122-694: Timeline The Kingdom of the Lombards , also known as the Lombard Kingdom and later as the Kingdom of all Italy ( Latin : Regnum totius Italiae ), was an early medieval state established by the Lombards , a Germanic people , on the Italian Peninsula in the latter part of the 6th century. The king was traditionally elected by the very highest-ranking aristocrats, the dukes , as several attempts to establish
244-591: A casus belli to go to war with the Goths. Procopius wrote that "as soon as he learned what had happened to Amalasuntha, being in the ninth year of his reign, he entered into war". Belisarius was appointed commander in chief ( stratēgos autokratōr ) for the expedition against Italy with 7,500 men. Mundus , the magister militum per Illyricum , was ordered to occupy the Gothic province of Dalmatia. The forces made available to Belisarius were small, especially when compared with
366-718: A Christian king. His alliance with the Franks, crowned by a symbolic adoption of the young Pepin the Short , and with the Avars, on the eastern borders, allowed him to keep his hand relatively free in the Italian theater, but he soon clashed with the Byzantines and with the Papacy. A first attempt to take advantage of an Arab offensive against Constantinople in 717 achieved few results. Closer relations with
488-579: A devastating plague pandemic (541–542). Although the Byzantine Empire eventually prevailed, the triumph proved to be a pyrrhic victory , as all these factors caused the population of the Italian Peninsula to crash, leaving the conquered territories severely underpopulated and impoverished. Although an invasion attempt by the Franks , then allies of the Ostrogoths , late in the war was successfully repelled,
610-607: A dynastic crisis. The succession of Cunipert's minor son, Liutpert , was immediately challenged by the Duke of Turin , Raginpert , the most prominent of the Bavarian dynasty. Raginpert defeated the supporters of Liutpert ( viz. , his tutor Ansprand , Duke of Asti, and the Duke of Bergamo, Rotarit ) in Novara , and, at the beginning of 701, took the throne. However, he died after just eight months, leaving
732-473: A force of 1,000 men under Mundilas to the city. This force secured the city and most of Liguria , except Ticinum ( Pavia ), with ease. Vitiges called upon the Franks for help and a force of 10,000 Burgundians unexpectedly crossed the Alps. Combining with the Goths under Uraias they laid siege to the city. Mediolanum was ill-provisioned and under-garrisoned; the already small Roman force had been dispersed to garrison
854-430: A force up the river Tiber, destroying the temporary bridge and watchtowers constructed by Totila's forces by dropping a boat filled with flammable materials onto a watchtower from a makeshift tower built on top of two fastened skiffs, which succeeded. Afterwards, his subordinate Isaakes, ordered to remain in the city of Portus, heard of his early successes and took a cavalry force to attack the Gothic stockade, eager to share
976-461: A fortified location fell, its walls were usually razed so that it would no longer be of any military value. Totila followed a policy of treating his captives well, enticing opponents to surrender rather than resist to the end. He also tried to win over the Italian population, exemplified by Totila's behaviour during the Siege of Naples , where he allowed the city to surrender on terms in 543 and displayed, in
1098-548: A gate in the city walls; instead of pressing the attack they delayed to quarrel over the prospective booty, allowing the Goths to recapture the gate and force the Byzantines to withdraw. Totila attacked their camp near Faventia ( Faenza ) with 5,000 men and, at the Battle of Faventia , destroyed the Roman army. Totila marched into Tuscany, where he besieged Florence . The Roman generals, John, Bessas , and Cyprian, marched to its relief but, at
1220-473: A hereditary dynasty failed. The kingdom was subdivided into a varying number of duchies, ruled by semi-autonomous dukes, which were in turn subdivided into gastaldates at the municipal level. The capital of the kingdom and the center of its political life was Pavia in the modern northern Italian region of Lombardy . The Lombard invasion of Italy was opposed by the Byzantine Empire , which had control of
1342-644: A large Gothic army arrived and Mundus' son Mauricius died in a skirmish. Mundus inflicted a heavy defeat on the Goths but was himself mortally wounded in the pursuit. The Roman army withdrew and, except for Salona, Dalmatia was abandoned to the Goths. Encouraged, Theodahad imprisoned the Byzantine ambassadors. Justinian sent a new magister militum per Illyricum , Constantinianus , to recover Dalmatia and ordered Belisarius to cross into Italy. Constantinianus accomplished his task speedily. The Gothic general, Gripas, abandoned Salona, which he had only recently occupied, because of
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#17328453800531464-517: A large migration by the Lombards , a Germanic people that had been previously allied with the Byzantine Empire, ensued. In the spring of 568 the Lombards, led by King Alboin , moved from Pannonia and quickly overwhelmed the small Byzantine army left by Narses to guard Italy. The Lombard arrival broke the political unity of the Italian Peninsula for the first time since the Roman conquest (between
1586-491: A man in his entourage who perhaps colluded with the Byzantines. Following Cleph's assassination another king was not appointed, and for a decade dukes ruled as absolute monarchs in their duchies . At this stage, the occupation of the dukes was simply the heads of the various fara (families) of the Lombard people. Not yet firmly associated with the cities, they simply acted independently, also because they were under pressure from
1708-499: A new rebellion, that of the Duke of Friuli, Corvulus , and adopted a strongly pro-Catholic policy. In 712, Ansprand returned to Italy with an army raised in Bavaria, and clashed with Aripert; the battle was uncertain, but the king behaved cowardly and was abandoned by his supporters. He died while trying to escape to the realm of the Franks, and drowned in the Ticino , dragged to the bottom by
1830-509: A novel fashion. It was the young widow Theodelinda who chose the heir to the throne and her new husband: the Duke of Turin , Agilulf . The following year (591) Agilulf received the official investiture from the Assembly of the Lombards , held in Milan . The influence of the queen over Agilulf's policies was remarkable and major decisions are attributed to both. After a rebellion among some dukes in 594
