, King of Lower Burgundy and maternal grandson of Emperor Louis II . The other part of Lotharingia became the duchy of Burgundy. The study of demographics in the early Middle Ages
18070-458: Was finally granted to King Carloman of Bavaria, but a stroke forced him to abdicate Italy to his brother Charles the Fat and Bavaria to Louis of Saxony. Also in 879, Boso of Vienne founded the Kingdom of Lower Burgundy in Provence . In 881, Charles the Fat was crowned emperor while Louis III of Saxony and Louis III of Francia died the following year. Saxony and Bavaria were united with Charles
18209-524: Was in office. This was a coalition of the Flemish and Francophone Christian Democrats , the Flemish and Francophone Liberals together with the Francophone Social Democrats . On that day a new government , led by Flemish Christian Democrat Yves Leterme , the actual winner of the federal elections of June 2007 , was sworn in by the king. On 15 July 2008 Leterme offered the resignation of
18348-531: Was in the Middle Kingdom , later known as Lotharingia , but the coastal county of Flanders , west of the Scheldt , became the northernmost part of West Francia , the predecessor of France . In 870 in the Treaty of Meerssen , modern Belgium lands all became part of the western kingdom for a period, but in 880 in the Treaty of Ribemont , Lotharingia came under the lasting control of the eastern kingdom, which became
18487-416: Was lower than that of men in this period, with analyses recording high ratios of males to females. However, it is possible this is due to a recording bias. The government, administration, and organization of the Carolingian Empire were forged in the court of Charlemagne in the decades around the year 800. In this year, Charlemagne was crowned emperor and adapted his existing royal administration to live up to
18626-417: Was made co-emperor in 813, and the entire Empire passed to him with Charlemagne's death in the winter of 814. Louis the Pious' reign as Emperor was unexpected; as the third son of Charlemagne, he was originally crowned King of Aquitaine at three years old. With the deaths of his older siblings, he went from 'a boy who became a king to a man who would be emperor'. Although his reign was mostly overshadowed by
18765-551: Was ordered to campaign against the Avars in 795 since Charlemagne was occupied with Saxon revolts. Eventually, the Avar confederation ended in 803 after Charlemagne sent a Bavarian army into Pannonia. He also conquered Saxon territories in wars and rebellions fought from 772 to 804, with such events as the Massacre of Verden in 782 and the codification of the Lex Saxonum in 802. Prior to
18904-490: Was perceived by the court as being cowardly and incompetent. The following year his nephew Arnulf of Carinthia , the illegitimate son of King Carloman of Bavaria, raised the standard of rebellion. Instead of fighting the insurrection, Charles fled to Neidingen and died the following year in 888, leaving a divided entity and a disorderly succession. The Empire of the Carolingians was divided: Arnulf maintained Carinthia , Bavaria, Lorraine and modern Germany; Count Odo of Paris
19043-464: Was the largest western territory since the fall of Rome , but historians have come to suspect the depth of the emperor's influence and control. Legally, the Carolingian emperor exercised the bannum , the right to rule and command, over all of his territories. Also, he had supreme jurisdiction in judicial matters, made legislation, led the army, and protected both the Church and the poor. His administration
19182-548: Was to legitimise Lothar and his brothers' rule by deposing and excommunicating Louis. By 835, peace was made within the family, and Louis was restored to the Imperial throne at the church of St. Stephen in Metz. When Pepin died in 838, Louis crowned Charles king of Aquitaine, whilst the nobility elected Pepin's son Pepin II , a conflict which was not resolved until 860 with Pepin's death. When Louis
19321-721: Was written down and amended (the Salic law was also amended in both 798 and 802, although even Einhard admits in section 29 that this was imperfect). Judges were supposed to have a copy of both the Salic law code and the Ripuarian law code. Most people in the Carolingian Empire lived under a legal code that directly copied from Roman law . Coinage had a strong association with the Roman Empire, and Charlemagne took up its regulation with his other imperial duties. The Carolingians exercised controls over
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