1952-527: A partition of Italy; the lands south of the Po would be retained by Constantinople, those north of the river by the Goths. It is important to note that it is somewhat debated whether the Byzantines would have simply received tribute from the lands south of the Po or militarily occupied them in addition to receiving tribute. Marco Cristini argues, based on the semantics of Procopius' language in The Gothic War as well as
2074-517: A power structure, useful only to make forays in search of plunder. In 584 the dukes agreed to crown King Cleph's son, Autari , and delivered to the new monarch half of their property (and then probably getting even with a new crackdown against the surviving Roman property land). Autari was then able to reorganise the Lombards and stabilise their settlement in Italy. He assumed, like the Ostrogoth Kings ,
2196-518: A quarter of the population at the height of the Gothic War, sapping the Empire of manpower and tax revenues needed to complete the campaign more swiftly. No ruler, no matter how wise, could possibly have anticipated the plague, he argues, which would have been disastrous for the empire and Italy, regardless of the attempt to reconquer Italy. However, as a result of Rome having been under attack constantly during
2318-590: A rapprochement between Franks and Byzantines, but Autari managed (in 588 and again, despite some severe early setbacks, in the 590s) to repel the resulting Frankish attacks. The period of Autari marked, according to Paul the Deacon , the attainment of the first internal stability in the Lombard kingdom: Erat hoc mirabile in regno Langobardorum: nulla erat violentia, nullae struebantur insidiae; nemo aliquem iniuste angariabat, nemo spoliabat; non erant furta, non latrocinia; unusquisque quo libebat securus sine timore There
2440-675: A sudden attack at the Battle of Taginae , with a mounted assault on the Byzantine centre. The attack failed and, by evening, the Ostrogoths had broken and fled; Totila was killed in the rout. The Goths holding Rome capitulated and, at the Battle of Mons Lactarius in October 553, Narses defeated Teias and the last remnants of the Gothic army in Italy. Though the Ostrogoths were defeated, Narses soon had to face other barbarians who invaded Byzantine northern Italy and southern Gaul. In early 553, an army of about thirty thousand Franks and Alemanni crossed
2562-512: A threat in the eyes of Constantinople. To provide a buffer, the Ostrogoths , under their leader, Theodoric the Great , were settled as foederati (allies) of the empire in the western Balkans, but unrest continued. Zeno sent the Ostrogoths to Italy as the representatives of the empire to remove Odoacer. Theodoric and the Goths defeated Odoacer, and Italy came under Gothic rule. In the arrangement between Theodoric and Zeno and his successor Anastasius ,
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#17328453800532684-469: A year Totila finally entered Rome on 17 December 546, when his men scaled the walls at night and opened the Porta Asinaria . Procopius states that Totila was aided by some Isaurian troops from the imperial garrison who had arranged a secret pact with the Goths. Rome was plundered and Totila, who had expressed an intention to completely level the city, satisfied himself with tearing down about one third of
2806-462: Is not until the reign of Ratchis that they became an integral part of royal administration, when the king required their use on passports . The only evidence for their use at the ducal level comes from the Duchy of Benevento , where two private charters contain requests for the duke to confirm them with his seal. The existence of seal rings "testifies to the tenacity of Roman traditions of government". In
2928-480: The Armenian eunuch Narses, arrived at Picenum . Belisarius met Narses, who advocated a relief expedition to Ariminum, while Belisarius favoured a more cautious approach. The arrival of a letter from John, which illustrated the immediate danger of the city's fall, resolved the issue in favour of Narses. Belisarius divided his army into three, a seaborne force under his capable and trusted lieutenant Ildiger, another under
3050-791: The Basilica of St. John (also known as the Duomo of Monza) and the Royal Palace of Monza, while some masterpieces in gold were created such as the Agilulf Cross , the Hen with seven chicks , the Theodelinda Gospels and the famous Iron Crown (all resident in the Duomo of Monza treasury ). After the death of Agilulf in 616, the throne passed to his son Adaloald, a minor. The regency (which continued even after
3172-420: The Battle of Mucellium , their numerically superior forces were defeated. Totila marched south, where Roman garrisons were few and weak, bypassing Rome. The provinces of southern Italy were forced to recognise his authority. This campaign was one of rapid movement to take control of the countryside, leaving the Byzantines in control of isolated strongholds, mostly on the coast, which could be reduced later. When
3294-559: The Exarchate to submit to the Lombards. Internally, Rothari strengthened the central power at the expense of the duchies of Langobardia Maior, while in the south the Duke of Benevento, Arechi I (who in turn was expanding Lombard domains), also recognized the authority of the King of Pavia. The memory of Rothari is linked to his famous edict, promulgated in 643 in Pavia by a gairethinx , an assembly of
3416-575: The Lombards in 568, which resulted in Constantinople permanently losing control over large parts of the Italian peninsula. In 476, Odoacer deposed Emperor Romulus Augustulus and declared himself rex Italiae ( King of Italy ), resulting in the final dissolution of the Western Roman Empire in Italy. Although Odoacer recognised the nominal suzerainty of the Byzantine emperor, Zeno , his independent policies and increasing strength made him
3538-575: The Three Chapter schism (where the Patriarch of Aquileia had broken communion with Rome), maintained a direct relationship with Gregory the Great (preserved in correspondence between him and Theodelinda) and promote the establishment of monasteries, like the one founded by Saint Columbanus in Bobbio . Even art enjoyed, under Agilulf and Theodelinda, a flourishing season. In architecture Theodelinda founded
3660-466: The Vandals . Historians commonly divide the war into two phases: In 554, Justinian promulgated a pragmatic sanction that prescribed Italy's new government. Several cities in northern Italy held out against the Byzantines until 562. By the end of the war, Italy had been devastated and depopulated. It was seen as a pyrrhic victory for the Byzantines, who found themselves incapable of resisting an invasion by
3782-483: The via Flaminia to Rome. Near the village of Taginae, the Byzantines encountered the Ostrogothic army, commanded by Totila, who had been advancing to intercept Narses. Finding himself considerably outnumbered, Totila ostensibly entered into negotiations while planning a surprise attack, but Narses was not fooled by the ruse and deployed his army in a strong defensive position. Reinforcements having arrived, Totila launched
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3904-565: The 3rd and 2nd century BC). The peninsula was now torn between territories ruled by the Lombards and the Byzantines, with boundaries that changed over time. The newly arrived Lombards were divided into two main areas in Italy: the Langobardia Maior , which comprised northern Italy gravitating around the capital of the Lombard kingdom, Ticinum (the modern-day city of Pavia in the Italian region of Lombardy ); and Langobardia Minor , which included
4026-605: The 6th century Byzantine Emperor Justinian attempted to reassert imperial authority in the territories of the Western Roman Empire . In the resulting Gothic War (535–554) waged against the Ostrogothic Kingdom , Byzantine hopes of an early and easy triumph evolved into a long war of attrition that resulted in mass dislocation of population and destruction of property. Problems were further exacerbated by volcanic winter (536) , causing widespread famine (538–542) and
4148-450: The Alps and took the town of Parma. They defeated a force under the Heruli commander Fulcaris and soon many Goths from northern Italy joined their forces. Narses had dispersed his troops to garrisons throughout central Italy and had wintered at Rome. After serious depredations throughout Italy, the barbarians were brought to battle by Narses on the banks of the river Volturnus . In the Battle of
4270-464: The Avars. Grimoald was invested by the Lombard nobles, but still had to deal with the legitimate faction, which tried international alliances to return the throne to Perctarit. Grimoald, however, persuaded the Avars to return the deposed ruler. Perctarit, as soon as he returned to Italy, had to make an act of submission to the usurper before he could escape to the Franks of Neustria , who attacked Grimoald in 663. The new king, hated by Neustria because he
4392-452: The Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea, the barbarian population was then allowed to live peacefully in Italy under Roman sovereignty. The Gothic War is often viewed as a pyrrhic victory , which drained the Byzantine Empire of resources that might have been employed against more serious threats in western Asia and the Balkans. In the east, pagan Slavs and Kutrigurs raided and devastated
4514-514: The Byzantine provinces south of the Danube from 517. A century later Dalmatia, Macedonia, Thrace and most of Greece were lost to Slavs and Avars . Some recent historians have taken a different view of Justinian's western campaigns. Warren Treadgold placed greater blame for the vulnerability of the Empire in the late 6th century on the Plague of Justinian in 540–541, which is estimated to have killed up to
4636-501: The Byzantines assembled a large expeditionary force of 20,000 or 25,000 men at Salona on the Adriatic, including regular Byzantine units and a large contingent of foreign allies, notably Lombards, Heruls and Bulgars. Narses, the imperial chamberlain ( cubicularius ) was appointed to command in mid-551. The following spring, Narses led this Byzantine army around the coast of the Adriatic to Ancona and then turned inland, intending to march down
4758-456: The Byzantines to force Justinian to concentrate the majority of his forces, including Belisarius, in the east and allow the Goths to recover. Belisarius resolved to conclude the war by taking Ravenna but had to deal with the Gothic strongholds of Auximum and Faesulae ( Fiesole ) first. While Martin and John hindered the Gothic army under Uraias, which was attempting to cross the River Po , a part of
4880-428: The Byzantines took the offensive and their cavalry captured several towns in the Goths' rear. The imperial navy cut off the Goths from seaborne supplies, worsening their supply difficulties, and threatened Gothic civilians. The fall of Ariminum, modern Rimini , close to Ravenna, forced Vitiges to abandon the siege and withdraw. As Vitiges marched to the northeast, he strengthened the garrisons of towns and forts along
5002-561: The Duchy of Brescia). Alahis rebelled again later, joining with the political opponents of the pro-Catholic Bavarian policy at Perctarit's death in 688. His son and successor Cunipert was initially defeated and forced to take refuge on the Isola Comacina - only in 689 did he manage to quash the rebellion, defeating and killing Alahis in the Battle of Coronate at the Adda . The crisis resulted from
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5124-469: The Exarchate of Ravenna was conquered by the Lombards in 751. Byzantine influence persisted in some coastal areas of southern Italy until the late 11th century, while the interior was ruled by Lombard dukes based at Benevento and later also at Salerno and Capua. The widespread destruction of Italy in the war, harsh Gothic and Byzantine reprisals of their opponents' supporters, and heavy Byzantine taxation led
5246-452: The Franks into modern Piedmont and led the Byzantines to ask, for the first time since the Lombards had entered Italy, for a truce. At the end, he occupied the last Byzantine stronghold in northern Italy: Isola Comacina in Lake Como . To ensure a stable peace with the Franks, Autari attempted to marry a Frankish princess, but the project failed. Then the king, in a move that would influence
5368-504: The Gothic regime. Theodoric was succeeded by his 10-year-old grandson Athalaric in August 526, with his mother, Amalasuntha , as regent; she had received a Roman education and began a rapprochement with the Senate and the Empire. This conciliation and Athalaric's Roman education displeased Gothic magnates, who plotted against her. Amalasuntha had three of the leading conspirators killed and wrote to
5490-434: The Goths offered to make Belisarius, whom they respected, the western emperor. Belisarius had no intention of accepting the role but saw how he could use this situation to his advantage and feigned acceptance. In May 540 Belisarius and his army entered Ravenna; the city was not looted, while the Goths were well treated and allowed to keep their properties. In the aftermath of Ravenna's surrender, several Gothic garrisons north of
5612-423: The Goths, while Belisarius remained inactive and was then recalled from Italy. In 549, Totila advanced again against Rome . He attempted to storm the improvised walls and overpower the small garrison of 3,000 men, but was beaten back. He then prepared to blockade the city and starve out the defenders, although the Byzantine commander Diogenes had previously prepared large food stores and had sown wheat fields within
5734-422: The Italian toponymy ). The economic system of late antiquity , which focused on large estates worked by peasants in semi-servile condition, was not revolutionized, but modified only to benefit the new rulers. After ten years of interregnum, the need for a strong centralised monarchy was clear even to the most independent of the dukes; Franks and Byzantines pressed and the Lombards could no longer afford so fluid
5856-500: The Lombard duchies of Spoleto and Benevento in southern Italy. The territories which remained under Byzantine control were called "Romania" (today's Italian region of Romagna ) in northeastern Italy and had its stronghold in the Exarchate of Ravenna . Arriving in Italy, King Alboin gave control of the Eastern Alps to one of his most trusted lieutenants, Gisulf , who became the first Duke of Friuli in 568. The duchy, established in
5978-525: The Lombards at the time of its demise was the last minor Germanic kingdom in Europe. Some regions were never under Lombard domination, including Latium , Sardinia , Sicily , Calabria , Naples , Venice and southern Apulia . A reduced Regnum Italiae , a heritage of the Lombards, continued to exist for centuries as one of the constituent kingdoms of the Holy Roman Empire , roughly corresponding to
6100-401: The Lombards then imposed themselves at first as the dominant caste in place of the former lineages, who were subsequently extinguished or exiled. The products of the land were allocated to his Roman subjects that worked it, giving to the Lombards a third ( tertia ) of crops. The proceeds were not given to individuals but to the family, which administered them in the halls (a term still used in
6222-438: The Po surrendered. Others remained in Gothic hands, among which were Ticinum, where Uraias was based and Verona, held by Ildibad . Soon after, Belisarius sailed for Constantinople, where he was refused the honour of a triumph. Vitiges was named a patrician and sent into comfortable retirement, while the captive Goths were sent to reinforce the eastern armies. Belisarius' departure left most of Italy in Roman hands, but north of
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#17328453800536344-570: The Po, Pavia (which became the new capital of the Ostrogothic Kingdom ) and Verona remained unconquered. Soon after Belisarius' breach of faith towards them became apparent, the Goths, at the suggestion of Uraias, chose Ildibad as their new king and he re-established Gothic control over Venetia and Liguria. Justinian failed to appoint an Italian commander-in-chief. The Roman armies neglected military discipline and committed acts of plunder. The new imperial bureaucracy made itself immediately unpopular with its oppressive fiscal demands. Ildibad defeated
6466-510: The Roman Empire in 542; the beginning of a new Roman–Persian War forced Justinian to deploy most of his troops in the east; and the incompetence and disunity of the various Roman generals in Italy undermined military function and discipline. This last brought about Totila's first success. After much urging by Justinian, the generals Constantinian and Alexander combined their forces and advanced upon Verona. Through treachery they managed to capture
6588-517: The Roman general Vitalius at Treviso but after having Uraias murdered because of a quarrel between their wives, he was assassinated in May 541 in retribution. The Rugians , remnants of Odoacer's army who had remained in Italy and sided with the Goths, proclaimed one of their own, Eraric , as the new king, which was unexpectedly assented to by the Goths. Eraric persuaded the Goths to start negotiations with Justinian, secretly intending to hand over his realm to
6710-504: The Roman town of Forum Iulii (modern-day Cividale del Friuli ), constantly fought with the Slavic population across the Gorizia border. Justified by its exceptional military needs, the Duchy of Friuli thus had greater autonomy compared to other duchies of Langobardia Maior until the reign of Liutprand (712–744). Over time, other Lombard duchies were created in major cities of the kingdom. This
6832-550: The Romans and Franks, but was a unique case among the Lombards. Perhaps because of this, a conflict broke out between Perctarit, who was based in Milan, and Godepert, who remained in Pavia. The Duke of Benevento, Grimoald , intervened with a substantial military force to support Godepert, but, as soon as he arrived in Pavia, he killed Godepert and took his place. Perctarit, clearly in danger, fled to
6954-426: The Romans were Chalcedonian Christians , while the Goths were Arian Christians . Unlike the Vandals or the early Visigoths , the Goths practised considerable religious tolerance. The dual system worked under the capable leadership of Theodoric, who conciliated the Italian aristocracy, but the system began to break down during his later years and collapsed under his heirs. With the ascension of Emperor Justin I ,
7076-563: The Volturnus , the Byzantines held off a furious Frankish assault while the Byzantine cavalry encircled them. The Franks and Alemanni were all but annihilated. Seven thousand Goths held out at Campsa, near Naples, until capitulating in the spring of 555. The lands and cities across the River Po were still held by Franks, Alemanni and Goths and it was not until 562 that their last strongholds, the cities of Verona and Brixia, were subjugated. According to
7198-462: The army under Justin besieged Faesulae and Belisarius undertook the siege of Auximum. During the sieges, a large Frankish army under King Theudebert I crossed the Alps and came upon the Goths and the Byzantines encamped on the two banks of the Po. They attacked the Goths who, thinking they had come as allies, were swiftly routed. The equally astonished Byzantines also gave battle, were defeated and withdrew southwards into Tuscany . The Frankish invasion
7320-471: The army, and written in Latin . The Edict consolidated and codified Germanic rules and customs , but also introduced significant innovations, a sign of the progress of Latin influence on the Lombards. The edict tried to discourage the feud (private revenge) by increasing the weregild (financial compensation) for injuries/murders and also contained drastic restrictions on the use of the death penalty . After
7442-584: The autonomy of his duchy. Perctarit developed a policy in line with the tradition of his dynasty and supported the Catholic Church against Arianism and the chapters anathematized in the Three-Chapter Controversy . He sought and achieved peace with the Byzantines, who acknowledged Lombard sovereignty over most of Italy, and repressed the rebellion of the Duke of Trent , Alahis , although at the cost of hard territorial concessions to Alahis (including
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#17328453800537564-428: The average reign of a Roman Emperor was just 18 months, down from average just over 9 years during the first centuries of the Empire. Gothic War (535%E2%80%93554) Lazic War The Gothic War between the Byzantine Empire during the reign of Emperor Justinian I and the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy took place from 535 to 554 in the Italian Peninsula , Dalmatia , Sardinia , Sicily , and Corsica . It
7686-479: The capital back to Pavia, was troubled by these conflicts, as well as external threats; the King was able to withstand an attack of the Avars in Friuli , but could not limit the growing influence of the Franks in the kingdom. At his death, the legend says that, using the same procedure as that followed by his mother Theodelinda, Queen Gundeperga had the privilege to choose her new husband and king. The choice fell on Rothari,
7808-485: The capital, but the ancient Roman city of Milan with Monza as a summer residence. He identified himself, in a votive crown , Gratia Dei rex totius Italiae , "By the grace of God king of all Italy", and not just Langobardorum rex , "King of the Lombards". Moves in this direction also included strong pressure, particularly from Theodelinda, to convert the Lombards, who until then were still largely pagan or Arians, to Catholicism. The rulers also endeavored to heal
7930-475: The character of a pure military occupation and approached a more proper state model. The inclusion of the losers (the Romans) was an inevitable step, and Agilulf made some symbolic choices aimed at the same time at strengthening its power and gaining credit with people of Latin descent. The ceremony of ascension to the throne of his son Adaloald in 604, followed a Byzantine rite. He chose not to continue to use Pavia as
8052-483: The city . Taking advantage of a five-year truce in the East, Belisarius was sent back to Italy with 200 ships in 544. He successfully reoccupied much of southern Italy, but, according to Procopius, he was starved of supplies and reinforcements by a jealous Justinian and so felt unable to march to Rome's relief. Procopius describes famine during the siege, in which the ordinary Romans, who were not rich enough to buy grain from
8174-450: The city off from supplies. Inside the Gothic capital, Vitiges received a Frankish embassy looking for an alliance but after the events of the previous summer no trust was placed in Frankish offers. Soon afterwards an embassy came from Constantinople, bearing surprisingly lenient terms from Justinian. Anxious to finish the war and concentrate against the impending Persian war, the emperor offered
8296-560: The city walls. However, Totila was able to suborn part of the garrison, who opened the Porta Ostiensis gate for him. Totila's men swept through the city, killing all but the women, who were spared on the orders of Totila, and looting what riches remained. Expecting the nobles and the remainder of the garrison to flee as soon as the walls were taken, Totila set traps along the roads to neighboring towns that were not yet under his control and many were killed while fleeing Rome. During 550–51,
8418-456: The conduct of the many wars of his long reign. These values are typical of Liutprand: Germanic descent, king of a nation now overwhelmingly Catholic, joined by those of a piissimus rex ("loving king") (despite having tried several times to take control of Rome). On two occasions, in Sardinia and in the region of Arles (where he had been called by his ally Charles Martel ) he successfully fought Saracen pirates , enhancing his reputation as
8540-441: The council after the relief of Ariminum, Belisarius was in favour of reducing the strong Gothic garrison of Auximum, modern Osimo , in their rear and relieving the siege of Mediolanum; Narses favoured a less concentrated effort, including a campaign in Aemilia . Belisarius did not allow matters to fester and marched with Narses and John against Urbinum. The two armies encamped separately and shortly afterwards, Narses, convinced that
8662-473: The death of the empress Theodora, and cites his absence as having emboldened Totila to recapture the city. Belisarius successfully reoccupied Rome four months later in the spring of 547 and hastily rebuilt the demolished sections of wall by piling up the loose stones "one on top of the other, regardless of order". Totila returned, but was unable to overcome the defenders. Belisarius did not follow up his advantage. Several cities, including Perugia , were taken by
8784-460: The disintegration and loss of the Germanic identity of the Lombard people. The victory allowed Cuniperto, already long associated with the throne by his father, to continue the work of pacifying the kingdom, always with a pro-Catholic accent. A synod convened in Pavia in 698 sanctioned the reintegration of the three anathematized chapters into Catholicism. Cunipert's death in 700 marked the opening of
8906-501: The divergence between the two regions of Langobardia Maior: Neustria , to the west, was loyal to the Bavarian rulers, pro-Catholic and supporters of the policy of reconciliation with Rome and Byzantium; on the other hand, Austria , to the east, identified with the traditional Lombard adherence to paganism and Arianism, and favored a more warlike policy. The dukes of Austria challenged the increasing "latinization" of customs, court practices, law and religion, which they believed accelerated
9028-552: The duke of Brescia and an Arian. Rothari reigned from 636 to 652 and led numerous military campaigns, which brought almost all of northern Italy under the rule of the Lombard kingdom. He conquered Liguria (643), including the capital Genoa , Luni , and Oderzo ; however, not even a total victory over the Byzantine Exarch of Ravenna, defeated and killed along with his eight thousand men at the River Panaro , succeeded in forcing
9150-448: The empire. The Goths perceived his inactivity for what it was and turned to Ildibad's nephew, Totila (or Baduila), and offered to make him king. Totila had already opened negotiations with the Byzantines but when he was contacted by the conspirators, he assented. In the early autumn of 541 Eraric was murdered and Totila proclaimed king. Totila enjoyed several advantages: the outbreak of the Plague of Justinian devastated and depopulated
9272-452: The end of March 539, his starving soldiers forced him to accept the terms. The Roman garrison was spared but the inhabitants were subjected to a massacre and the city was razed. After this disaster Narses was recalled and Belisarius confirmed as supreme commander with authority throughout Italy. Vitiges sent envoys to the Persian court, hoping to persuade Khosrow I to reopen hostilities with
9394-507: The end of the Acacian schism between the Eastern and Western churches, and the return of ecclesiastical unity within the East, several members of the Italian senatorial aristocracy began to favour closer ties to Constantinople to balance Gothic power. The deposition and execution of the distinguished magister officiorum Boethius and his father-in-law in 524 were part of the slow estrangement from
9516-470: The end of the 7th century, their conversion to Catholicism was all but complete. Nevertheless, their conflict with the Pope continued and was responsible for their gradual loss of power to the Franks , who conquered the kingdom in 774. Charlemagne , the king of the Franks, adopted the title "King of the Lombards", although he never managed to gain control of Benevento, the southernmost Lombard duchy. The Kingdom of
9638-436: The equally experienced Martin which was to arrive from the south, and the main force under him and Narses, which was to arrive from the northwest. Vitiges learned of their approach and, faced with the prospect of being surrounded by superior forces, hurriedly withdrew to Ravenna. The bloodless victory at Ariminum strengthened Narses against Belisarius, with many Roman generals, including John, turning their allegiance to him. In
9760-557: The fate of the kingdom for more than a century, turned to the traditional enemies of the Franks, the Bavarii , to marry a princess, Theodelinda , from the Lethings dynasty. This allowed the monarchy to trace a line of descent from Wacho , king of the Lombards between 510 and 540, a figure surrounded by an aura of legend, and a member of a respected royal line. The alliance with the Bavarii led to
9882-457: The glory. This resulted in his capture and, once the news of this reached Belisarius, he interpreted the news as Portus had been captured by the Goths, meaning he had lost the only allied settlement close by, and that his wife, present in the city, was now a hostage of the Goths. Said to have been struck with a bout of aphasia, he called for a retreat to immediately retake Portus, only to discover that it remained under Roman control. After more than
10004-474: The impracticalities of maintaining control over a border demarcated by the easily forded River Po, that it was illogical and unlikely that the Byzantines would have intended to fully rule over Southern Italy as part of the treaty. Regardless of what exactly they were, we know the Goths readily accepted the terms, but Belisarius, judging this to be a betrayal of all he had striven to achieve, refused to sign even though his generals disagreed with him. Disheartened,
10126-582: The integration of the different components of the kingdom, presenting an image modeled on that of his predecessor Rotari—wise legislator in adding new laws to the Edict, patron (building a church in Pavia dedicated to Saint Ambrose ), and valiant warrior. With Grimoald's death in 671, his minor son Garibald assumed the throne, but Perctarit returned from exile and swiftly deposed him. He immediately came to an agreement with Grimoald's other son, Romualdo I of Benevento, who pledged loyalty in exchange for recognition of
10248-533: The king passed into majority) was exercised by the Queen Mother, Theodelinda , who gave command of the military to Duke Sundarit. Theodelinda continued Agilulf's pro-Catholic policy and maintained the peace with the Byzantines, which generated ever-stronger opposition from the warriors and Arians among the Lombards. A civil war broke out in 624, led by Arioald , Duke of Turin and Adaloald's brother-in-law (through his marriage to Adaloald's sister Gundeperga ). Adaloald
10370-475: The land and its people were regarded as part of the Empire, with Theodoric a viceroy and head of the army ( magister militum ). This arrangement was scrupulously observed by Theodoric; there was continuity in civil administration, which was staffed exclusively by Romans, and legislation remained the preserve of the emperor. The army, on the other hand, was exclusively Gothic, under the authority of their chiefs and courts. The peoples were also divided by religion:
10492-637: The mainland Italian territories fell into the hands of the Germanic Lombards . The Exarchate of Ravenna , a band of territory that stretched across central Italy to the Tyrrhenian Sea and south to Naples, along with parts of southern Italy, were the only remaining imperial holdings. After the Gothic Wars, the Empire would entertain no more serious ambitions in the West. Rome remained under imperial control until
10614-463: The military, were reduced to eating bran, nettles, dogs, mice and finally "each other's dung". Pope Vigilius , who had fled to the safety of Syracuse , sent a flotilla of grain ships, but Totila's navy intercepted them near the mouth of the Tiber and captured them. A desperate attempt by Belisarius to relieve Rome came close to success but ultimately failed. According to Procopius, the plan involved sailing
10736-788: The much larger army he had fielded against the Vandals, an enemy much weaker than the Ostrogoths. The preparations for the operation were carried out in secret, while Justinian tried to secure the neutrality of the Franks with gifts of gold. Belisarius landed at Sicily, between Roman Africa and Italy, whose population was well disposed toward the Empire. The island was quickly captured, with the only determined resistance, at Panormus ( Palermo ), overcome by late December. Belisarius prepared to cross to Italy and Theodahad sent envoys to Justinian, proposing at first to cede Sicily and recognise his overlordship but later to cede all of Italy. In March 536 Mundus overran Dalmatia and captured its capital, Salona , but
10858-402: The neighbouring cities and forts. A relief force was dispatched by Belisarius but its commanders, Martin and Uliaris, did not make any effort to help the besieged city. Instead, they asked for further reinforcements by the forces of John and the magister militum per Illyricum Justin , which were operating in the nearby province of Aemilia. Dissension in the Roman chain of command exacerbated
10980-475: The new emperor, Justinian I, asking for sanctuary if she was deposed. Amalasuntha remained in Italy. In 533, using a dynastic dispute as a pretext, Justinian sent his most talented general, Belisarius , to recover the North African provinces held by the Vandals. The Vandalic War produced an unexpectedly swift and decisive victory for the Byzantine Empire and encouraged Justinian in his ambition to recover
11102-515: The papacy therefore had to wait for the outbreak of tensions caused by the worsening of the Byzantine tax, and the expedition in 724 conducted by the Exarch of Ravenna against Pope Gregory II . Timeline of Italian history Timeline This is a timeline of Italian history , comprising important legal and territorial changes and political events in Italy and its predecessor states, including Ancient Rome and Prehistoric Italy . Date of
11224-482: The peninsula at the time of the invasion. For most of the kingdom's history, the Byzantine-ruled Exarchate of Ravenna and Duchy of Rome separated the northern Lombard duchies, collectively known as Langobardia Maior , from the two large southern duchies of Spoleto and Benevento , which constituted Langobardia Minor . Because of this division, the southern duchies were considerably more autonomous than
11346-418: The prehistoric era are approximate. For further background, see history of Italy and list of prime ministers of Italy . Lucius Sicinius Vellutus , the plebs abandoned Rome for the nearby Monte Sacro . Marius was elected consul for the first of three years in a row. Civil wars would follow with the first breaking out in 238, another in 249 followed by a third in 253. From 235 through 284
11468-564: The rest of the lost western provinces. As regent, Amalasuntha had allowed the Byzantine fleet to use the harbours of Sicily, which belonged to the Ostrogothic Kingdom. After the death of Athalric in 534, Amalasuntha offered the kingship to her cousin Theodahad , who accepted the offer and then had her arrested; she was killed in early 535. Justinian made unsuccessful attempts through his agents to save Amalasuntha's life, and her death gave him
11590-547: The royal capital, King Alboin was assassinated in a conspiracy in Verona plotted by his wife Rosamund and her lover, the noble Helmichis , in league with some Gepid and Lombard warriors. Helmichis and Rosamund's attempt to usurp power in place of the assassinated Alboin, however, gained little support from Lombard duchies, and they were forced to flee together to the Byzantine territory before getting married in Ravenna . Later in 572,
11712-493: The ruined state of its fortifications and the pro-Roman stance of its citizens, withdrawing to the north. Constantinianus occupied the city and rebuilt the walls. Seven days later the Gothic army departed for Italy and by late June the whole of Dalmatia was in Roman hands. In the late spring of 536 Belisarius crossed into Italy, where he captured Rhegium and made his way north. Neapolis (in Modern English: Naples )
11834-462: The short reign of the son of Rothari and his son Rodoald (652-653), the dukes elected Aripert I , Duke of Asti and grandson of Theodolinda, as the new king. The Bavarian dynasty returned to the throne, and the Catholic Aripert duly suppressed Arianism. At Aripert's death in 661, his will divided the kingdom between his two sons, Perctarit and Godepert . This method of succession was known from
11956-402: The situation, as John and Justin refused to move without orders from Narses. John fell ill and the preparations were halted. The delays proved fatal for the city, which, after many months of siege, was close to starvation. The Goths offered Mundilas a guarantee that the lives of his soldiers would be spared if he surrendered the city but no guarantee was offered for the civilians and he refused. By
12078-509: The smaller northern duchies. Over time, the Lombards gradually adopted Roman titles, names, and traditions. By the time Paul the Deacon was writing in the late 8th century, the Lombardic language , dress and hairstyles had all disappeared. Initially the Lombards were Arian Christians or pagans, which put them at odds with the Roman population as well as the Byzantine Empire and the Pope . However, by
12200-500: The south the duchies of Spoleto and Benevento, extending the Lombards' domains. Istria was attacked and invaded by the Lombards on several occasions, although the degree of their occupation of the peninsula and its subordination to the Lombard kings is unclear. Even when Istria was part of the Exarchate of Ravenna, a Lombard, Gulfaris , rose to power in the region, styling himself as dux Istriae . The strengthening of royal powers, started by Autari and continued by Agilulf, also marked
12322-534: The territory of the former Langobardia Maior. The so-called Iron Crown of Lombardy , one of the oldest surviving royal insignias of Christendom, may have originated in Lombard Italy as early as the 7th century and continued to be used to crown kings of Italy until Napoleon Bonaparte in the early 19th century. The earliest Lombard law code, the Edictum Rothari , may allude to the use of seal rings , but it
12444-582: The thirty-five dukes assembled in Pavia to hail king Cleph . The new monarch extended the boundaries of the kingdom, completing the conquest of Tuscia and laying siege to Ravenna. Cleph tried to pursue the policy of Alboin consistently, which aimed to break the legal-administrative institutions firmly established during Ostrogoth and Byzantine rule. He achieved this by eliminating much of the Latin aristocracy, through occupying their lands and acquiring their assets. However, he too, fell victim to regicide in 574, slain by
12566-543: The throne to his son Aripert II . Ansprand and Rotarit reacted immediately and imprisoned Aripert, returning the throne to Liutpert. Aripert, in turn, managed to escape and confront his rival's supporters. In 702, he defeated them in Pavia, imprisoned Liutpert and occupied the throne. Shortly after, he finally defeated the opposition: he killed Rotarit, suppressed his duchy, and drowned Liutpert. Only Ansprand managed to escape, taking refuge in Bavaria . Subsequently, Aripert crushed
12688-423: The time (Cividale del Friuli : Treviso , Trento , Turin , Verona, Bergamo , Brescia , Ivrea , Lucca ). In the management of public power dukes were joined by minor officials, these the sculdahis and the gastald . The new organisation of power, less linked to race and clan relations and more to land management, marked a milestone in the consolidation of the Lombard kingdom in Italy, which gradually lost
12810-435: The title of Flavio , with which he intended to proclaim himself also protector of all Romans in Lombard territory: it was a clear call, with anti-Byzantine overtones, to the heritage of the Western Roman Empire. From the military point of view, Autari defeated both the Byzantines and Franks and broke the coalition, thereby fulfilling the mandate with which the dukes had entrusted him at the time of his election. In 585 he drove
12932-407: The town was unassailable and well supplied, broke camp and departed for Ariminum. From there he sent John to Aemilia, which was quickly subdued. Aided by the fortunate drying up of Urbinum's only water spring, the town fell to Belisarius soon after. In April 538 Belisarius, petitioned by representatives from Mediolanum ( Milan ), the second most populous and wealthy city in Italy after Rome, had sent
13054-399: The transition to a new concept based on stable territorial division of the kingdom into duchies . Each duchy was led by a duke, not just the head of a fara but also a royal official, the depository of public powers. The locations of the duchies were established in strategically important centers, thus furthering the development of many urban centers placed along the main communication routes of
13176-465: The walls. He then left in pursuit of the Byzantine forces in Apulia . On Belisarius' absence during the reoccupation of Rome by the Goths, there are two opposing accounts: Procopius states that, upon discovering his mistake regarding Portus, he was overcome with a bout of depression and severe sickness which nearly resulted in his death. Jordanes, on the other hand, claims that he was recalled to Rome due to
13298-402: The war, the deaths not caused by the plague continued to rise. In Italy, the war devastated the urban society that was supported by a settled hinterland. The great cities were abandoned as Italy fell into a long period of decline. The impoverishment of Italy and the drain on the empire made it impossible for the Byzantines to hold their gains. Only three years after the death of Justinian in 565,
13420-459: The warriors nominally under their authority to allow them to loot. This unstable situation, which persisted over time, led to the final collapse of the Roman-Italic political-administrative structure, which was almost maintained up to the invasion, so that the same Roman-Italic aristocracy had retained responsibility for civil administration (as exemplified by the likes of Cassiodorus ). In Italy,
13542-448: The way to secure his rear and then turned towards Ariminum. The Roman force of 2,000 horsemen occupying it comprised some of Belisarius' finest cavalry; Belisarius decided to replace them with an infantry garrison. Their commander, John, refused to obey orders and remained at Ariminum. Shortly after the Goths arrived, an assault failed, but the city had few supplies with which to stand a siege. A new force of 2,000 Herul foederati , under
13664-581: The weight of the gold that he brought with him. With him ended the Bavarian dynasty's role in the Lombard kingdom. Ansprand died after only three months of his reign, leaving the throne to his son Liutprand . His reign, the longest of all Lombard monarchs, was characterized by the almost religious admiration that was accorded to the king by his people, who recognized in him boldness, courage and political vision. Thanks to these qualities Liutprand survived two attempts on his life (one organized by one of his relatives, Rotari), and he displayed no inferior qualities in
13786-535: The words of J. B. Bury, "considerable humanity" in his treatment of the defenders. He nursed the famished citizens back to strength after allowing the Byzantine garrison safe departure. Having captured Naples, Totila attempted to broker a peace with Justinian. When this was refused he had copies of his appeal posted throughout Rome; despite the disfavour in which the Byzantines were held, there was no uprising in Totila's favour, which disgusted him. He marched north and besieged
13908-471: Was besieged for three weeks before the imperial troops forced their way in during November. The largely barbarian Roman army sacked the city. Belisarius moved north to Rome, which in view of the fate of Neapolis, put up no resistance; Belisarius entered unopposed in December. The rapidity of the Byzantine advance took the Goths by surprise and the inactivity of Theodahad enraged them. After the fall of Neapolis he
14030-463: Was a miracle in the kingdom of the Lombards: there was no violence, no insidious plot; no others unjustly oppressed, no depredations; there were no thefts, there were no robberies, where everyone went where they wanted, safely and without fear Autari died in 590, probably due to poisoning in a palace plot and, according to the legend recorded by Paul the Deacon, the succession to the throne was decided in
14152-513: Was allied with the Franks of Austrasia , repulsed them at Refrancore , near Asti . Grimoald, who in 663 had also defeated an attempt to reconquer Italy by the Byzantine Emperor Constans II , exercised his sovereign powers with a fullness never attained by his predecessors. He entrusted the Duchy of Benevento to his son Romuald , and assured the loyalty of the duchies of Spoleto and Friuli, by appointing their dukes. He favoured
14274-401: Was defeated by an outbreak of dysentery, which caused great losses and forced the Franks to withdraw. Belisarius concentrated on the besieged cities and both garrisons were forced by starvation to capitulate in October or November 539. Troops from Dalmatia reinforced Belisarius and he moved against Ravenna. Detachments moved north of the Po and the imperial fleet patrolled the Adriatic, cutting
14396-674: Was deposed and replaced by Vitiges . He left Rome for Ravenna, where he married Amalasuntha's daughter Matasuntha and began rallying his forces against the invasion. Vitiges led a large force against Rome, where Belisarius, who did not have enough troops to face the Goths in the open field, remained. The subsequent siege of Rome , the first of three in the Gothic War, lasted from March 537 to March 538. There were sallies, minor engagements, and several large actions but after 1,600 Huns and Slavs arrived from Constantinople in April 537 and 5,000 men in November,
14518-617: Was deposed in 625 and Arioald became king. This coup d'état against the Bavarian dynasty of Adaloald and Theodelinda intensified the rivalry between the Arian and Catholic factions. The conflict had political overtones, as the Arians also opposed peace with Byzantium and the Papacy and integration with the Romans, opting instead for a more aggressive and expansionist policy. Arioald (r. 626–636), who brought
14640-407: Was dictated primarily by immediate military needs as dukes were primarily military commanders, tasked to secure control of territory and guard it against possible counter-attacks. However, the resulting collection of duchies also contributed to political fragmentation and sowed the seeds of the structural weakness of the Lombard royal power. In 572, after the capitulation of Pavia and its elevation to
14762-511: Was one of the last of the many Gothic Wars against the Roman Empire . The war had its roots in the ambition of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I to recover the provinces of the former Western Roman Empire , which the Romans had lost to invading barbarian tribes in the previous century, during the Migration Period . The war followed the Byzantine reconquest of the province of Africa from
14884-519: Was preempted, Agilulf and Theodelinda developed a policy of strengthening their hold on Italian territory, while securing their borders through peace treaties with France and the Avars . The truce with the Byzantines was systematically violated and the decade up to 603 was marked by a notable recovery of the Lombard advance. In northern Italy Agilulf occupied, among other cities, Parma , Piacenza , Padova , Monselice , Este , Cremona and Mantua , but also to
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